Author: Manuj Notebook: History

Created: 24 June 2015 at 1:00:10 PM

Updated: 14 June 2021 at 4:00:35 PM

Important Sites, and the UNSECO World Heritage Sites —

India: MANUJ JINDAL IAS AIR 53
UNSECO World Heritage Sites in India

1. Agra Fort —built by Akbar

Jahangir Palace
Khas Mahal
Shish Mahal
Diwan-i-Khas
Diwan-i-Aam
Two mosques — