West Visayas State University 2020

UNIT 5 LESSON 9

UNIT V
Lesson 9
Art and Anthropology: Cultural Relativism

Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students must have:

 related the study of Art to the field of Anthropology;

 interpreted cultural relativism as an anthropological theory of art and
beauty;
 identified artworks, styles and artists that abide with cultural relativism.
 formulated an anthropological approach to art appreciation;
 discovered the cultural norms of beauty of different societies in the world;
 written an essay which evaluated the merit or demerit of works of art
based on cultural relativism;
 showcased sensitivity to the aesthetic standards of various societies and
cultures.

Materials:

Module, tablet

Duration: 3 hours

Key concepts and ideas:

AnthropologyCultural Relativism

Let’s ponder about these!

 Anthropologists employ a more humanistic-interpretative approach. Think of
this analogy. When botanists examine a flower, they attempt to understand
every component of the plant within a scientific framework. On the other
hand, painters, poets, or novelists perceive a flower; they might interpret the
flower as a symbolic phenomenon that represents nature. Thus,
anthropologists explore the creative cultural dimension of humans.

You can do these!

A. Read the following articles as your reference and guide in answering the
subsequent questions and activities.

 Cultural Relativism by Mark Glazer (See Appendix 9.1)

 Mambabatok: Tattoo tradition in the Philippines by PhilLife Culture
(See Appendix 9.2)
 History of Foot Binding in China by Mütter Museum (See Appendix
9.3)

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Activity 1. Answer the question on the space provided below.

Fig 1. On
standard
of female
beauty

1. In reference to figure 1, is there a standard for beauty on female beauty? Why

or why not? (10 points)

_
_
_
_
_
_
_

A. Cultural Relativism in Aesthetics- To help us understand diversity, one

should know the concept of cultural relativism. It is the principle that a
person’s beliefs and activities make sense in terms of his or her own culture.
Therefore, everything is relative including our concept of beauty.

The culture of people in a society is reflected on their perception and/or

conception of beauty. So, we can say that “Beauty is in the (culturally
conditioned) eye of the beholder.”

In Jean Jacques Rousseau's "Theory on the Origin of Society" he described

the process of how societies evolved from savagery (where people are
against one another), to civilization (where people live in community with its
laws, customs, and conventions), and the state of ethnocentrism (where
people have a common perception and concept of beauty). See illustration
below:

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Fig. 2 Theory on the Origin of Society

B. Cultural standard of the beauty of women (Beauty from different

cultures)

B.1. SOCIETY OF THE SURI PEOPLE (Africa)

‘MURSI WOMAN’ -The plate on her lower lip determines her beauty and acceptance
in her society.

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B.2. SOCIETY OF THE PADAUNG PEOPLE (Myanmar)

'PADAUNG WOMAN'-The long neck with spiral rings determines her beauty and
acceptance in the society

B.3. SOCIETY OF CHINESE PEOPLE (China before 1917)

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FOOT BINDING TRADITION IN CHINA

LOTUS FEET of the Chinese women determine beauty. It began in 800 BC. From age
3-17, the painful process of foot binding happens to resemble to the buds of lotus
flower. Women with lotus feet could not walk properly. They could not contribute to
productive works, and this was said to have retarded the development of Chinese
economy for almost 2,500 years. However, it was believed to be a status symbol. In
addition, there was a sexual connotation to the lotus feet. It was believed to be "the
second vagina".

C. The Art of Pleasure in Hindu Culture and Religion

Fig 3. Illustration of the Laws of Life and Goals of Life

TWO LAWS OF LIFE

SAMSARA Law of reincarnation
KARMA Law of cause and effect

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FOUR GOALS OF LIFE

DHARMA Duty in family and society
ARTHA Accumulation of wealth and power
KAMA Experience of pleasure
MOKSHA Spiritual release

Fig. 4 Hindu Worldview and Way of Life

Kama Sutra, 400-200 BC (Compiled by Vatsyayana, 200 AD)

SANSKRIT kama: “desire” or “pleasure”
Sutra: “string” or “thread,” metaphorically “a collection of aphorisms that form a
manual or text”

ART OF PLEASURE
The experience of pleasure (kama) is one of the four aims of Hindu life necessary for
a person to attain spiritual release (moksha).

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ANEKAPARIGRAHA (Sacred Prostitute)

Relief Sculpture in Kajhuraho Temple, India Fulfill’s men’s experience of pleasure,

therefore, helping them to attain spiritual

Japanese Culture and the Art of Pleasure

D. CULTURAL RELATIVISM IN THE AESTHETICS OF POPULAR CULTURE

Trend, Fashion Fad, The “in” thing, and baduy- Passing, temporary and recycling
conventional concept of beauty

Shaving the eyebrow was the fashion of feminine beauty

during the Renaissance.

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 Modern trending eyebrows for women

Fashion of Clothing over the Decades

2020’s Fashion 2015’s Fashion

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Fashion of Clothing in the Philippines During the Spanish Period

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E. Mambabatok: Tattoo tradition in the Philippines

Kalinga Women- Before the age of lipstick and eyeliners,
there were beauty techniques women would adopt in
pursuit of beauty. In the Philippines, there is a tradition
that has been practiced by women is called “Batok”,
which means an art of tattooing.

Apo Whang-Od – the remaining mambabatok from

Kalinga. She uses a bamboo stick, citrus thorn needle, a
short stick, and a coconut mixed bowl. Her ancient
marks feature Baybayin and tribal patterns. Most of
them symbolize bravery and nature like ferns, stars,
steps, rice bundles, centipedes, and python scales.

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Analysis

1. How can we apply cultural relativism in the perception of art and beauty?
( points)

Highlights of the Lesson

 Anthropologists employ a more humanistic-interpretative approach. Think of this
analogy. When botanists examine a flower, they attempt to understand every
component of the plant within a scientific framework. On the other hand, painters,
poets, or novelists perceive a flower; they might interpret the flower as a symbolic
phenomenon that represents nature. Thus, anthropologists explore the creative
cultural dimension of humans.

 To help us understand diversity, one should know the concept of cultural relativism.
It is the principle that a person’s beliefs and activities make sense in terms of his or
her own culture. Therefore, everything is relative including our concept of beauty.

 Beauty and women’s bodies in Suri, Padaung and Chinese cultures have
distinct characteristics which define beauty and acceptance in their respective
society.

 From warrior ethnic group in Kalinga, an art of tattooing has been mastered
the tradition of batok (the art of tattooing one’s body) by Apo Whang-Od.
She has been tattooing for 70 years. She has been visited for tattooing by the
locals, visitors, and even foreigners.

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References:

Dubec, R. (2018) Rubric Essays. Retrieved on July 2020, from

https://teachingcommons.lakeheadu.ca/rubric-essay-exam-questions

Glazer, M. (2017) Cultural Relativism. Retrieved on July 30, 2020 at

http://www.ciampini.info/file/CULTURAL%20 RELATIVISM

Kottak, Conrad Phillip. (2011). Anthopology: Appreciating Cultural Diversity. 14th Ed.
University of Michigan. ISBN: 978-0-07-811698-8

Pablito's Way. (2017). Transcript Retrieved on July August 2020 at

https://www.youtube.com/c/PablitosWay/about

Phil life (2018). Mambabatok: Tattoo Tradition in the Philippines. Retrieved on July
2020, from phillife.co/mambabatok-whang-od

Scupin, Raymund. (2012). Cultural Anthropology: A Global Perspective. 8th Ed. ISBN
978-0-205-15880-5

Videos:

BBC. “Lip Plate of Suri Women-Tribe,” in https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=2Mz1vaTeUSY.

National Geographic. “Why do these [Padaung] women stretch their necks?” In

https:// www.you tube.com/watch?v=0FME1At3vmI.

“History Day Documentary: Chinese Foot Binding,” in https://www.you

tube.com/watch?v=BPknlFz4Aqg

I-Witness. “Ang Huling Mambabatok,” in https://www.youtube.com/wat

ch?v=x83lUBrxp4A.

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APPENDIX 9.1-UNIT 5

Cultural Relativism
by Mark Glazer

Cultural relativism in anthropology is a key methodological concept which is universally accepted

within the discipline. This concept is based on theoretical considerations which are key to the
understanding of "scientific" anthropology as they are key to the understanding of the anthropological
frame of mind. Cultural relativism is an anthropological approach which posit that all cultures are of
equal value and need to be studied from a neutral point of view. The study of a and/or any culture has
to be done with a cold and neutral eye so that a particular culture can be understood at its own merits
and not another culture’s. Historically, cultural relativism has had a twin theoretical approach, historical
particularism. This is the notion that the proper way to study culture is to study one culture in depth.
The implications of cultural relativism and historical particularism have been significant to anthropology
and to the social sciences in general.

The roots of cultural relativism go to the rejection of the comparative school of the nineteenth
century on the basis of exact and specific ethnological information. This information rejected the
comparative school’s methodology and as a result its evolutionary conclusions. Furthermore, as the
basis of cultural relativism is a scientific view of culture, it also rejects value judgments on cultures.
There is, in this view, no single scale of values which holds true for all cultures and by which all culture
can be judged. Beliefs, aesthetics, morals and other cultural items can only be judged through their
relevance to a given culture. For example, good and bad in are culture specific and can not be imposed
in cultural analysis. The reason for this view is, of course, that what is good in one culture may not be
bad in an other. This indicates that every culture determines its own ethical judgments to regulate the
proper behavior of its members. A result of this view is that it assumes that most individuals would
prefer to live in the culture in which they have been enculturated. It must be added to the discussion
above that the cultural in cultural relativism and historical particularism is about specific cultures and
not about a more abstract, singular and general concept of culture.

The reasoning behind all this comes from two distinct sources, one of them is the reaction to
the inaccuracies of the evolutionary schemes of the comparative school, the other the desire to study
culture from an objective value perspective. To be a scientific concept culture has to be studied as an
object without evaluative consideration. When we are not able to do that we no longer have a science
of culture. Some anthropologist associated with this point of view are France Boas and, his students,
Alfred Kroeber, Robert Lowie, Melville Herskovits, Ruth Benedict, Paul Radin, Margaret Mead, Ruth
Bunzel and many others. Franz Boas is the key theoretician in this group.

Boas published his views on the comparative method in 1896. The article, "The Limitations of
the Comparative Method of Anthropology," was the first exposition of cultural relativism. According to
the tenets of cultural relativism, there are no inferior or superior cultures; all cultures are equal. To

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order cultures in an evolutionary scheme is unfeasible. All premises of good and bad and/or upper and
lower are culture bound and ethnocentric. Put that way, we can see that schemes of evolution are
ethnocentric not objective.

Here are four major limitations to the comparative method according to Boas:
1.It is impossible to account for similarity in all the types of culture by claiming that they are so because
of the unity of the human mind. 2. The existence like traits in different cultures is not as important as
the comparative school claims. 3. Similar traits may have developed for very different purposed in
differing cultures. 4. The view that cultural differences are of minor importance is baseless. The
differences between cultures are of major anthropological significance. Boas did not stop his critique of
the comparative school at that point he also delineated a methodology to replace it. His new method
emphasized the following: 1. Culture traits have to be studied in detail and within the cultural whole. 2.
The distribution of a culture trait within neighboring cultures should also be looked at. This suggest that
a culture needs to be analyzed within its full context.

Boas thought that this approach would help the anthropologist (1) to understand the
environmental factors that shape a culture, (2) to explain the psychological factors that frame the
culture, and (3) to explain the history of a local custom. Boas was trying to establish the inductive
method in anthropology and abandon the comparative method. Boas emphasized that the primary goal
of anthropology was to study individual societies and that generalizations could come only on the basis
of accumulated data. His importance within the discipline is that anthropology should be objective and
inductive science. In an age when the scientific method was important, this change in the discipline
resulted in the establishment of anthropology in universities. Boas’ students were among the first to
establish some of the most important anthropology programs on American campuses.

A point which must be added to the above discussion is that Boas attacked racism throughout
his career; he summarizes his views on racism in The Mind of Primitive Man (1911). According to Boas
the sweep of cultures, to be found in association with any sub species, is so extensive that there can be
no relationship between race and culture.

Following Boas and his emphasis on studying as many societies as possible, Alfred Kroeber, the
best known anthropologists of the period produced a good deal of ethnography. In his "Eighteen
Professions" (1915), which is a credo, Kroeber affirms some of the basic tenets of cultural relativism: (1)
all men are completely civilized, and (2) there are no higher and lower cultures. Much later in his career,
Kroeber makes three additional points on cultural relativism, 1)that science should begin with questions
and not with answers, 2)that science is a "dispassionate" endeavor which should not accept any
ideology, and 3)that sweeping generalizations are not compatible with science. Another major cultural
relativist of the period is Robert Lowie whose work is most significant among for cultural relativism.

