Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 42 (2022) 102328

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Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/bab

Advances in xanthan gum production, modifications and

its applications
Iqra Mohiuddin Bhat a, Shoib Mohmad Wani a, b, Sajad Ahmad Mir a, F.A. Masoodi a, *
a
Department of Food Science & Technology, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar, J&K, 190006, India
b
Department of Biotechnology, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal Srinagar, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Xanthan gum, a microbial exopolysaccharide produced commercially by a gram-negative bac­

Xanthan gum terium Xanthomonas campestris. It is a branched heteropolysaccharide, comprising of penta­
Xanthomonas campestris saccharide units (D-glucose, D-mannose, and D-glucuronic acid residues in the molar ratio 2:2:1).
Exopolysaccharide Xanthan gum is an important industrial biopolymer having vast applications in the food, medical,
Biopolymer textile and oil industries. It has been used as a stabilizing, gelling, emulsifying and thickening
agent in various food and other industrial products. The wide applications of xanthan are
attributed to the unique physicochemical characteristics possessed by this gum. Xanthan gum
production from synthetic media is costly, therefore, several attempts have been made to produce
xanthan gum from agro-based and food industry wastes. However, their use is limited as of now.
Various factors influence the production, yield and properties of xanthan gum. It has been
modified by various technological approaches to enhance its physicochemical properties which
may widen its applications in drug delivery, tissue engineering and oil recovery. This review
mainly focuses on properties, production, recovery, applications and recent modifications of
xanthan gum.

1. Introduction
Gums are hydrogel polysaccharides having hydrophilic nature and show binding properties with several organic and inorganic
materials (Petri, 2015). Despite being hydrophilic, gums show insolubility in most organic solvents. Polysaccharides of microbial
origin are formed of repeated sugar units including glucose, fructose, mannose, etc. (Palaniraj and Jayaraman, 2011). Exopoly­
saccharides (EPS) are high molecular weight carbohydrate polymers, synthesized and excreted by microbial cells and were discovered
in the year 1950 (Borges et al., 2008). Exopolysaccharides have been found to cover the cell surface and possess various biological
functions like prevention from infection, adhesion, immune response, resistance to desiccation and also acts as information transfer
agents (Bazaka et al., 2011). Exopolysaccharides protect the microbial cells from external environmental factors like shocks, heat, pH,
etc. (de Mello Luvielmo et al., 2016). Dextran and xanthan are among the few bacterial exopolysaccharides which have been
commercialized (Kumar et al., 2007; Poli et al., 2011). In the early 1940s, the first microbial polysaccharide namely dextran was
marketed. The second microbial polysaccharide is xanthan and its demand has been increasing progressively, at an annual rate of
5–10% (Moshaf et al., 2014). Xanthan was commercially produced by CP Kelco under the trademark, Kelzan and it was accredited for
food use in 1968 (Petri, 2015). The estimated production of the gum is believed to be 30000 tons per year (Li et al., 2016). Since 2005,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (F.A. Masoodi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2022.102328
Received 26 October 2021; Received in revised form 15 March 2022; Accepted 16 March 2022
Available online 19 March 2022
1878-8181/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
I.M. Bhat et al. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 42 (2022) 102328

China has become one of the largest xanthan gum producers (Tao et al., 2012). The special pseudoplastic properties of xanthan gum are
due to its unique structure (Xin et al., 2015). Xanthan is mostly used in the food industry as a thickener and a suspension/emulsion
stabilizing agent (Nikbakht Nasrabadi et al., 2016). With the properties of being colorless, tasteless, odorless and has a smooth texture,
xanthan gum also shows some other tremendous properties like low viscosity at high shear rates and vice versa. It can also be
transformed to form a clear weak gel-like liquid which is applied in various industrial applications (Bak and Yoo, 2018). Xanthan was
found to be indigestible in humans and shows the better passage of food through the upper gastrointestinal tract by various digestibility
tests (Fan et al., 2008).
Xanthan gum with molecular formula (C35H49O29)n was discovered by Allene Rosalind Jeanes and her research team in the early
1960s at the Department of Agriculture. Xanthan gum is also known as corn sugar gum or xanthan and has the appearance of white or
light-yellow powder. The molecular weight of xanthan may vary from 2 × 106 to 20 × 106 Da depending on the association between
chains and aggregations of several individual chains. Molecular weight can be influenced by changes in fermentation conditions also
(García-Ochoa et al., 2000b).
Xanthan gum has unique properties of being non-toxic, water-soluble, biodegradable, biocompatible, thermally stable, immuno­
logical agent and stable over acidic and alkaline conditions (Bejenariu et al., 2009; Kumar et al., 2018). Due to its property of making
the highly viscous solutions even at low concentrations, xanthan gets its name as “xanthan gum”. Xanthan is believed to show high
solubility in both cold and hot water due to the dissociation of polymer and release of electrolytes in the aqueous solution (poly­
electrolyte nature) (Born et al., 2002, 2005).
Based on the toxicology tests in human food, xanthan has been stated as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the US Food and
Drug Administration (Soccol et al., 2013). Since being non-toxic, non-sensitizing and not causing any irritation, xanthan has been
approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the use of a food additive without any application limit (Bueno et al.,
2013; Feng et al., 2014). The major producers of xanthan gum are Merck and Pfizer in the US; Rhone Poulenc, Mero- Rousselot-Santia,
and Sanofi-Elf in France; Saidy Chemical in China, and Jungbunzlauer in Austria (Casas et al., 2000). In India, there are no reports on
the production of xanthan gum however, manufacturers, importers and exporters of xanthan gum trademark products are Lucid
Colloids Ltd (Kuppuswami, 2014), Ace Gum Inds Pvt Ltd, Chimique (India) Pvt Ltd, Hindustan Gum and Chemicals Ltd, Jai Bharat Gum
and Chemicals Ltd and KC India Ltd (entrepreneurindia.co/project-and-profile-details/Xanthan%20Gum). Xanthan gum is produced
by Xanthomonas spp. such as Xanthomonas campestris, Xanthomonas pelargonii, Xanthomonas phaseoli and Xanthomonas malvacearum
during aerobic fermentation (Leela and Sharma, 2000). Among xanthomonas species X. campestris is commercially used for xanthan
gum production and is widely studied (Candido da Silva et al., 2017). X. campestris is a plant pathogen that can infect many plants,
including some important crops like cabbage, alfalfa and beans (García-Ochoa et al., 2000b). Members of the Xanthomonas species are
single straight rod-shaped, Gram-negative, 0.4–0.7 μm wide and 0.7–1.8 μm long (Saddler and Bradbury, 2015).

Fig. 1. Primary structure of Xanthan Gum adapted from (Petri, 2015).

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I.M. Bhat et al. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 42 (2022) 102328

Xanthan market is expected to grow at the rate of 4.5% between 2019 and 2024 and will reach a valuation of 1.2 billion USD
(https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/xanthan-gum-market-748). China and Australia are the main exporters of xanthan
gum. Xanthan gum production needs to be enhanced at a pilot scale to meet the current demands. The major hurdle in the xanthan
production is the cost of production. Therefore, different food industry wastes and agricultural wastes have been used as alternative
low-cost substrates (Gunasekar et al., 2014). A similar strategy has been applied in the case of another biopolymer like pullulan (Wani
et al., 2021). Agro-based wastes and lignocellulosic biomass have proved to be cost-effective substrates for microbial glucan pro­
duction (Abdeshahian et al., 2021; da Silva et al., 2018; Wani et al., 2021). Further, the improvement in strains producing xanthan
needs to be done to enhance production. Mutation selection and genetic transformation of strains are such approaches to improve
strains. This review aims to provide an overview of the properties, biosynthesis, production, applications and modifications of xanthan
gum.

2. Structure and chemistry

Xanthan gum is a heteropolysaccharide consisting of a long chain of repeated pentasaccharide units of glucose, mannose and
glucuronic acid in the molar ratio of 2:2:1(Fig. 1). The main chain consists of β-D-glucose units linked at the 1 and 4 positions,
mimicking the cellulose structure, while the trisaccharide side chain contains a D-glucuronic acid unit between two D-mannose units
linked to alternate glucose unit in the main chain (Jansson et al., 1975). A pyruvic acid residue is linked to the terminal D-mannose unit,
while an acetyl group is linked to the D-mannose unit that is attached to the main chain (Rosalam and England, 2006). Xanthan shows
anionic nature due to the presence of this acetic acid and pyruvic acid moieties (Sandford and Baird, 1983). The stability of xanthan is
affected by the primary structure of the xanthan chains and the type of functional group at the outer mannose unit (acetyl or pyruvyl)
with more acetylation leads to more stability (Kool et al., 2014). Pyruvic acid and acetyl concentration depend on the microbial species
used and other fermentation conditions (Infee Sherley and Priyadharshini, 2015; Kool et al., 2013). The media supplemented with
citric acid will result in higher production of pyruvic acid moieties (Jana and Ghosh, 1999). The pyruvyl concentration influences the
viscosity of solutions thus plays an important role in different food applications. More pyruvyl content is required for gel formation
while low content yields low viscous solutions (Petri, 2015). The content of the functional groups in the xanthan molecule varies with
the microbial strain, media components, operation conditions, and conformational changes (García-Ochoa et al., 2000b; Li and Feke,
2015). The degree of substitution for pyruvate is usually 30–40% and for acetyl groups is 60–70% (Thacker et al., 2010). Upon thermal
treatment of the solutions, the native structure of xanthan changes to disordered conformation. Cooling recovers the ordered helical
structure again, but complete recovery of the ordered structure is not possible as the exact pairing is not fully restored (Jeanes et al.,
1961). Xanthan produces solutions that show non-newtonian and pseudoplastic or shear-thinning characteristics, thus with an increase
in shear rate, the solution becomes less viscous (Katzbauer, 1998). The shear-thinning behavior of xanthan gum solutions is believed
because of the configuration of the xanthan molecules (Cuvelier and Launay, 1986). Shearing force reduces the extent of aggregation
resulting in a lower viscous solution. The pseudoplastic nature enhances sensory qualities like flavor release and mouthfeel in food
products and increases the mixing, pumping and pouring capacity (Katzbauer, 1998).
The 3D structure of xanthan is responsible for its characteristics like suspensions and emulsions as a stabilizer (Katzbauer, 1998).
Salt plays an important role in stabilizing the ordered configuration of xanthan, which in turn stabilizes the polymer. Therefore, the salt
concentration is another factor needed for the efficient function of xanthan gum (Pastor et al., 1994). Xanthan gum solutions have
strong recrystallization stability due to their air binding force. Xanthan gum is considered a powerful organic gum in the world as it
shows great thickening, emulsification/suspension property and stability (Zahidah Nordin et al., 2020).

3. Xanthan biosynthesis
Exopolysaccharide synthesis by any Gram-negative bacteria is similar to xanthan gum synthesis by Xanthomonas campestris. The
synthetic pathway shows the following sequence: taking up of simple sugars, their conversion to nucleotide derivatives, assimilation of
monosaccharide subunits, assembly of pentasaccharide sub-units attached to an isopentyl pyrophosphate carrier, polymerization of
pentasaccharide repeated units and their secretion (Alkhateeb et al., 2016; Donot et al., 2012; Freitas et al., 2011; Ielpi et al., 1993;
Schmid et al., 2015; Vorhölter et al., 2008). The xanthan backbone is formed by sequential additions of D-glucose-1-phosphate and
D-glucose from 2 moles of uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-D-glucose). After that D-mannose and D-glucuronic acid residues are added
from guanosine diphosphate mannose (GDP-mannose) and uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid (UDP glucuronic acid) respectively.
Acetyl-CoA transfers the O-acetyl groups to the internal mannose residue and phosphoenolpyruvate transfers the pyruvate to the
terminal mannose. Specific substrates and enzymes are required in each step and their absence may block the synthetic pathway
(Palaniraj and Jayaraman, 2011). During the assimilation of the monosaccharide subunits, pentasaccharide repeating units are formed
from glucose, mannose and glucuronic acid in a molar ratio of 2:2:1 (Harding et al., 1993; Vorhölter et al., 2008). Genes GumD, GumM,
GumH, GumK and GumI encode enzymes required for the synthesis of repeating sugar units (Ielpi et al., 1993; Vorhölter et al., 2008).
Glucose is used as a substrate for the synthesis of UDP-glucose, UDP-glucuronic acid and GDP-mannose which are the sugar nucleotide
precursors and the building blocks of the pentasaccharide repeating units of xanthan. The bacterial genome consists of genes directing
synthesis, polymerization, and export of a specific polysaccharide (Becker et al., 1998; Lopes et al., 2015). The genes involved in the
synthesis of common nucleotide precursors are uncoupled from the specific biosynthesis gene clusters. The genome of X. campestris
consists of a gene cluster that encodes glycosyltransferases, enzymes catalyzing the addition of non-sugar units and proteins involved
in the terminal steps of xanthan gum biosynthesis (Becker, 2015; Becker et al., 1998; Katzen et al., 1996). The predominant mechanism
for glucose catabolism in X. campestris is the Entner–Doudoroff pathway in conjunction with the tricarboxylic acid cycle pathway. A
small portion of glucose is routed through the pentose phosphate pathway. Therefore, two discrete systems exist for glucose uptake.

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I.M. Bhat et al. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 42 (2022) 102328

4. Xanthan production
Xanthan is believed to be produced as a response mechanism to external environmental stress conditions. Apart from its role in the
longevity of cells, it shows a major function in the immunology of microbial cells in host plant tissue (Becker, 2015; Donot et al., 2012).
For the production process, Xanthomonas campestris is first cultured in a well-aerated and well-agitated fermenter. The medium is
provided with a carbohydrate source, such as glucose or sucrose, a suitable nitrogen source and nutrient salts. The xanthan yield and
the structure of gum produced depend on the operational and environmental conditions (García-Ochoa et al., 2000b). The growth of
bacterial cells and gum production is affected by several factors including the type of fermenter used, operation mode (batch or
continuous) and dissolved oxygen concentration (Rosalam et al., 2008). Besides these, other factors including the concentration of
medium components mainly carbon and nitrogen, processing parameters such as inoculum size, temperature, pH, agitation and
aeration rate as well as impeller type used also affect the production (Zahidah Nordin et al., 2020). By the completion of the
fermentation process, the production medium contains the produced xanthan gum, microbial residues and many other chemical
agents. The bacterial cells are first removed, either by heat treatment or by other methods like centrifugation or filtration. Precipitation
must be done for further purification using organic solvents like ethanol, isopropanol, and acetone, with the addition of certain salts
and pH adjustments. After precipitation, the product is mechanically dewatered, dried and packaged (Katzbauer, 1998). A flowchart
describing the steps involved in xanthan gum production is depicted in Fig. 2.
Several low-cost substrates and nutrients have been used for the industrial-scale production of xanthan gum. Carbohydrate sources
like sucrose, sugarcane molasses and whey have been successfully used in the production medium (Silva et al., 2009). Whey provides
adequate nitrogen and some other growth factors. A high carbon to nitrogen ratio is required for the efficient conversion of carbon
sources to the required polysaccharide production. Mostly batch cultivation with complex media is preferred for efficient gum pro­
duction. For the uniform production of xanthan, the stock culture having the microbial source should be maintained properly.
Polysaccharide accumulation starts initially during the growth phase and continues after growth. The pH falls during the fermentation
process due to the formation of organic acids. It is necessary to control the fermentation medium at the optimum pH of 7.0, a fall in pH
below 5.0 reduces the gum formation sharply, so using a buffer or addition of base during the process helps to maintain the pH (Gumus
et al., 2010; Kerdsup et al., 2011; Psomas et al., 2007; Silva et al., 2009).

Fig. 2. Flowchart describing the steps involved in the production of xanthan gum.

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I.M. Bhat et al. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 42 (2022) 102328

Table 1
Xanthan gum production from different wastes.

Microbial strain Substrate Fermentation Yield References

conditions

X. campestris PTCC1473 Date extract Inoculum- 5% 11.2 g/L (Khosravi-Darani

Temperature- 28 ◦ C et al., 2011)
Stirring rate- 200 rpm
Time- 72h
X. campestris NRRL B-1459 Date juice palm Inoculum- 5% 24.5 g/L (Salah et al., 2011)
Temperature- 28 ◦ C pH-
7
Stirring rate-180 rpm
Time- 48h
X. campestris MTCC 2286 Sugarcane Inoculum- 5% 12.23 g/L (acidified (Murugesan et al.,
molasses Temperature- 30 ◦ C pH- aerated sugarcane 2012)
7 molasses)
Time- 48h 10.3 g/L (acidified
sugarcane molasses)
X. campestris mangiferaeindicae 2103 Crude glycerin Inoculum- 20% 5.59 g/L (De Jesus Assis et al.,
biodiesel Temperature- 28 ◦ C pH- 2014)
7
Aeration rate- 0.5 to 1.5
Stirring rate- 300 to 700
rpm
Time- 120h
Xanthomonas campestris pv. manihotis 1182, Aqueous shrimp Inoculum- 10% 2.64 g/L (2% shrimp shell (Costa et al., 2014)
Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris 629 & 254 shell extract Temperature- 28 ◦ C pH- extract) by 1182 strain
strains 7
Stirring rate- 250 rpm
Time- 120h
X. campestris PTCC1473 Second-grade date Inoculum- 5% 6.51 g/L (Moshaf et al., 2014)
palm Temperature-30 ◦ C
Stirring rate- 250 rpm
Time- 48h
X. campestris PTCC1473 Cheese whey Inoculum- 5% 16.4 g/L (Niknezhad et al.,
X. pelargonii PTCC1474 Temperature- 28 ◦ C pH- 2015)
7
Aeration rate-Stirring
rate- 250 rpm
Time- 48h
X. campestris CCTCC M2015714 (mutant strain of Glycerol, crude Inoculum- 10% 11.0 g/L (by glycerol) (Z. Wang et al., 2016)
X. campestris NRRL B-1459) glycerol Temperature- 30 ◦ C pH- 7.9 g/L (by crude glycerol)
7
Aeration rate- 0.4 vvm
Stirring rate- 600 rpm
Time- 90h
X. campestris LRELP-1 Kitchen waste Inoculum- 10% 11.73 g/L (Li et al., 2016)
hydrolysate Temperature- 30 ◦ C pH-
7
Aeration rate- 1 vvm
Stirring rate- 300 rpm
Time- 120h
X. campestris NCIM 2961 Jackfruit seed Inoculum- 5% 51.62 g/L (Felicia Katherine
powder Temperature- 37 ◦ C pH- et al., 2017)
7
Aeration rate-Stirring
rate- 120 rpm
Time- 72h
X. campestris (BeNa culture collection, China) Orange peels Inoculum- 10% 30.19 g/L (Mohsin et al., 2018)
Temperature- 30 ◦ C pH-
7
Aeration rate- 1vvm
Stirring rate- 300 to 400
rpm
Time- 72h
Xanthomonas campestris ATCC 13951 Winery Inoculum- 10% 24.18 g/L (Rončević et al., 2019)
wastewater Temperature- 29.34 ◦ C
pH- 6.5 to 7.5
Aeration rate- 1.95 vvm
Stirring rate- 475.50
rpm
Time- 96h

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I.M. Bhat et al. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 42 (2022) 102328

5. Factors affecting xanthan gum production

5.1. Organism and substrate
Xanthan gum is produced by the bacterium X. Campestris a gram negative bacteria which shows yellowish color on colonization
(Ryan et al., 2011). The gum production to a greater extent is determined by the microorganisms strain, each strain using a different
amount of substrate and thus influencing the sugar sequence, linkages and functional group incorporation of the polysaccharide
(Becker, 2015; Becker et al., 1998; García-Ochoa et al., 2000b; Ielpi et al., 1993). The most predominantly required nutrients for the
production of xanthan gum are the proper carbon source, nitrogen source and minerals including phosphorus, calcium, magnesium,
potassium and iron and some amino acids (Casas et al., 2000; García-Ochoa et al., 2000a; Hublik, 2012; Lopes et al., 2015). Xanthan
production is fairly expensive because of the costly media preparations and purification processes (Infee Sherley and Priyadharshini,
2015). The use of synthetic substrate constituents like sucrose and glucose cost around 400–600 USD/metric tons (Gunasekar et al.,
2014). The culture medium contributes 20–30% of the total production cost, therefore the use of proper media and cheap substrate can
lower the costs and lead to the production of a higher quality gum which is required for food and drug applications (Borges and
Vendruscolo, 2008; Casas et al., 2000; García-Ochoa et al., 1998; Khosravi-Darani et al., 2011). Various agro-industrial wastes have
been used as a substrate to reduce the production cost of xanthan such as citrus waste, carob extract, olive-mill waste waters, waste
sugar-beet pulp, corn steep liquor, apple juice residue, vegetable leftovers, whey permeates, etc. (Bardone et al., 2016; Infee Sherley
and Priyadharshini, 2015). Xanthan gum production from various wastes is shown in Table 1.

5.2. Carbon source

Various macronutrients are required for the cell growth of microorganisms during the production of xanthan gum and carbon
source is one of these macronutrients (Zahidah Nordin et al., 2020). Sucrose and glucose are mostly used as commercial carbon sources
for large-scale xanthan production (Murad et al., 2019). The optimum carbon concentration in xanthan production is about 2–4%,
lower or higher concentration of carbon source leads to inhibition of growth (Funahashi et al., 1987; Kuppuswami, 2014; Niknezhad
et al., 2014). Sucrose is mostly preferred for xanthan gum production. Other commercial substrates such as xylose, galactose, and
lactose may also be used but the yield is low because of the inability of bacteria to utilize these substrates. X. campestris is devoid of the
enzyme β-galactosidase, which ferments lactose and therefore produces a low level of xanthan in media containing lactose as the
carbon source. A high level of the C/N ratio is believed to enhance the production of xanthan (Murad et al., 2019). Glucose produces
the highest yield of 14.744 g/l, followed by sucrose which yields 13.234 g/l (Leela and Sharma, 2000). Xanthomonas metabolize
glucose using the Entner–Doudoroff pathway in conjunction with the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle pathway (Palaniraj and Jayara­
man, 2011).

