IIUM Engineering Journal, Vol. 20, No. 2, 2019 Mamat et al.

https://doi.org/10.31436/iiumej.v20i2.996

A REVIEW OF ROAD EMBANKMENT STABILITY

ON SOFT GROUND: PROBLEMS AND FUTURE
PERSPECTIVE

RUFAIZAL CHE MAMAT1,3*, ANUAR KASA1, SITI FATIN MOHD RAZALI2

1
Centre of Engineering and Built Environment Education Research (PeKA)
2
Smart and Sustainable Township Research Centre (SUTRA)
Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Politeknik Ungku Omar, Jalan Raja Musa Mahadi,
31400 Ipoh, Perak, Malaysia.
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]
(Received: 4th December 2018; Accepted: 30th July 2019; Published on-line:2nd December 2019)

ABSTRACT: This paper presents an exhaustive review of the challenges faced in the
construction of road embankments on soft ground and proposes a direction for future
development. Frequently used techniques for soft ground improvement are discussed. The
factors that contribute to the stability of the road embankment are reviewed by approach,
results of past studies, and historical cases. The findings show that settlement, slope
stability, and soil bearing capacity are all challenges to constructing the road embankment.
Additionally, it is found that geometric data is a key factor in embankment design. Pre-
loading with prefabricated vertical drain (PVDs) methods and lightweight fill were found
to be widely used techniques in soft ground improvement. The information from this study
can be used to develop design guidance systems, numerical modelling, and to give an
overview and knowledge to other researchers who are or will conduct research in this field.
Finally, future perspectives for research are related to predictions of factors that affect the
stability of road embankment with an artificial intelligence approach.
ABSTRAK: Kertas ini membentangkan ulasan kajian menyeluruh mengenai cabaran yang
dihadapi dalam pembinaan benteng jalanraya di atas tanah lembut dan mencadangkan ke
arah pembangunan kajian masa depan. Teknik-teknik penambahbaikan tanah lembut yang
sering digunakan turut dibincangkan. Faktor- faktor yang menyumbang kepada kestabilan
benteng jalanraya diulas dengan pendekatan kepada kajian lepas dan sejarah kes. Hasil
kajian ini didapati bahawa enapan, kestabilan cerun dan keupayaan galas tanah merupakan
cabaran dalam pembinaan benteng jalanraya. Selain itu, ia didapati bahawa data geometri
merupakan faktor penting kepada rekabentuk benteng. Kaedah pra pembebanan dengan
prefabrikasi saliran menegak (PVDs) dan isian ringan didapati teknik yang popular
digunakan dalam pembaikkan tanah lembut masa kini. Maklumat dari kajian ini boleh
digunakan untuk membangunkan sistem panduan reka bentuk, pemodelan berangka serta
memberi gambaran dan ilmu kepada penyelidik lain yang sedang atau akan menjalankan
kajian dalam bidang ini. Akhir sekali, perspektif masa depan untuk penyelidikan berkaitan
ramalan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi kestabilan embankment jalanraya dengan
pendekatan kepintaran buatan.

KEYWORDS: road embankment; soft grounds; stability factors; ground improvement

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1. INTRODUCTION
In road construction, the embankment is used to increase the height of the road
compared to the height of the surrounding area. It is a large earth structure and is often used
in civil engineering applications related to infrastructure projects. The construction involves
two essential construction components namely fill and foundation [1, 2]. These two
components act as definitive parameters to analyse the embankment to find failure slope.
Hence, a deep understanding and interpretation of the behaviours of these components such
as deformation mechanisms can produce the collapse mechanism of the embankment.
Embankment fill is defined as selected fill placed and compacted with proper
specifications so that it can display the required engineering performance [3]. The
characteristics of fill material, the degree of compaction and the factors affecting the
workability are considered for best results in the construction of embankment fill. Common
fill materials are soil [4], natural aggregates [5] and lightweight filling material [6]. These
fill materials must possess the required characteristics such as proper drainage to prevent
saturation [7], good performance in compaction properties [8], compressibility [9], and
shear strength [10]. Even if the embankment fill has the best material properties, instability
can occur if it is built on unstable soft ground or soil with properties needing improvement.
The foundation serves as a placement for embankment structure and it may to be stable
or unstable. The embankment foundation containing soft grounds is often a challenge for all
engineers to ensure stability depending on the nature of the soil. Soft ground with fine
particles such as silt, clay, and peat have high moisture content and are located near or below
the groundwater level [11]. These soils also have the characteristics of high compressibility,
high plasticity, high sensitivity, low shear strength, and low permeability [11,12]. Such
features will lead to the problem of high settlement and low bearing capacity during post-
construction work. This will reduce the strength of workability and shorten the
embankment’s lifespan [13]. It will also lead to bumpy road surface and damage,
subsequently causing accidents to road users.
Embankment stability is critical in road construction. Hence, before construction, the
engineer must provide all geotechnical design reports and include drawings to be submitted
to the relevant parties. The report shall state clearly the assumptions, parameter justifications
and the methods used in the design to mitigate all issues or concerns. Geometric data is a
general requirement in the preparation of design drawings while data materials contain the
engineering parameters of fill and foundation of the embankment. Data materials are used
in the engineering design of the embankment. The factor of safety (FoS) calculation is used
to assess the performance of the embankment to ensure constant stability. The design report
contains stability analyses, settlement analyses, the design of porewater pressure and
technical recommendations for ground improvement. Embankments built on soft ground
require the installation of monitoring instruments on site such as the inclinometer, settlement
marker or rod settlement gauge and piezometer. The instrument will be monitored from time
to time for the aid in the demonstration of compliance with minimum FoS during
construction.
This paper reviews the literature on the challenges of embankment construction on soft
ground and the latest techniques that are often used in improving soft ground. To achieve
this objective, this paper has been divided into three sections. The first part deals with the
factors that affect the embankment stability. The second part is about the factors affecting
the design of the embankment, while the third is the latest soft soil improvement technique
widely used with considerable aspects of sustainability, cost savings, and construction time.
Finally, the main conclusions and future perspectives will be presented.