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Lowie probably came closer to Boas' views on the proper practice of anthropology than any
other anthropologist of his time. He was deeply rooted in the philosophy of science and accepted
cultural anthropology as a science. His views and criticism of theoreticians such as Morgan, are based
on this scientific world view. His critique of Morgan's evolutionary theory is based on epistemology.
Namely, that Morgan's evolutionary scheme of kinship had no proof. Furthermore, Morgan’s data was
often erroneous. One of the most important practitioners of cultural relativism was Ruth Benedict.

For Benedict cultural anthropology is the discipline that studies the differences between cultures.
This approach is fully Boasian in character. In this approach the plural "s" that was added to "culture"
by Boas and others, becomes crucial. The interest has now shifted from culture to cultures. The focus
has shifted to a particular culture and what happens to the individual in that culture.
Furthermore, a culture is integrated, and it is more than the sum of its parts. Every culture is different
from other culture. Benedict takes the Boasian program a step ahead. She does this through the
concept of cultural configurations or patterns.
Although her use of this approached is extremely reductionistic it represents a new direction in cultural
relativism by transcending the data collection of historical particularism and attempting to organize the
data in an explanatory manner.

The attempt to understand cultures at their own terms and the attempt to an objective
ethnography are the major accomplishments of cultural relativism. These have sometimes led to a lack
of theoretical depth and an undervaluation of the ethnographer’s own culture. However, the battle
against ethnocentrism and the objective view of cultures remain permanent contributions of cultural
relativism.

Mark Glazer
McAllen, Texas

Reference:

Glazer, M.(n.d.). Cultural Relativism. Retrieved on July 30, 2020 at

http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:uhv3LfZYTjsJ:www.ciampi
ni.info/file/CULTURAL%2520RELATIVISM.pdf+&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=ph

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APPENDIX 9.2

Mambabatok: Tattoo tradition in the Philippines

04/24/2018 PhilLife Culture 3

Whang-od Oggay also known as Maria Oggay, is a Filipina tattoo artist from
Buscalan, Tinglayan, Kalinga, Philippines. She is often described as the "last" and oldest
mambabatok

For many years women have relied on beauty techniques to improve their
appearance. Before the age of lipsticks and eyeliners, there were ancient beauty techniques
women would adopt in pursuit of beauty.

In the Philippines, there is a tradition that has been practised by women for many
years. This is popularly referred to as “batok” meaning the art of tattooing your body with
tribal designs using bamboo stick and thorn.

Batok is believed to have been practiced for about one thousand years. Usually,
Filipino women who have reached the right age are allowed to get tribal designs to enhance
their beauty. But this art of beauty is not just left to women only. Men that have proved
themselves worthy enough to get the mark of beauty are allowed to participate in
mambabatok tradition.

Hence, you should not be surprised to find that the majority of men with these
ancient tattoos are Kalinga warriors or headhunters. Kalinga warriors have marks and
traditional designs that represent the battles they fought with their tribe’s enemies.

While batok is used to enhance the beauty of women, men that choose to decorate
their bodies with these ancient marks are seen as brave and courageous people in the
society. Therefore, a Kalinga warrior who is heavily marked with these ancient tattoos
commands a lot of respect and could make his enemies tremble in fear.

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The people who put these ancient marks on the bodies of men and women are
referred to as mambabatoks. The main challenge facing this ancient practice is that the
original mambabatoks have died. That leaves the thousand-year-old practice in danger of
being lost forever.

The legendary Mambabatok from Kalinga

The good news is that there is one mambabatok who is still alive and despite her old
age, she is still practicing this ancient art. Meet the legendary mambabatok from Kalinga,
Apo Whang-Od. For more than seventy years, Apo Whang-Od has been tattooing women
and headhunters in the region of Kalinga. This elderly woman was born in 1918 and is
considered to be the last mambabatok still living.

Whang-Od has tribal tattoos covering her chest and arms and it is her father who taught
her this ancient art of tattooing the body with ink and thorns. While she was
still young, Whang-Od used to tattoo her
friends including herself for practice.
However, some tattoos on her body were
done by her late father.

