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Math14 - Abstract Algebra Lecture Note: Lesson No. 2: Factor (Quotient) Groups

The document defines factor (quotient) groups and provides examples of constructing various factor groups. It discusses normal subgroups and the factor group G/H consisting of the cosets aH for all a in G. Examples show constructing the factor groups Z/4Z, (Z4 × Z2)/<(2,1)>, and D4/<ρ1>, along with their Cayley tables. Theorems regarding isomorphic factor groups involving Zn/d and Zn/<d> are also presented, along with an example of isomorphic groups. Worksheet problems ask to find the order of given factor groups, the order of elements, and isomorphic groups.

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Abegail Villanueva
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74 views

Math14 - Abstract Algebra Lecture Note: Lesson No. 2: Factor (Quotient) Groups

The document defines factor (quotient) groups and provides examples of constructing various factor groups. It discusses normal subgroups and the factor group G/H consisting of the cosets aH for all a in G. Examples show constructing the factor groups Z/4Z, (Z4 × Z2)/<(2,1)>, and D4/<ρ1>, along with their Cayley tables. Theorems regarding isomorphic factor groups involving Zn/d and Zn/<d> are also presented, along with an example of isomorphic groups. Worksheet problems ask to find the order of given factor groups, the order of elements, and isomorphic groups.

Uploaded by

Abegail Villanueva
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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MATH14 – ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Lecture Note

Lesson No. 2: Factor (Quotient) Groups

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. define factor (quotient) groups
2. solve problems involving factor (quotient) groups

Definition (Factor Group)


Let G be a group and let H be a normal subgroup of G . The set G / H =\{ aH ∨a ∈G \}
is a group under the operation ( aH ) ( bH )=abH .

Example: Construct the following factor group, if possible.


a. Z /4 Z
b. ( Z 4 × Z2 ) / ⟨ ( 2,1 ) ⟩
c. D 4 / ⟨ ρ1 ⟩

Solution:
a. Z /4 Z
The subgroup 4 Z=\{ … ,−8 ,−4 , 0 , 4 ,8 , … \} is normal (since the left and rights cosets
are equal). Its Cayley’s table below is shown below.

0+4 Z 1+4 Z 2+ 4 Z 3+ 4 Z
0+ 4 Z 0+4 Z 1+4 Z 2+ 4 Z 3+ 4 Z
1+4 Z 1+4 Z 2+ 4 Z 3+ 4 Z 0+ 4 Z
2+ 4 Z 2+ 4 Z 3+ 4 Z 0+ 4 Z 1+4 Z
3+ 4 Z 3+ 4 Z 0+ 4 Z 1+4 Z 2+ 4 Z

So, Z / 4 Z=\{ 0+4 Z ,1+ 4 Z , 2+4 Z , 3+4 Z \}, conveniently written as


Z / 4 Z=\{ 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 \} in terms of congruence class, has an order of 4. Note also that
Z / 4 Z ≅ Z 4.

0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 3 0 1
3 3 0 1 2
b. ( Z 4 × Z2 ) / ⟨ ( 2 , 1 ) ⟩
The elements of Z 4 × Z 2=\{ ( 0,0 ) , ( 0,1 ) , ( 1,0 ) , ( 1,1 ) , ( 2,0 ) , ( 2,1 ) , ( 3,0 ) , ( 3,1 ) \} (order 8).
The subgroup generated by ( 2,1 ) is given by ⟨ ( 2,1 ) ⟩ =\{ ( 2,1 ) , ( 0,0 ) \} of order 2 is normal
as shown below.

( 0 , 0 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩=\{ ( 2 ,1 ) , ( 0 , 0 ) \}=⟨ ( 2, 1 ) ⟩ +(0 , 0)


( 0 , 1 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ =\{ ( 2, 0 ) , ( 0 , 1 ) \}= ⟨ ( 2 , 1 ) ⟩ +(0 , 1)
( 1 , 0 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ =\{ (3 ,1 ) , (1 , 0 ) \}= ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩ +(1 , 0)
( 1 ,1 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩ =\{ ( 3 , 0 ) , (1 , 1 ) \}=⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ +(1 ,1)

The Cayley’s table for ( Z 4 × Z2 ) / ⟨ ( 2 , 1 ) ⟩ (of order 4) is shown in the next table. Note that
this is also isomorphic with Z 4

( 0 , 0 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩ ( 1 , 0 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ ( 0 , 1 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ ( 1 ,1 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩
( 0 , 0 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩ ( 0 , 0 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩ ( 1 , 0 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ ( 0 , 1 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ ( 1 ,1 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩
( 1 , 0 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ ( 1 , 0 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ ( 0 , 1 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ ( 1 ,1 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩ ( 0 , 0 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩
( 0 , 1 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ ( 0 , 1 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ ( 1 ,1 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩ ( 0 , 0 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩ ( 1 , 0 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩
( 1 ,1 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩ ( 1 ,1 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩ ( 0 , 0 ) + ⟨ ( 2 ,1 ) ⟩ ( 1 , 0 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩ ( 0 , 1 ) + ⟨ (2 , 1 ) ⟩

c. D 4 / ⟨ ρ1 ⟩
The elements of D 4 =\{ ρ0 , ρ1 , ρ2 , ρ3 , μ 1 , μ2 , δ 1 , δ 2 \} (order 8). Note that is not abelian.
The subgroup generated by ρ1 is given by ⟨ ρ1 ⟩ =\{ ρ0 , ρ 1 , ρ2 , ρ3 \} of order 2 is not normal
as shown below.

ρ0 ⋅ ⟨ ρ1 ⟩ =\{ ρ0 , ρ1 , ρ2 , ρ3 \}=⟨ ρ1 ⟩ ⋅ ρ 0
μ1 ⋅ ⟨ ρ1 ⟩=\{ μ1 , δ 2 , μ 2 , δ 1 \} ⟨ ρ1 ⟩ ⋅ μ1=\{ μ1 , δ1 , μ 2 , δ 1 \}

d. However, if we rewrite the table using rotations ( ρi ) and reflections ( μi or δ i), we get a
table that is isomorphic to Z2 . D 4 / ⟨ ρ1 ⟩ is of order 2.

ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 ρ3 μ1 μ2 δ 1 δ 2
ρ0 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 ρ 3 μ1 μ 2 δ 1 δ 2
ρ1 ρ1 ρ2 ρ3 ρ0 δ 1 δ 2 μ2 μ1
ρ2 ρ2 ρ3 ρ0 ρ 1 μ2 μ 1 δ 2 δ 1
ρ3 ρ3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ 2 δ 1 μ1 μ2
μ 1 μ 1 δ 2 μ2 δ 1 ρ0 ρ2 ρ3 ρ1
μ 2 μ2 δ 1 μ 1 δ 2 ρ2 ρ0 ρ1 ρ3
δ 1 δ 1 μ1 δ 2 μ 2 ρ1 ρ3 ρ0 ρ2
δ 2 δ 2 μ 2 δ 1 μ1 ρ3 ρ1 ρ2 ρ0

Theorem
+¿ ¿
Let n , d ∈ Z with d∨n.
 n Z ◁ d Z and ⟨ d ⟩ ◁ Z n
 d Z / n Z ≅ Zn / d
 Zn / ⟨d ⟩ ≅ Zd

Second and Third Isomorphism Theorems


Let G be a group.
 Let H ≤G and N ◁ G . Then, HN =\{ hn∨h∈ H ,n ∈ N \} is a subgroup of G , H ∩ N ◁ G ,
and H / ( H ∩ N ) ≅ HN / N .
 Let K and H be normal subgroups of G , with K ⊂G. Then, N / K ◁ G / K and
(G / K ) / (N / K ) ≅ G / N

Example: The following are isomorphic to each other.


a. Z / 3 Z and Z3
b. (Z / 12 Z)/(6 Z /12 Z), Z / 6 Z , Z6
WORKSHEET NO. 4

Directions: Solve the following problems completely.

1. Find the order of given factor group.


a. Z6 / ⟨ 3 ⟩
b. (Z ¿ ¿2 × Z 4 ) / ⟨ (1 , 1) ⟩ ¿
c. (Z ¿ ¿ 4 × Z 12) / (⟨ 2 ⟩ ×⟨ 2 ⟩) ¿
d. (Z ¿ ¿1 2 × Z18 )/ ⟨ (4 , 3) ⟩ ¿

2. Give the order of the element in the factor group.


a. 0+ 4 Z in Z12 / ⟨ 4 ⟩
b. 0+⟨ 12 ⟩ in Z60 /⟨ 12 ⟩
c. ( 2 , 0 ) + ⟨ ( 4 , 4 ) ⟩ in ( Z 6 × Z 8 ) / ⟨ ( 4 , 4 ) ⟩
d. ( 3 , 3 ) + ⟨ ( 1, 2 ) ⟩ in ( Z 4 × Z8 ) / ⟨ ( 1, 2 ) ⟩

3. Find a familiar group to which the given group is isomorphic. Hint: Consider the group order,
properties such as abelian and cyclic, group tables, orders of elements, etc.
a. Z /14 Z
b. 3 Z /12 Z
c. (Z ¿ ¿2 × Z 4 ) / ⟨ (0 , 2)⟩ ¿
d. (Z ¿ ¿ 4 × Z 8) / ⟨ (1 ,2) ⟩ ¿

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