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2. THE CHALLENGE OF CONSTRUCTING EMBANKMENTS ON

SOFT GROUND
Soft ground has a high groundwater level and typically, it can be found near coastal
areas. The soil profile consists of a layer of crust at the top followed by a soft soil layer of
either limited or unlimited thickness underneath. This soil is brown from light to dark [11].
In general, soft soil such as clay is dominated by particles of less than 0.002 mm in size and
is pliable. It is formed from a combination of clay and mud and with almost 50% clay
content [11]. The structure of this soil is identified as being dispersed, flocculated,
bookhouse, turbostratic, and cohesive [14].
Soils are characterized by their physical, mechanical, chemical, and biological
properties. Soil with poor geotechnical properties, such as soft clay, requires improvement
technique application. Yalcin [15] investigated the effect of clay on a landslide in Kanlica
Village, Turkey. As a result of laboratory tests, clay was found to contain illite and
montmorillonite, which produced low shear strength and high swelling potentials making it
prone to landslide problems. This conclusion is also supported by Ohlmacher [16], where
the soil comprising mineral content such as illite has a high liquid limit contributing to very
low strength parameters. Instability problems such as lateral deformations and excessive
settlement often occur in structural and geotechnical construction on soft soils [17]. The
load generated by the embankment fill drives the increase in soil stress and pore water
pressure leading to deformation mechanisms. This causes the load to be undrained, where
the behaviour is similar to the viscous fluid that can lead to critical conditions against
structures such as bearing capacity problems. However, a thick hard layer built on the top
can absorb the load produced by the fill of embankment.
An example of active embankment failure is the 1 km-long highway corridor located at
the Eisenhower Tunnel, Colorado, USA. A survey by the Colorado Transport Department
(CDOT) found that frequent slope settlement and failure problems have occurred over the
last four decades [18]. The instability of the embankment due to movements of the side
ground should be carefully considered during the design process and during engineering
projects around the embankment. The road damage incident that occurred in September
2010 at the Port of Tanjung Priok, Jakarta was caused by embankment instability [19]. The
embankment was built on clay with high plasticity. The movement of side ground caused
the road surface to crack. Road embankment failure also happened in the Northland region
of New Zealand [20], where the embankment was built on a soft soil characterized by a low
strength with a highly sheared fabric. Other reasons for the failure are settlement and
continuous soil movement that led to slope failure. An embankment failure occurred during
the construction of a four-lane expressway in St. Stephen, New Brunswick, Canada across
the USA border in July 2006, where failure was due to the rapid rate of construction and the
intensity of loading for low-strength foundation soils [21]. The land in the foundation was
composed of a soft marine clay layer which is a grey clay with a thickness of up to 15m.
Irsyam et al. [22] reported that a failure of the embankment slope occurred in
Cipularang Toll Road located in West Java, Indonesia. Based on the record of slope
monitoring indicators, the failure plane was due to low ground shear strength. Parameters
of soil shear strength at failure conditions, i.e., cohesion and friction angle, were 5 kPa and
130 respectively from the toe of the embankment to the top of the embankment at the median
of the highway. Additionally, a road connecting two villages, namely Nata and Pentalia in
southwest Cyprus suffered 340 m of severe cracks even though the road was still under
construction. The incident began in January 2002 where the foundation ground was

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composed of soft soil with high plasticity and low shear resistance [23]. The slope failure
also occurred at the embankment due to high rates of rainfall.
Based on the case histories, it is clear that soil properties and rainfall are the cause of
road embankment construction failures. To ensure embankment stability, the geotechnical
design typically requires consideration of three factors namely: strength, deformation, and
permeability or hydraulic conductivity. Bearing capacity and slope stability are among the
important elements in the strength factor. Deformation is influenced by differential
settlement, surface settlement, and lateral displacement of the ground while pore water
pressure and seepage are elements affecting permeability.
2.1 Bearing Capacity
Bearing capacity is one of the necessary steps in the design of the embankment. It is
the ability of the soil to bear the structural burden on the ground safely without any shear
failure by accommodating a large settlement. This means that the foundation with shear
failure involving general, local, or punching shear failure mechanisms will experience
structure instability. Davis and Booker [24] have significantly contributed to understanding
of the problem of clay-bearing capacity with increased strength with depth. Over the last
few decades, much research has emphasized that embankment instability is due to a possible
loss of bearing capacity of the foundation soil [25, 26]. During soft soil failure under the
embankment, the fill moves downward with part of the foundation soil as a rigid body [25].
Several studies investigating the performance of the embankment on Muar clay [27],
Bangkok clay [28], and Matagami lacustrine clay [29] were performed with low bearing
capacity. Factors thought to influence bearing capacity have been explored in several
studies. Popescu et al. [30] studied the effects of random heterogeneity of soil properties on
bearing capacity with various shear strength values. On the other hand, Lehtonen et al. [31]
investigated the effect of the trainload and the loading time on the embankment on soft soil.
It is clear that careful study of the literature reveals that the soil shear strength, depth, and
surcharges are the factors that influence the bearing capacity. A clear understanding of these
factors is essential in the design of embankments on soft soils.
Over the past decade, some laboratory research projects have been conducted to
investigate the soft soil performance based on the factors affecting bearing capacity. Kim
and Lee [32] compared the bearing capacity of various sizes of gravel and sand. Two types
of samples were composed of gravel and sand of compaction piles. The results revealed that
coarse particles had a high bearing capacity compared to fine particles. It clearly showed
that particle size contributes to higher bearing capacity, and it is noted that each type of soil
has different strengths. Another study was performed with various strengths of soil
stabilized by Portland cement [33]. The results found that the higher the percentage of
cement mixture, the higher the maximum dry density and bearing capacity. This implies that
the strength and density of the soil are higher, resulting in a high bearing capacity.
In order to improve soft soil bearing capacity, several researchers have suggested the
application of basal reinforcement [34], chemical stabilization [11], and pile-supporting [35]
in the embankment construction. However, cost, time and sustainable construction are the
challenges of engineers choosing ground improvement techniques. A number of methods
can be used to overcome this challenge with the 'Limited Life Geotextiles' [36] approach as
basal reinforcement of embankments and fly ash [37] as a soft soil foundation stabilization.
2.2 Slope Stability
Slopes are closely related to the height of an area, whereby the higher the area, the
steeper the slope. The stability of the slope is an important aspect in embankment