After the death of her husband

following a logging accident, Apo Whang-
Od dedicated her life to practice batok.
Almost hitting the centurion mark, the
remaining mambabatok of Kalinga is still
doing what she
does best. Her days start with a morning routine of taking coffee before she goes outside
to feed her chickens. Later, you will find her seated outside her home tattooing locals,
visitors and even foreigners.

Whang-Od’s ancient marks feature Baybayinand tribal patterns. Her tattoos cover the
arms, back and chest and most of them symbolize bravery and nature like ferns, stars,
steps, rice bundles, centipedes and python scales.

Receiving a tattoo from Whang-Od

Before she tattooing her guests, Whang-Od’s begins by removing her tattooing tools,
which includes a bamboo stick, orange thorn needle, a short stick, and a coconut mixing
bowl. Afterwards, she gets soot from her fireplace which she mixes with water to create ink
inside the coconut mixing bowl. She then dips a blade of grass into the ink to create a
pattern on your skin.

After drawing the pattern, Apo Whang-Od begins her tattooing session. She dips the
orange thorn needle into the ink and follows the pattern she drew before with a blade of
grass. This is done by using a short bamboo stick with the orange thorn needle.

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She keeps following the same pattern until the whole ink is absorbed from the
needle. In case the tattoo design is small, it might take her half an hour to complete.
However, if the tattoo design is large, it might take between two to three hours to complete.

It is painful to prick your skin using a thorn so that you can get an ancient tattoo.
This is because the thorn is not smooth like a needle which adds to the amount of pain you
will experience. However, the overall benefit of beauty outweighs the pain you will
experience when you get a tattoo from mambabatok.

Reference:

Phil Life.(2018, April 24). Mambabatok: Tattoo tradition in the Philippines. Retrieved on
August 29, 2020 at https://www.phillife.co/mambabatok-whang-od/

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APPENDIX 9.3

The History of Foot Binding in China

by Mütter Museum (2020) College of Physicians of Philadelphia

One specific form of body modification known is foot binding.This practice took place
in China from around the 10th century during the Song Dynasty and it continued for over
1000 years until it was made illegal in 1912. Young girls would have their feet bound to
make them smaller in order to portray a sense of beauty and membership to a higher class
of people. It originally began with a dancer that used to perform for the emperor and she
had bound her feet in the shape a half- moon to perform a specific dance on a giant lotus
flower. The emperor found this woman so beautiful that the other women in China wanted
their daughters to be beautiful like her and, in turn, bound their feet.

The practice started on young ladies who were between the ages of 5 and 7 years
old. Their parents or grandparents would soak their feet in an herbal mixture to prepare
them. When the young girls were ready, they would take their feet, then they would take
the four small toes, leaving the big toes alone, and wrap them under the foot, wrapping it
with a bandage. Then they would take the whole of the foot and fold it into an arch, and
wrap that with a bandage. It was extremely painful and the young girl would have a very
difficult time walking on her feet. But after a few years, the foot would become numb.

Every few days, every week, the foot would be unwrapped, washed, and wrapped
again even tighter, and the hope is that with the magic of time and pressure, the foot
would become as close to 3 inches as possible. What I have with me is a model of the
actual bound foot that we have in the Mütter Museum, and you can see how small it is that
it fits right in the palm of my hand. I also have a pair of very ornately-sewn shoes that were
made for adult women to wear. Okay, here's another pair right here. Again, small enough
to fit in the palm of my hand. The practice was outlawed in 1912, but it did continue in
some of the rural areas as late as the 1940s. There are a few elderly women left in China
who have their feet bound, but shortly it will truly become a thing of the past.

Reference:

Mütter Museum (2020). The History of Foot Binding in China. College of Physicians of
Philadelphia. Transcript retrieved on August 2020 at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5aeFRp7Qzg

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LESSON 9-UNIT 5

ANSWER SHEET

NAME: YEAR & SECTION:

LESSON NO. & TITLE:
DATE: SCORE: _______/20

1. In reference to figure 1, is there a standard for beauty on female beauty?

Why or why not? (10 points)

2. How can we apply cultural relativism in the perception of art and beauty?
(10 points)

END OF LESSON 9
THANK YOU!

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