5.3. Nitrogen source

Nitrogen sources can be categorized as organic and inorganic and act as vital macronutrients needed in submerged fermentation of
xanthan production (Souw and Demain, 1979; Vuyst et al., 1987; Zahidah Nordin et al., 2020). Organic ones are inexpensive compared
to inorganic ones. Organic sources may include peptone, yeast extract, corn steep liquor and soybean meal and inorganic can be
derived from ammonium or nitrate salts (Zahidah Nordin et al., 2020). Yeast extract and peptone, belonging to the organic sources are
most conducive for xanthan production (Bhatia et al., 2015; Chavan and Baig, 2016). Among inorganic sources, ammonium salts are
considered a better substrate for biomass accumulation, whereas, for maximum gum yields, nitrate is preferred (Letisse et al., 2001). It
was reported that to obtain the highest gum production, the carbon to nitrogen ratio should be controlled in the cell growth and gum
production phase. High nitrogen source concentration means high biomass yield (Rosalam et al., 2008; Souw and Demain, 1979; Vuyst
et al., 1987). However, many studies have shown that extreme nitrogen source concentration which is used for cell growth and enzyme
production was not useful for xanthan production (Farhadi et al., 2012; Khosravi-Darani et al., 2011; Moshaf et al., 2014). In the initial
stages of the fermentation process, high nitrogen levels encouraged rapid cell growth, whereas later in the process, nitrogen levels are
allowed to fall. From an economic and quality point of view, it saves raw material and provides purer product respectively. Controlling
nitrogen levels promote bacteria production and quicken xanthan gum synthesis (Kuppuswami, 2014).

5.4. Effect of temperature

Temperature also plays an important role in the efficient production of xanthan gum. Temperature variation mainly during the
growth of fermenting microorganisms affects the production. The optimum temperature for maximum yield production was found to
be in the range of 28–30 ◦ C (Borges and Vendruscolo, 2008; García-Ochoa et al., 2000b; Gumus et al., 2010; Kerdsup et al., 2011;
Murad et al., 2019; Psomas et al., 2007; Silva et al., 2009). It was reported that optimal temperature for growth of microorganism and
gum production show slight variation with 25–27 ◦ C for growth of X. campestris and 25–30 ◦ C for xanthan gum production (Infee
Sherley and Priyadharshini, 2015; Murad et al., 2019). Temperature difference during cultivation affects the structural composition
leading to a change in state from ordered to disordered, thus changing the viscosity of the gum also. It was also found that the gum
production may increase between the temperature range of 25–35 ◦ C, however further increase may cause reverse effect and reduce
the production of biomass as well as xanthan gum production (Chavan and Baig, 2016; Infee Sherley and Priyadharshini, 2015).
Elevated temperatures to around 34 ◦ C during xanthan gum production affect the molecular conformation of gum, producing xanthan
with low acetate and pyruvate contents and low average molecular weight, thus giving low viscous aqueous solutions (Casas et al.,
2000). At a low temperature of 25 ◦ C, xanthan gum with high acetate content and a high average molecular weight was synthesized,
producing solutions with high viscosity (Lopes et al., 2015). It was also concluded that the optimal temperature for xanthan production
depends on the production medium used (Shu and Yang, 1990).

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I.M. Bhat et al. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 42 (2022) 102328

5.5. Effect of pH
The pH shows the prominent effect on xanthan production as it affects the charge density of the gum thus changing the molecular
association between xanthan molecules, resulting in different properties of the gum viscosity (Murad et al., 2019; Rinaudo and Moroni,
2009). The optimum pH for X. campestris growth ranges from 6 to 7.5 and the optimum pH for the xanthan production ranges from 7 to
8 (Esgalhado et al., 1995). Xanthomonas cultivation can be done at a neutral pH (García-Ochoa et al., 1996). For the efficient pro­
duction of xanthan gum, the pH control in the range from 6.0 to 8.0, with the use of alkali such as KOH, NaOH, or (NH)4OH was
preferred (Esgalhado et al., 1995; García-Ochoa et al., 2000a; Liakopoulou-Kyriakides et al., 1997). pH between 6.0 and 7.0 and a
temperature range of 25–27 ◦ C was seen to favor the bacterial growth, while pH around 8.0 and temperature 30 ◦ C was found to
enhance xanthan gum production and its viscosity. Controlled pH was seen to enhance the growth of the microorganism without
having any major effect on the gum production (García-Ochoa et al., 2000a; Infee Sherley and Priyadharshini, 2015; Palaniraj and
Jayaraman, 2011). The viscosity of xanthan solutions was found to remain unaffected in the pH range of 1–13. At a basic pH of 9 or
more, xanthan is seen to lose acetyl groups (Tako and Nakamura, 1984), while at pH lower than 3, xanthan loses the pyruvic acid acetyl
groups (Bradshaw et al., 1983). Studies on the effect of alkali stress on xanthan yield and properties concluded that alkali stress in­
creases gum production as a protective mechanism in adverse conditions (de Mello Luvielmo et al., 2016). The pH may decrease to
around 5.0 during the fermentation process due to the presence of acid groups in the xanthan molecule leading to a decrease in
productivity (Borges et al., 2008; García-Ochoa et al., 2000b).