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construction due to its possible side effect of loss of human life and damage to property. A
stable slope guarantees safety but otherwise, unstable slopes increase the risk of failure that
can trigger landslides that cause the most damage and produce thousands of deaths every
year and material losses of billions of dollars [38]. This is of increasing concern with this
trend expected to continue in the next decade due to urbanization and development. Thus,
the challenging task for engineers is to make decisions by paying more attention to the
importance of public safety. Engineers need to understand the factors that led to the failure
in order to assess slope stability.
Over the past decade, most research on slope failure was investigated and discussed
based on studies and historical cases. Ballantyne [39] reviewed the literature from the period
and identified factors that influenced slope failure in Scotland. A total of 740 incidents of
landslides due to intense precipitation, engineering excavations, and mass weakening by
fluctuating cleft-water pressures were studied. In 1993, over 800 slope failures were
triggered by a rainstorm on Lantau Island, Hong Kong [40]. Ohlmacher [16] reports that the
landslide that occurred in 1995 damaged two US$ 400,000 homes in Overland Park, Kansas.
Based on the investigation, the slope angle was the main factor contributing to the problem
of landslides in the study area. Davies [41] reported more than 50 slope failures in Kenya
caused by natural geological and geomorphological conditions, coupled with high rainfall.
A landslide that occurred in Wenchuan, China in 2008 was triggered by earthquakes and
heavy rainfall [42].
Several studies investigating the factors of stability were performed by experiment. Xu
et al. [43] studied gravity erosion on the steep loess slope by conducting a series of
experiments in the laboratory to test slope stability against various geometry and rainfall
rates. The analysis found that climate changes have significant influence over gravity
erosion. Yong et al. [44] described the dynamic processes of grain comminution through
grain size distribution of soils. High dynamic properties are found in granular soil exposed
to soil evolution and mass movements, which can cause instability. The effect of slope
length and slope angle on stability was successfully investigated based on laboratory tests
by Kinnell [45].
Based on the evidence presented in this section, it is clear that nature, humans, and slope
geometry are factors affecting stability. Landslides triggered by natural factors such as
heavy rainfall and earthquake are the most common in the world. High intensity of rainfall
is prone to contribute to weathering and rapid erosion of rock mass causing a reduction in
the slope stability [45]. Erosion agents such as surface runoff enter the cracks, eroding the
slope carrying with it a mud and soil stream while runoff absorbed into the soil weakens the
bonds between soil particles on the slope surface. The pore water pressure that exists
between the soil particles will affect the strength of the soil structure.
The earthquake phenomenon causes strong ground vibration that increases shear stress.
The effect of the earthquake’s frequency and magnitude can overcome the force of adhesion
to the ground and the retaining structure [42]. Besides, the vibration causes the movement
of ground particles to be more likely to move according to gravity. Gravity is a force acting
on the surface of the earth by pulling something towards the middle of the earth. Material
on a flat surface will not move due to gravitational attraction unless the surface is sloped or
angled.
Slope excavation is the human factor required for the construction of building
foundations and roads because suitable engineering sites do not exist. This activity triggers
the movement of slope and ground vibration will cause disturbance that will slide the mass,
which makes the deformation accelerate [46]. Additionally, it will also destroy the

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vegetation on the slope surface and consequently, the reinforcing effect of the vegetation
will be lost and precipitation will infiltrate the slope crack on the surface.
Geometric factors such as slope angle are the main components of the slope for
measuring stability. As the slope angle increases, the shear stress in the soil and erosion will
also increase [45]. The low slope angle is expected to be stable due to low shear stresses
[47]. Conversely, with the increase in slope steepness, water infiltration decreases [48].
Thus, the slope angle is suspected of playing a major role in the control of infiltration and
erosion that affects slope stability.
However, the slope stability problem varies between different geographical regions.
For example, in European countries, slopes are exposed to varying temperatures and
humidity, while in Malaysia, they are exposed to heavy rainfall with an average annual
rainfall of 2500 mm. Lack of information on climate change, rainfall rates, and
unpredictable clouding has caused engineers to fail to understand the mechanisms of slope
failure. A detailed study is, therefore, needed and must be performed with appropriate
technology to predict the parameters associated with slope failure factors.
2.2 Settlement
Settlement is the total size of the vertical deformation on the soil surface. In theory,
embankment settlement occurs when increased compressive stress is generated by baseload
compression. This process will cause vertical and horizontal deformation of the soil
foundation. Besides changes in water content, soil mass and temperature can also distort
soil. It is often associated with cohesive soil such as soft soil and can produce a large
settlement for an extended period even under load [11]. During settlement, the ground
transition at stress conditions is of its weight to the new state due to the extra load. The stress
change caused by the additional load can produce a time-dependent accumulation of particle
rolling, sliding, crashing, and elastic distortions in a limited influence zone beneath the
loaded area. Hence, significant and excessive impacts will affect the road surface, where a
decrease in height will occur and may cause flooding during heavy rains. Terzaghi [49]
began the study of soft soil settlement. In theory, a settlement analysis comprises
calculations of total and differential settlement, where total settlement is the magnitude of
downward movement while the differential settlement is the vertical movement between
two places.
The total settlement consists of three modes, namely elastic, consolidation, and creep
deposition. Elastic settlement occurs due to the deformation of soil that is loaded without
changes in water content and occurs within a short period [50]. It is also known as an
undrained or immediate settlement. This type of settlement occurs instantaneously during
the loading process with saturated soil that has low permeability and drainage ability.
Consolidation settlement occurs due to the consolidation of soil in which water is slowly
expelled from the soil cavity [51]. During the consolidation process, the deformation of the
soil occurs with volume reduction over a long period. Creep or secondary compression is
the same as compaction. It can occur when soil attempts to reposition itself in the cavity left
by the water during consolidation settlement [52]. In the typical case, during embankment
design, the computation of settlement involves elastic settlement and consolidation while
post-construction involves creep.
Azzam and Basha [53] assessed the impact of improvements in the parameter of
cohesive soil shear strength by using a soil nailing technique to reduce settlement. Brown
to grey clay was taken from the Middle Delta of Egypt and stabilized using steel flat bars as
vertical soil nails. The sample is then compressed with an unconfined compression machine

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with a low pressing rate. The study showed that increasing vertical inclusions significantly
increases the shear strength and reduces settlement rates. Studies on the effects of creep on
the side deformation of soil and pore pressure below the embankment were performed by
Grimstad et al. [54]. The numerical method is used to investigate the embankment on the I-
95 motorway in North Boston with a height of 12.2 m and built on Boston Blue Clay. The
study shows that an increase in creep rate also increases soil settlement, pore pressure, and
lateral deformations. Earthquakes can cause the settlement of saturated clay layers. This has
been discussed in a study conducted by Sato et al. [55] using a Kaolinite clay sample, i.e.
Tokyo bay clay, and Kitakyushu clay tested using uniform and irregular cyclic shear tests.
The results of the study concluded that the Atterberg limits affect the settlement rate and
pore water pressure accumulation during earthquakes. Accumulation and settlement of
water pore pressure triggered by the friction cycle are measured by cumulative shear stress.
To conclude, the studies conducted by the researchers clearly show that the type of soil, the
underground conditions, the techniques to improve soil properties, and the soil drainage are
factors that affect the settlement.
Differential value of settlement on the ground surface and uneven settlements can cause
major problems such as a function of the uniformity and stiffness of the soil. As shown in
Fig. 1, it may be characterized as the distortion, i.e. the settlement over a horizontal distance.
It occurs when the ground underneath the structure is unable to withstand the load, but the
limitation to differential settlement is dependent on the application and site condition.

Area of differential
Earth embankment
settlement

Settlement

Horizontal distance

Fig. 1: Definition of the differential of settlement [56].

One of the case histories occurred in Bangkok where significant settlement happened
in an area with 12-16 m of soft clay [57]. The 1.5 m to 2.5 m road embankment experienced
total settlement of between 500 to 1000 mm in 10 years. Dark grey soft and compressible
recent marine clay and frequent flooding from the Chao Phraya river seem to be the major
factors. A seven-story building was slanted during the Mexico earthquake that took place in
1985 and continued until 2005, as reported by Moghaddam and Jayawickrama [58]. Based
on the results of the review and monitoring it was found that the building underwent a
differential settlement leading to vertical inclinations ranging from 241 mm to 310 mm to
the north, and 70 mm to 98 mm to the east. This problem is very closely related to the
consolidation process of the base soil. Apart from these factors, eccentricity in loading,
groundwater extraction, and construction in the vicinity also contributed to this problem.
There are four reasonable and commonly used methods to predict soft clay settlement.
These are the conventional one-dimensional (1D), Skempton and Bjerrum [59], stress path
and finite element methods. Terzaghi [49] introduced the 1D conventional method aimed at
estimating the compression of clay at a certain soil depth. It is now used to predict the
magnitude and settlement rates. With the right soil compression and the measurement of a

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thin layer of soil in the laboratory under a single load dimension, engineers can successfully
and accurately predict performance [60]. According to the theory, stratum compressible is
divided into several layers, while the calculation of the initial vertical effective stress and
vertical stress increase using the Boussinesq stress [61] is based on the centre of each layer.
At the end of the consolidation, when all excess pore water pressure is lost, the stress
increase will become effective stress. The vertical strain of each layer can be obtained from
the graph plotted between the void ratio with effective vertical stress as a result of the one-
dimensional (odometer) compression experiment. This method was used in the study of the
settlement of road embankment prediction [62]. However, Duncan [63] highlighted the
limitations of this method; among others are the difference in the conditions between the
field and the laboratory, the difference in load rates and tensions experienced by the soil
between the laboratory and field, and the limitations found in 1D theory for three-
dimensional (3D) problems. In addition, there are insufficient resources and documentation
on the selection of parameters and the use of theory to predict settlement of silt compared
to clay [64].
Skempton et al. [65] used 1D to calculate the total settlement of several buildings but
admitted that undrained settlement is a significant parameter in the total settlement. As such,
they used the elastic displacement theory to calculate the undrained settlement. The
settlement forecasting in 3D has lower consistency compared to 2D due to pore pressure
and the lower lateral deformation in 3D. They have thus put together a primary method to
calculate the consolidation settlement caused by excessive dissipation of pore pressure. The
settlement correction factors proposed in 1957 are dependent on geometric problems and
pore pressure. This factor was also supported by Bergado and Teerawattanasuk [66] in their
study that geometric effects should be considered as an important factor that could affect
numerical simulation results. Bergado et al. [67] used this method to predict the
embankment settlement of the Bangna-Bangpakong highway that was constructed on
Bangkok soft clay. The study found that these methods provide reasonable estimates of
long-term settlement.
The stress path method was proposed by Skempton [59] and developed further by
Poulos and Davis [68]. It uses an uninterrupted sample under the appropriate underground
depth to perform triaxial experiments under the appropriate initial in situ effective stresses.
The purpose of vertical and horizontal stress without allowing drainage to be calculated is
to determine vertical strain and excess pore pressure. When necessary, drainage was
allowed, and applied stresses were adjusted to determine vertical stress and change in
volume. The strain was then measured to obtain undrained settlement and consolidation.
Studies on the performance of the screw plate test to determine the properties of
deformability and consolidation of Bangkok clay was carried out by Bergado et al. [67].
Comparison of consolidation coefficients, non-flow and flow modulus between SPLIT and
stress-path-controlled triaxial consolidation tests was performed. The findings of both
experiments are similar to each other, implying the accuracy of the results to be sufficient
for use for predictive purposes. Although logical, the method is complicated because the
initial vertical and horizontal effective stresses must be known, and it requires advanced
experimental skills. Isotropic and homogenous elasticity used to calculate the stress change
and uncertainty in the accuracy of horizontal stresses exist. In addition, these experiments
are highly costly and require a long time to conduct.
In recent times, numerical methods have been well received for predicting settlements
because finite elements are carried out on non-homogeneous anisotropic elastic materials.
Besides, it can handle nonlinear stress-strain behaviours of varying complexity. The
engineers are more confident in the findings of finite elements because of its strength and

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flexibility, without realizing that this package contains inherent idealization and
assumptions. Generally, the quality of data inputs plays an important role in determining the
accuracy of the forecast. It is therefore important to evaluate and examine the constraints of
the experiment as good control ensures high-quality data to be used for numerical analysis.
It was clear that settlement forecasting methods have undergone a sophisticated
revolution moving from the classic 1D to numerical methods. The latter is able to solve a
variety of complex issues because the program is equipped with advanced parameters and
testing ground. The available features with sophisticated computing technology have led to
this method becoming popular for application and development.

3. EMBANKMENT DESIGN
The design of the embankment is extremely complex because it depends on the purpose
of construction, the environment, and the ground foundation conditions. When designing an
embankment, engineers must plan, define geometric data, and analyse stability. The road
embankment especially consists of a series of compacted layers placed on top of each other
until the subgrade surface level is reached. It is also known as structural embankment and
is divided into two types: the unreinforced [69] and reinforced, [70] which serves to
distribute traffic load to soil foundation. Therefore, appropriate stability assessment and
geometric data methods are essential to ensure the desired efficiency of construction. This
section discusses three key aspects of geometric data, design, and analysis methods based
on the recent literature.
3.1 Design and Analysis Methods
The majority of today's engineers and researchers model the embankment design using
FEM. It is a numerical method that aims to design and analyse various engineering problems
of both practical or research. It is also useful for problems with complicated geometries,
loadings and material properties where analytical solutions cannot be obtained. There are
three types of finite elements that are often used, namely one-dimensional (line), two-
dimensional (plane), and three-dimensional (solid). From the literature, the use of two-
dimensional is the choice of many researchers in the study of embankment stability. Plaxis
[81], Abaqus [82] and Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua (FLAC) [83] are the types of
software used for analysis, testing, and design in geotechnical engineering. However, the
use of FLAC is less common in the study of the road embankment. Researchers and
engineers more popularly use Plaxis as it is friendlier in soil modelling to solve simple
problems in complex strata. Beyond that point, it can analyse all cases in geotechnical
engineering including pile design [84], ground foundation [85], retaining wall [86], slope
stability [87], and dam [88].
The driving force along the slopes that is greater than the resisting force restraining the
movement of the slope is the basis of slope stability. Force imbalances such as increased
resisting force will fail. Both forces are elements in slope design. The main driving force in
most earth movements is gravity while the main resisting force is the material's shear
strength. Slope stability is evaluated by calculating and assessing the stability index, or the
FoS, defined as the ratio of ground resistance force along the failed surface to the instability
force that illustrates the capabilities of a structure, such as an embankment [89]. Duncan
[90] also explains that FoS is the ratio of real ground shear strength to the minimum shear
strength required to prevent failure. Theoretically, a FoS value greater than 1 indicates a
stable slope while a FoS value equal to 1 implies that the slope is in equilibrium.

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The slope stability analysis is divided into two, namely global and local stability.
Global stability refers to the overall stability of soil mass along the slip surface and in
multiple failure mechanisms by providing a lower safety factor. A sloping surface can
withstand soil stress. For long-term and short-term flows, FoS ≥ 1.3 [91]. Most slope
stability analysis software available, such as Slope/W, provides global FoS calculations. The
global FoS calculation using the Phi-C reduction method was performed by Singh et al. [92]
in the study of slope stability in Nainital, India. Iñeguez [93] in his study defines universal
FoS by using a strength level approach. He also calculates local FoS using enhanced
methods as the location of the most critical zone can be evaluated and used to guide the
implementation of remedial measures. Local FoS are irregular and different at each point
compared to conventional FoS which assumes that it remains constant along the slip surface.
In order to assess the stability of the slope, limit equilibrium (LE) analysis is commonly
employed to determine the FoS by researchers and engineers. The LE technique such as the
ordinary method of slices [94], Bishop simplified [95], Spencer [96], and Morgenstern-Price
[97] methods have been widely used in the slope stability analysis. The slicing technique is
known as an uncertain static problem, solved by assuming a distribution of internal forces.
As such, different assumptions can result in varied results. Due to this inherent engineering
practical weakness, FEM is now a choice. Some researchers have compared the results
between LE method and FEM [98, 99], concluding that FEM provides the best and most
accurate FoS result, as it is better able to explain the behaviour of soil stress and eliminate
stress assumptions used in the LE method.
Strength reduction method (SRM) [100,101] and enhanced limit strength method
(ELSM) [102, 103] are popular methods used in FEM although there are also ways to
evaluate FoS using stress calculated directly through finite element modelling. The SRM
has been used by Zienkiewicz et al. [104] to calculate slope safety factors based on the
Mohr-Coulomb model. Most FoS formulas used now are obtained from the Mohr-Coulomb
failure criterion [105]. SRM does not require assumptions on the form or location of the
failure surface, because failures occur naturally through the zone in the soil mass where soil
shear strength is unable to resist the applied shear stress [106]. This means that the critical
slip surface is automatically obtained from the increased shear stress when the shear strength
decreases. However, this method is unable to determine the position of the local minimum
slip. ELSM is a hybrid between the LE method and FEM introduced by Kulhawy [107] as
an independent assessment of the distribution of normal and shear stress along the assumed
slip surface. Normal and shear stresses from elasticity analysis are used to calculate the
overall FoS. In addition, this method uses FEM to estimate the magnitude of the stress as
well as to find the critical slip surface with minimum FoS.
ELSM has the advantage over SRM in terms of time, as some finite element analyses
need to be conducted separately. Besides, SRM is best suited for global FoS calculations
while ELSM is for local FoS calculations. This is because local FoS calculations along the
potential failure surface cannot be considered in the SRM procedure.
3.2 Geometry
Analysis through FEM requires the establishment of data in constitutive relationships
and geometric modelling. Geometric data namely height, crest width, and gradient of side
slope are among the important parameters in the production of design drawings. Engineers
usually select the parameters based on their own experience. Based on observations, most
studies conducted by researchers use embankments that are 1.5 m in height, have a crest
width of between 35 m and 40 m, and have a 1:1.5 gradient of side slope (vertical:
horizontal). In addition, road design manuals in several countries are described in Table 1.

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Most countries recommend embankment height of less than 6m to enable the vertical-
horizontal side slope ratio of 1:1.5.

Table: Various sources of standards for side slope and height embankment for design.
Height Side slope (V:H) References
0–6m 1:1.5 [108]
0–6m 1:3 [109]
0–1m 1:4 [110]
1–3m 1:2
More than 3 m 1:1.5
0 – 1.5 m 1:8 (flat terrain) [111]
1:6 (rolling terrain)
1.5 m and over 1:6 (flat or rolling terrain)
1m 1:1.5 [112]
2m 1:2
3m 1:2.5

Based on literature reviews, geometric data such as crest width and side slope are
reported to be too limited. Researchers widely practice the study of critical [113–115], safe
[116], and reasonable [117, 118] embankment height as they believe that these parameters
are factors that contribute to embankment stability, which is supported by study findings.
The study conducted by Cui et al. [119] further supports this statement as it found that the
height of the embankment affects the cumulative settlement of the subsoil. Embankments
built at an altitude of less than 1.5 m will lead to an increase in the speed of cumulative
settlement of the subsoil. However, the determination of height depends on the soil
foundation improvement and traffic load method or technique. Studies conducted by
Almeida et al. [120] found that the result of FEM analysis showed the difference in
settlement of soil surface decreased when the height of the embankment increased. This
proves that height is an important determinant of embankment stability.
3.3 Height of Embankment
The height of the embankment is a problem often encountered during design and
construction work. This is because the embankment built below the critical height can
control the deformation and stability of the foundation. Critical height is important to
determine performance such as the workability of the embankment and the assessment of
potential excessive settlement [121]. For example, surface damage is caused by uneven crest
surface. This happens when the embankment is lower than the clear column spacing, leading
to the differential settlement at the base of the embankment that can spread up to the crest
of the embankment. According to McGuire [122], the minimum height for the column
diameter and distance where differential settlement in the crest does not occur is known as
the critical height. Thus, the diameter and distance from the column are important factors
that affect critical height.
Fagundes et al. [113] in their study used the calculations proposed by Filz et al. [121],
McGuire [119], and BS 8006 [123] to find that the critical height suitable for the
construction of embankments built on soft soils strengthened by piles without
reinforcements is 2.5 m. Bhasi and Rajagopal [114] found that the critical height with the
effect of reinforcement modulus on maximum settlements is 5.6m. In this study,
embankments stabilized using the geosynthetic reinforced pile method built on soft soils
were analysed using the three-dimensional (3D) FEM. The findings from Chen Jia et al.
[124] on embankments stabilised by plastic tubes cast-in-place concrete piles found that the

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critical height is 2.2 times the pile net spacing distance. The piles are driven by a distance
of 1.0 to 1.5 m from one another. This means that the critical height is between 2.2 to 3.3
m. The three studies found that the critical height for the embankment built on soft soil and
soil stabilized with piles is between 2.2 m and 5.6 m. However, there are very few studies
on the critical height for embankments stabilized using other techniques such as vertical
drains, preloading, grouting, and reinforcement.
A lot of research regarding reasonable height was conducted on the Qinghai-Tibet
Highway (QTH) and the Qinghai-Tibet Railway (QTR). It was introduced by Zhang et al.
[125] to protect the underlying permafrost during construction. The freezing and defrosting
cycle of soil can lead to a settlement on the embankment. Hence, maintaining the magnitude
of the embankment settlement to reasonable limits is key to ensure embankment stability
[126]. The higher the embankment, the greater the differential settlement because an
embankment that is not sufficiently high will lead to the freezing and defrosting cycle that
affects tension and settlement. The foundation soil found along the highway and the railway
is mostly silty clay, which is a type of soft ground.
QTH has a length of 1937 km and has a 632 km permafrost area. Among the studies to
determine the reasonable elevation of the embankment in QTH were those carried out by
Wang et al. [117] and Zhang et al. [127] who found, through site monitoring, that an
embankment height of more than 4 m would lead to a reduction in the permafrost table.
Therefore, reasonable elevation shall be determined to a limited extent. Wang et al. [117]
have determined a reasonable embankment height for two typical geological sections along
the QTH. The findings of the analysis are obtained through the modified numerical method,
with a reasonable embankment height implied of 1.63 m. This is a significant study because
reasonable height is important for maintaining the thermal and mechanical stability of
highways located in the cold areas.
The QTR is 550 km long and has a permafrost area at an altitude of about 4500 m to
5000 m above sea level. Yue et al. [126] and Qi et al. [128] conducted analyses to obtain
reasonable embankment of railroads in the permafrost state. The embankment should be
built at a reasonable height of 4.0 m to reduce differential settlement [126]. The in-situ
monitoring results in Qi et al. [128] showed that the reasonable height is 3.0 m and has a
positive impact on frozen soil protection and promotes the increase of the permafrost table
under the embankment. A study on the optimum design of crushed stone layers with shading
board over the railway embankment on warm perma-frost was done by G. Li et al. [129]
and found that the reasonable elevation is between 3.0 m to 5.0 m. The analysis of these
findings is obtained through systematic numerical tests.
The safe embankment height is dependent on the gain in strength of soft subsoil and
target FoS [130]. The study determines the height of each stage of construction based on
increased shear strength to reach the FoS of 1.25. Through the iteration process, they have
found the exact height of second-stage loading to be 3.02 m to achieve a total height of 5 m
for the embankment. Meanwhile, the study conducted by Kasim et al. [116] concerning the
safe height for the construction of the embankment on soft soil is summarised through the
simulation results of PLAXIS Version 8.2 software that the maximum height is 4.9 m to
ensure its stability against excessive settlement. This is also supported by Jin et al. [131],
whereby increasing the height from 1.0 m to 4.0 m reduced the deformation value towards
settlement.
Several factors affect the height of an embankment. We have reviewed critical,
reasonable, and safe height, which have the same goal of ensuring embankment stability.
Overall, height determination depends on several factors. The diameter and distance

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between planted pile stalks are factors that determine the critical height. Permafrost is one
of the most dangerous elements and affects the stability of the embankment in cold areas.
This is due to uncontrolled thaw settlement, and frost heaving processes that can cause
settling problems and longitudinal cracks on the embankment. According to Wang et al.
[132], embankment height is closely related to the problem. The reasonable height is
interlinked with embankments built in areas prone to permafrost. Therefore, the temperature
of the permafrost is also a factor in determining a reasonable height. FoS is the determinant
of an embankment’s safe height. Most studies conducted to determine the safe height use
Taylor's stability charts. The road design manual as in Table 1 suggested embankment
height of up to 6 m. However, there are also researchers who employ the height in their
study as 2.0 m [133], 3.0 m [134], 4.0 m [135] and 5.0 m [102]. We can conclude from the
literature that 1.5 m to 6.0 m is the height range in embankment design that is able to ensure
stability. The same height range is appropriate for the study or design of embankments. This
range is relevant and useful as a guide for young engineers and researchers in the prediction
and design of embankments.

4. SOFT GROUND IMPROVEMENT

An engineer must possess several strategies that may be adopted to achieve project
goals when dealing with troubled ground conditions at the site. Various methods exist to
improve compressible soils commonly applied on-site including preloading, lightweight fill,
geosynthetic reinforcement, over-excavation and replacement, vertical drains, rigid piles,
and injection. As mentioned in the literature review, enhancing density, increasing shear
strength, and reducing compressibility can help in promoting stability. On the other hand,
influencing permeability also decreases groundwater flow to increase consolidation rates.
Despite the fact that existing methods may mitigate stability problems, selection factors
need to be considered, such as sustainability, cost, and time of construction. All have
become the topic of intense debate within the scholar community. Thus, this section will
review the application of preloading with PVDs and geofoam as lightweight fill materials
in the road embankment construction on soft ground by considering three selection factors.
4.1 Preloading and Prefabricated Vertical Drains
Preloading methods are categorized as static consolidation and are cost-effective and
practical. They impose a temporary load to increase soil stress. This causes the substratum
to densify and form stiffer support that will help reduce compressibility when the actual
structure is built. This method commonly uses earth filled with a pre-determined height, and
subsequent monitoring of settlement is conducted during a specific period until the
deformation stops.
Dafalla [136] studied the performance of a stabilized soft ground settlement using the
preloading and prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) method along the coast of the Red Sea
of Saudi Arabia and found that medium hard silty sand was beneath the site surface.
Buildings and pedestrian pathways around the site have been damaged due to excessive
settlement. The Saudi Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs has proposed that this
method is applied for the project. The site uses preloaded sand of 4.5 m to 6 m high for six
months and was monitored every week. The study concluded that this method reduces 20
% to 50 % of total settlement with sufficient time to prevent deformation. It can increase the
strength of soft soils by accelerating the consolidation process so that the ground is able to
bear the load. Therefore, sites with soft grounds are suitable for this method as they can be
compressed in a relatively short time when loaded. Pressures exceeding what is required are
placed above the soil and allowed to settle until the predicted settlement is reached. When