5.6. Stirrer speed and aeration rate

Xanthomonas compestris is an aerobic microorganism, therefore the stirrer speed and aeration rate are very important in the pro­
duction of xanthan gum. As the xanthan production increases, the oxygen mass transfer rate decreases due to the extracellular
deposition of xanthan (García-Ochoa et al., 2000a). There is also an increase in viscosity of culture media leading to a reduction in the
aeration rate of media and thus disturbing its uniformity and nutrient distribution (Palaniraj and Jayaraman, 2011). Several studies
revealed that dissolved oxygen rate is directly proportional to xanthan gum production (García-Ochoa et al., 2000a). The aerobic
nature of Xanthomonas makes it necessary to have a high oxygen level in media for the efficient activity of microorganisms and thus
more gum production (Donot et al., 2012; Freitas et al., 2011). So it becomes necessary to have a check on the airflow rate and stirrer
speed as it eventually affects the gum production (Borges et al., 2008). Moreover too high aeration speed is required to fulfill more
dissolved oxygen requirements which may result in cell damage due to the hydrodynamic stress and thus reduction in gum production.
The problem can be solved by optimizing the mixing conditions (Freitas et al., 2011; Lopes et al., 2015). Thus for efficient production of
gum, the stirrer speed conditions should be kept optimal as high speed may lead to cell damage (Infee Sherley and Priyadharshini,
2015) and reduced stirring speeds may limit the oxygen level, both cases resulting in low gum production (Amanullah et al., 1998). The
higher stirring rates have a more conductive effect on xanthan production than the fermentation time. An agitation rate of 1000 rpm at
50 h of fermentation period delivered the highest production (Amanullah et al., 1998). A novel fermentation technique has been
successfully applied in the laboratory using hydrogen peroxide as an oxygen source to overcome gas-liquid mass transfer resistance in
the xanthan gum fermentation medium (Subhash et al., 2015).

5.7. Fermentation time and mode of operation

The time required in the fermentation process is in direct relation with the cell growth dynamics and availability of substrate to be
converted during the process (Gilani et al., 2011; Letisse et al., 2001). Independent of other fermentation conditions, the average
molecular weight of gum along with pyruvyl and acetyl concentration tends to increase with increasing time of fermentation (Casas
et al., 2000; Psomas et al., 2007; Shu and Yang, 1990; Tait et al., 1986). As soon as the substrate is consumed completely and the cell
decline phase arrives, the process comes to an end, so to maximize the fermentation time and production synthesis, continuous
fermentation is preferred (Seviour et al., 2011). Several studies have shown that optimizing other fermentation conditions like
bioreactor, strain and substrate type used, high gum yield can be achieved independent of fermentation time (Zahidah Nordin et al.,
2020).
Both batch or continuous fermentation can be applied for xanthan production. Batch-scale fermentation gives high efficiency
(75–80%) of the substrate to gum conversion but the time taken is more than 2 days (Rosalam and England, 2006; Vuyst et al., 1987).
During this time of the fermentation process, the viscosity increment may cause disturbance in oxygen level and nutrient accessibility
(Infee Sherley and Priyadharshini, 2015). Also, the alteration in external environmental conditions during the whole fermentation
process time may arise unfavorable conditions for production (Rosalam and England, 2006).
To avoid the problems arising in a batch process, continuous fermentation can be used as an alternative (Vuyst et al., 1987). In the
later process, there is a constant flow of culture medium through the reactor to achieve optimization and continuous nutrient
availability (Infee Sherley and Priyadharshini, 2015; Rosalam and England, 2006). The substrate to gum conversion rate is found to be
60–70% in continuous fermentation (Becker et al., 1998). A study conducted by P. Prasertsan et al. (2008) on suitable parameters for
exopolysaccharide production concluded that batch cultivation gave better results than the continuous or fed-batch mode in
laboratory-scale. Sucrose was preferred over glucose as a carbon source and an optimum temperature of 30 ◦ C and neutral pH were
reported for maximum yield of gum (Prasertsan et al., 2008). Despite the great use of continuous cultures in industries due to high
substrate conversion rate and maximum cell production, it shows several disadvantages also which include difficulty in constant setup
maintenance and risk of contamination which can cost loss of huge product volume (Infee Sherley and Priyadharshini, 2015).

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5.8. Production enhancers

Citrate is found to enhance xanthan production independent of the required pH range. Pyruvate content in xanthan shows a great
effect on polymer performance. As concluded by some authors, increasing nitrogen concentration enhances pyruvilation degree
particularly if an organic nitrogen source was used (Palaniraj and Jayaraman, 2011). (NH4)2HPO4 was the most preferred nitrogen
source for increasing the pyruvate content in a study (Cadmus et al., 1978). The addition of corn steep liquor at 1g per ltr increases the
yield and viscosity of xanthan gum produced, also shortens the cultivation time and promoting more sugar utilization (Molina et al.,
1993). It was reported that using organic acids in the growth medium stimulates xanthan production by Xanthomonas species (Shehni
et al., 2011). The addition of citric acid as chelating agents prevents salt precipitation during heat sterilization which in turn improves
xanthan productivity. The addition of acetic acid can improve xanthan solubility in the solution, as acetic acid is weak carboxylic acid
and xanthan is soluble in it (Shehni et al., 2011). Salts may be added to the production media before undergoing thermal treatment as
the addition of salt maximizes stability and minimizes any adverse effect on xanthan conformation (Lutfi et al., 2019; Reinoso et al.,
2019).

6. Applications of xanthan gum

Xanthan gum produced by Xanthomonas campestris has diverse industrial applications (Nwodo et al., 2012). The main applications
of xanthan are associated with its outstanding characteristics, such as its high viscosity at low concentrations; high solubility in hot and
cold water; viscoelastic behavior; resisting power to enzymatic degradation; high stability in a wide range of pH, temperature and salt
solutions; its interaction with other polymers (Faria et al., 2011; Hublik, 2012), and also due to its simple processing mechanism. The
special helical arrangement of the xanthan molecule imparts exceptional properties to it like its extravagant pseudoplastic nature and
immediate recovery which enhances its use in many areas such as in the industrial, biomedical engineering and agricultural fields (Abu
Elella et al., 2019; Habibi and Khosravi-Darani, 2017; Petri, 2015). Industrial applications include areas such as foods, pharmaceutical
preparation, personal care, oil industry, textile industry, wastewater treatment and water-based paints. Due to its superior rheological
properties xanthan is used as a rheological control agent in aqueous systems and as a stabilizer, thickener, or emulsifier for emulsions
and suspensions (Prajapati et al., 2013; Roberts, 1996). Xanthan has been used as a thickening agent in toothpaste and other products
to keep them thick. It is also used in cosmetics, cleaning products, coating and paints. The leading application of xanthan gum is in
controlled drug delivery systems in the pharma industries (Infee Sherley and Priyadharshini, 2015). Xanthan is used mainly as a
suspending agent, viscosity maintenance, gel formation, and flocculation, in both food and non-food applications (Kuppuswami,
2014). In the agriculture sector, flow behavior in fungicides, herbicides and insecticides has been improved by the addition of xanthan
to uniformly suspend solid components in formulations (DeAngelis, 2012). In barley cultivars, xanthan gum has been used as an
elicitor along with fungicides to control barley spot blotch caused by Bipolaris sorokiniana (Antoniazzi and Deschamps, 2006). Ability

Fig. 3. Applications of Xanthan gum.

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I.M. Bhat et al. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 42 (2022) 102328

to disperse and hydrate rapidly as well as non-pollution and good color yield, xanthan has ensured its use in jet injection and printing.
Xanthan gum has been included in the formulation of new generation thermo-set coatings because of its environment-friendly nature.
The petroleum industry also uses xanthan gum in oil drilling, fracturing and pipeline cleaning (Roberts, 1996). The various industrial
applications of xanthan gum are shown in Fig. 3.

6.1. Food applications

The major application for xanthan gum in the food industry is that it acts as an emulsifier/stabilizer and thickening/gelling agent in
a variety of products such as juice, fruit pulp, powder beverages, dressings, chocolates, desserts, jellies, dairy products, margarine,
yogurt, bakery products, frozen foods, sauces and gravies. US Food and Drug administration (FDA) have permitted xanthan gum
according to toxicological studies for use in food. Xanthan gum improves the texture, viscosity, appearance, water-holding, flavor
releasing like properties in food and shows a non-Newtonian property that exhibits a good pseudoplastic behavior thus improving the
rheology of the final products (Infee Sherley and Priyadharshini, 2015; Lee, 1996; Rosalam and England, 2006). Xanthan gum is used
as a gelling agent in bakery products (0.05–0.03%), salad dressings (0.1–0.5%) and prepared foods (0.1–0.3%) to increase the
water-binding properties. Also, xanthan has been added to gluten-free baked goods due to the elasticity it offers to the dough (Infee
Sherley and Priyadharshini, 2015; Petri, 2015). In the food formulations the content of xanthan gum ranges from 0.05 to 0.7 wt%
(Zhou et al., 2014) and it is generally used in combination with guar and locust bean gums (galactomannans) to increase the desired
properties and to reduce the production cost (Katzbauer, 1998; Sworn, 2010). Xanthan gives less “gummy mouthfeel” during chewing
than other gums due to its pseudoplastic properties in solutions (Candido da Silva et al., 2017; Palaniraj and Jayaraman, 2011).
Xanthan used in food undergoes various pH changes and variations in ionic strength and the food components may also influence these
variations (Freitas et al., 2011). The long-term stability of xanthan in low pH conditions makes it a useful additive for acidic food
products, such as salad dressings and vinaigrettes (Sworn, 2010). Xanthan in the dressings influences its emulsion stability and
maintains its viscosity at different temperatures and also enhances its adhering property to the salad. The shear-thinning flow behavior
enhances the mixing, pumping and pouring property of industrially produced dressings and sauces (Fonseca et al., 2009; T. Wang et al.,
2016).
In beverages and squashes, xanthan gum enhances the long-term suspension of fruit pulp. This gives the drink an improved
mouthfeel with a full-bodied taste, homogeneity and good flavor release (Katzbauer, 1998). Patients with dysphagia often consume
cold beverages where xanthan gum is used as a thickening agent along with some other thickeners like carboxymethyl cellulose, guar
gum and dextrin. Xanthan increases the elastic property of beverages. Thus xanthan gum is used as a thickening agent in beverages and
creates strong interactions between ingredients in the drinks and itself (Cho and Yoo, 2015). Xanthan gum can be used in liquid animal
feed products as a stabilizer (Katzbauer, 1998). Because of its unique pseudoplastic and physicochemical properties which help in
film-forming, xanthan can be used in food packaging materials (Raschip et al., 2020; Rukmanikrishnan et al., 2020). Moreover, its
stability in both cold and hot water, consistency in viscosity at different temperatures and pH, makes it more useful in the manufacture
of packaging films (Nur Hazirah et al., 2016).

6.2. Personal care applications

Xanthan has also been used in personal care products like toothpaste, shampoos, creams and lotions to give them the right thickness
and steadiness, enhance their flow behavior, allow suspension of insoluble solid particles and give a stable creamy foam (Rosalam and
England, 2006). It is an excellent binder for all kinds of toothpaste, including gel and pumpable types. The shear-thinning properties of
xanthan gum improve the flow behavior of these products which makes their expulsion from tubes or pumps easy and also gives a
slushy and pleasant feel. It also gives a brilliant glassy look to the pastes, improves cord quality and secures their stable standing on the
brush (Katzbauer, 1998).