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the settlement has been reached, the excessive load is removed, and the service load is
allowed on a strengthened foundation.
Recently, various innovations in this method have been created using modern
technology. Among the successful modernizations of this method is combining the use of
vertical drains or PVDs. Variation of this method has been successfully applied in many
construction projects worldwide requiring ground improvements and reclamation [137].
Therefore, the theory, design, and construction methods for PVDs are significant issues in
the preloading or consolidation method. The practice of using horizontal drainage began to
emerge with drainage and then evolved into PVDs. Kjellman [138] introduced a
combination of two materials, namely wood, and cardboard in 1947. Most PVDs have a
width of about 100 mm with a thickness of 3.0 m to 6.0 m made of corrugated plastic cores
surrounded by geotextile filters or a layer of natural fibres. It serves as artificial drain lines
to accelerate the draining of water in the ground so that the time taken for the soft soil
consolidation and the removal of excess pressure in the water pore can be significantly
reduced. The elimination of pore water pressure increases soil strength, which would enable
it to sustain the load. Da Silva et al. [81] studied the impact of PVDs installation on stability
and embankment settlement. Using back-analysis to find sufficient material model and
calculation of values using elastic-viscoplastic (EVP) through FEM to four dikes on very
soft clay, it was found that PVDs very significantly accelerated settlement and increased
FoS. Chu et al. [139] also conducted a study on the use of PVDs on soft clay soil which has
a high moisture content for land reclamation projects. Evaluation of the consolidation
effectiveness and suitability of the selected PVDs was performed through a large-scale
laboratory model. The results showed that the installation of PVDs is very effective to
accelerate the consolidation process. However, PVDs performance may decline as the
consolidation process takes place due to the quality of the material that is unable to sustain
the biological and chemical reaction between the filter and the soil surface. Besides, the soil
undergoes a significant increase in undrained shear strength.
It is clear from the above study findings that the installation of the preloading and PVDs
methods has advantages. A combination of both methods is efficient to be used in areas with
soft ground. This method does not meet the green technology needs that emphasize the
environmental impact of construction. This is because the surcharge fill usually involves
cutting of high places such as hills, leading to various degrees of destruction and disasters.
Although there are alternatives undertaken and introduced by Yang et al. [140], which use
water as a surcharge, they are not suitable for areas with hot climates because the
evaporation process will reduce the quantity of water and thus can affect the settlement
monitoring readings. Besides, there are preloading methods using vacuum pressure [141,
142], which only use surcharges such as minimal soil but still require soil transportation
from sources elsewhere. This method is also highly costly because it involves the pumping
and plastic pipes that are often exposed to leakage. Therefore, environment-conscious
methods should be developed based on the environmental and construction conditions of a
particular location.
4.2 Geofoam as Lightweight Fill Material
Construction challenges on soft grounds and lack of suitable soil for reclamation work
and environmental preservation led to a massive demand for innovative methods. The use
of lightweight materials to replace fill material such as clay is an alternative. According to
Schaefer et al. [143], lightweight fills are divided into two categories: materials that behave
and have the same properties as soil particles, and materials with unconfined compressive
strength that possess properties that are similar to the cohesive soil as shown in Table 2. The

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unconfined compressive strength is directly related to the cast density of the mixture. In the
report by Stark et al. [144], geofoam unconfined compressive strength range is 160-173 kPa.
Cellular concrete consists of cement, aggregate, water, and air voids. Its production needs
to mix materials such as foaming agents that can produce 10-70% of the air content [145].
Therefore, the unconfined compressive strength is dependent on the mixed material used.
The material mixture used in cellular concrete as foam content + bottom ash [146], flue ash
[147] and aluminium powder [148] produces a compressive strength of 0.8-5.2 MPa, 1.7-
2.7 MPa and 0.9-7.9 MPa, respectively.

Table 2: Lightweight fill materials categories [143].

Granular lightweight fill Lightweight fill materials with an
materials unconfined compressive strength
Wood fiber Geofoam
Blast furnace slag Cellular concrete
Boiler slag
Fly ash
Expanded shale, clay and slate
Shredded tires

The use of geofoam is well received because it is more practical as a readily-available

source, and there are many manufacturers and suppliers around the world [149]. It has a
density value of between 12 to 35 kg/m3 and was first used in the construction of road
embankment in 1972 by the Norwegian Road authorities [150]. Based on density, expanded
polystyrene (EPS) is divided into seven categories with the index oxygen volume of 24% as
shown in Table 3 [151]. It is produced in large light blocks and can be obtained in various
sizes and resistance characteristics. It is made of expanded styrene formed through the
process of expansion using pentane and steam [152]. The mechanical [153] and dynamic
properties [154] of geofoam blocks were investigated in detail. The EPS' light strength
properties between surfaces were also investigated and found to be significant across two
surfaces of the block [155].
In general, EPS blocks are used to reduce overburden pressure and settlement problems.
Umashankar et al. [76] studied the settlement rates of landfill built on soft soils using two
types of EPS. The comparison of settlement concentration was done on EPS with an elastic
modulus of 1 and 10 MPa respectively. The analysis through FLAC on the embankment
loaded following AASHTO specifications found that the maximum embankment settlement
with EPS elastic modulus of 10 MPa is between 1.8 cm and 2.0 cm while the elastic modulus
EPS 1 MPa is in the range of 15 cm to 16 cm. This demonstrates that the EPS with a hard
feature has the advantage of reducing the settlement problem.
Table 3. Types of EPS geofoam [151].
Types Density (kg/m3) Flexural Strength (kPa)
EPS12 11.2 69
EPS15 14.4 172
EPS19 18.4 207
EPS22 21.6 240

The Indiana Department of Transportation has recommended the use of the EPS blocks
for the Borman Highway reconstruction project near Gary, Indiana to reduce the load on
soft grounds [156]. The ground in this area consists entirely of soft soils, as it is close to
Lake Michigan. Thirty-two truckloads of EPS blocks were used in this project. Michalowski