6.3. Pharmaceutical applications

Xanthan has been industrially used in various pharmaceuticals due to its distinctive physicochemical properties (Goswami and
Naik, 2014), acid resistance and biocompatible nature with a resemblance with biological system and synergism with other polymers.
It is used as a filling agent in tablets or as supporting hydrogels for drug release applications (Petri, 2015).
Xanthan gum stabilizes suspensions of a variety of insoluble materials such as barium sulfate (X-ray diagnosis), complexed dex­
tromethorphan (cough preparations) and thiabendazole. It maintains the homogeneity of liquid and prevents layering (Katzbauer,
1998; Palaniraj and Jayaraman, 2011). It is used as a cohesive agent in solid drug products and colon-specific drug delivery systems, as
a thickening, suspending, or stabilizing agent in liquid oral formulations (Ramasamy et al., 2011).

6.4. Oil industry

Another vital application of xanthan is in enhanced oil recovery due to its water control and suspension stabilization under extreme
conditions of temperature as well as high salt concentrations. Xanthan solutions are highly viscous even at low amounts of gum which
gives pseudo-plasticity to the solutions thus enhancing its oil recovery property. It helps in the extraction of oil from the small pores in
the pipes by pumping xanthan (Lachke, 2004). Also, it can be used in the petroleum industry in oil drilling, cleaning the pipes and
fracturing. The use of xanthan in drilling fluids as an additive is because of its stability to salt concentrations and protection against the
high thermal treatment (Katzbauer, 1998). Xanthan gum is used in the tertiary oil recovery process as thickened brine to remove the
residual oil from porous reservoir rock and secure good area sweeping (Lee, 1996). The use of xanthan in enhancing oil recovery
requires the removal of particles such as cells that could clog up the porous oil-bearing rock.

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7. Xanthan modifications
Xanthan is a great industrial biopolymer and is used in various industrial applications considering its interesting rheological
properties. Besides, the unique properties of xanthan gum, it shows some drawbacks in its physicochemical properties which lead to
the introduction of modifications in the gum to improve its physicochemical properties and increase its use in various food applications
(Kumar et al., 2009, 2018; Srivastava et al., 2009). The modifications become more possible due to the presence of a high number of
functional groups in the xanthan conformation which enhances different properties in the gum. Different modification approaches
have been utilized like chemical treatment, hydrogel synthesis, bio-nano composites. By these modifications, xanthan has found more
uses in vital applications such as specific drug delivery systems, wastewater treatment, antibacterial, oil industry and biomedical
engineering applications (Badwaik et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2020; Patel et al., 2020; Srivastava et al., 2009). Xanthan
gum has been modified chemically using some mainstream chemical methods such as carboxymethylation, cross-linking with
epichlorohydrin, glutaraldehyde and a method of grafting such as free radical, microwave-assisted, chemoenzymatic and
plasma-assisted chemicals (Anjum et al., 2015; Kadokawa et al., 2020; Kumar et al., 2017; Yahoum et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2017).
Hydrogels are identified as 3D polymeric structures tending to mix with water due to the presence of water-soluble groups in the
structural chains. These polymeric forms when added to water, absorbs and retains water and other biological fluids within them
without having any effect on the native configuration (Chyzy et al., 2020; Peppas and Khare, 1993). Natural or synthetic polymers can
be used in the production of hydrogels, with xanthan along with other polymers being the most widely used natural polymer in its
production (Kayra and Aytekin, 2019; Tanaka et al., 2005; Ullah et al., 2015). Xanthan hydrogels can be prepared by crosslinking
methods (chemical or physical) along with other natural and synthetic polymeric materials (Jayaramudu et al., 2017). The crosslinks
prevent the disintegration of polymer in the solution (Hennink and van Nostrum, 2012). Hence, hydrogels have been widely used in
various applications such as pharmaceutical, wastewater treatment, drug delivery, food industry and agriculture applications (Kayra
and Aytekin, 2019). Xanthan nanocomposites are other modified products helping improve the limitations of pure xanthan and thus
enhancing its use in different applications such as drug delivery and wastewater treatment. Hybrid polymeric nanocomposites, being
produced from merging nanofillers into the xanthan matrix are being used to enhance the inherent properties of xanthan gum. The
nanofillers used may be metal and metal oxides, nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, graphene, etc (Fu et al., 2019; Janaki et al., 2012).

8. Conclusion
Xanthan is the most commercially produced industrial gum. It is considered one of the most interesting biopolymers today and is
used for various applications because of its exceptional structural conformation, physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, non-
toxicity, biodegradability and abundance. The yield and properties of the product are influenced by the microbial strain used, the
growth medium and other environmental factors. Due to the rapid increase in the industrial production of xanthan gum, many studies
were carried out focusing on the improvement of microorganisms used, medium constitution and production conditions. The use of
synthetic substrates and recovery techniques are considered to be responsible for the high-cost production of gum. The recovery of the
product becomes difficult by the increasing viscosity of the broth. Xanthan has a wide range of applications in industrial sector, hence
various strategies are being utilized for efficient yield, cost-effective and large-scale production of xanthan gum such as agro-industrial
wastes as an alternative substrate, suitable fermentation conditions, production inducers, strains of microorganisms and effective
downstream processing. The biotechnological processes for the production of xanthan gum from cheap raw materials such as agro-
industrial wastes should be improved further to make them effective. Moreover, strain modifications can be harnessed to improve
yield. These approaches will be eco-friendly and economical. Also, modifications in the xanthan gum structure can lead to interesting
compounds with varied properties that can lead to new applications in the industrial sector.

Author credit role

Iqra Mohiuddin Bhat: Writing-original draft and review. Shoib Mohmad Wani: Writing-review and editing. Sajad Ahmad Mir:
Review and editing. F. A. Masoodi: Conceptualization, Supervision.

Funding
No funding has been received from any agency for the preparation of this manuscript.

Declaration of competing interest

Authors do not possess any conflict of interest with any agency or company.

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