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et al. [157] investigated the road embankment performance which is partially stabilized
using the pile-supported method, that is controlled modulus columns of 400 mm in diameter
and installed with square grid space of between 1.4 m to 2.0 m from one another and were
installed in ground by up to 22.8 m deep [148]. The bulk of the embankment fill used the
EPS29 block and mounted on a 9.5 m thick organic clay foundation. The top layer of the
EPS block is protected with a 0.4 mm thick synthetic moisture resistant coating, while the
end of the block is mounted with at 0.6 mm thick geomembrane. The results obtained
through the calculation of settlement were consistent with the settlement of the pile group
due to the use of EPS which reduced the burden of the load. In another project, the Utah
Transportation Department in 2001 undertook the reconstruction of a 27-km I-15 highway
over four years costing $1.4 billion in Salt Lake City [158]. A total of 100,000 m3 EPS15
blocks are used in this project as a road embankment filling material. The widened I-15
alignment requires a large embankment of 8.0 m to 10.0 m above the soft soils that could
potentially lead a primary consolidation settlement of more than 1.0 m. Some sections of
the highway experienced settlement due to the construction of the embankment and have
damaged the utility lines across the road. This has led the design team to decide on the use
of EPS blocks in the project to maintain service without the need for relocation or work
suspension, which could affect construction costs. After the project was completed, Bartlett
et al. [159] produced a design review report and performance assessment of the embankment
for 10 years. The results obtained from the site show that the elastic compression and gaps
between the two EPS block faces yield about 1% vertical gradients as load distribution slabs.
Additionally, a total of 15 mm foundation ground settlement and 0.2 to 0.4% of creep
cramps occur on the base soil during the post-construction period of 10 years under pressure
levels of 20 to 35 kPa. Long-term monitoring of creep deformation of the criteria of 50 years
found that maximum pressure is about 1.5 to 1.7 %.
The case history described above showed that the EPS blocks functioned as a solution
to the problem of excess settlement. Its light weight reduces side loads or bearings borne by
the base soil. Although EPS with various density characteristics is available to meet different
strength requirements, cost-based selection and suitability of use should be considered. EPS
with high hardness or elastic modulus is useful for large loads. Many researchers believe
that using this method can reduce costs [76, 153, 157], but Kim et al. [160] argued that the
use of EPS blocks requires a high cost in terms of installation and construction operations
in road construction projects compared to plastic board drains and PVD. This is because
even with the reduction in the quantity of soil used for the embankment, it still requires
additional soil due to the same longitudinal grade as the original design. Hence, the
development of sustainable materials such as expanded cork granules and granite sludge,
comparable to EPS features and functions should be carried out.

5. DISCUSSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT

The initial objective of this study is to discuss the factors that contribute to the stability
of road embankment on soft ground. Based on surveys through literature and some historical
cases, current studies have found that settlement, slope stability, and bearing capacity are
important factors for the stability of the road embankment. Therefore, it is clear that these
factors are contributors to road damage as evidenced by the findings of a historical case
investigation that has been reported by researchers [19-23]. However, an unexpected finding
was that soil properties and rainfall rates also contribute to this problem. The rainfall rate
depends on the weather conditions of the area or country. These two factors are the cause
of the occurrence of sediment, failure of bearing capacity, and slope failure. One of the

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issues emerging from this finding is that soft soil properties require a high cost for
improvement.
Furthermore, these soil properties also require the installation of instruments and
frequent lab and field tests during the design process. With the latest technology approaches
such as artificial intelligence, it no longer requires excessive testing in the field or laboratory
as it can predict the soil properties quickly and accurately. Artificial neural network (ANN),
adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) and support vector machines (SVM) are
artificial intelligence methods that are widely used today. Further work is required to
develop a road embankment stability prediction system that includes the key aspects of
settlement, soil bearing capacity, and slope stability based on soil properties.
The second objective of this study is to discuss the factors affecting the design of road
embankments. In this study, geometric data is found to have an important role in the design.
This is because geometric data such as embankment height, side slope, and crest width
should be determined before the analysis of stability is done. What is interesting from the
literature is that most researchers are more interested in investigating the height of the
embankment. Three types of embankment height have been previously reported, which are
critical [113, 124], safe [116], and reasonable height [117, 128]. However, most guidelines
issued by enforcement agencies in many countries emphasize that slopes and side loads need
to be complied with as stipulated. Most of the existing guidelines are limited regarding side
slope determination criteria based on the height of the embankment. This is an important
issue for future research to develop new guidance that has critical, safe, and reasonable side
slope criteria. Moreover, the relationship between crest width, side slope, and embankment
height may be investigated in the future to develop a standardized level or value range with
critical, safe, and reasonable criteria.
The final objective of this study is to discuss effective soft soil improvement techniques.
Based on literature and observations through some historical cases, preloading and
prefabricated vertical drains [136, 138] and geofoam as lightweight fill materials [145, 146]
are widely used today. The study found that both techniques are environmentally friendly.
However, both of these techniques require a long construction time. The preloading and
prefabricated vertical drains technique takes up 6-12 months for the soft ground to
consolidate. Installation of geofoam is very complicated and requires the construction of a
linked network that takes a long time. This problem can lead to cost implications for
construction. Thus, this is an important issue for future research and development.

6. CONCLUSION
The main goal of the current study was to review the challenges faced in the
construction of highway embankments on soft ground and suggest a direction for future
development. This study has found that, generally, there are two major challenges that
engineers need to face in the construction of road embankments on soft ground during the
stability design and selection of improvement techniques. It also found three factors that
engineers need to consider in the embankment stability analysis, i.e., bearing capacity,
settlement, and slope stability. However, these factors depend on ground properties, rainfall
rate, and earthquakes. Additionally, more significant findings in current studies have found
that research that has been reported on a side slope and crest width was limited compared to
the height of the embankment. Thus, future development studies need to be broadly
comprehensible on these three geometric data by considering criteria such as critical, safe,
and reasonable. In order to save construction time, this study found that the FEM approach
in determining settlement rates and slope stability is useful. The most obvious finding to

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emerge from this study is that preloading with PVDs and geofoam is widely applied as a
soft soil improvement technique as it is environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and saves
construction time. The findings from this study make several contributions to the current
literature. First, it extends our understanding of the latest issues in the construction of
embankments on soft ground. Secondly, it adds to a growing body of literature on road
embankment stability. Finally, it identifies the gap in previous studies for the development
of future studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thank the Centre of Engineering and Built Environment Education
Research (PeKA) and Smart and Sustainable Township Research Centre (SUTRA), Faculty
of Engineering at and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for providing
the facility for this research work. Besides, the appreciation also goes to the Ministry of
Education, Malaysia, for providing scholarships for the project. Moreover, we are grateful
to Politeknik Ungku Omar for providing the opportunity to perform this project.

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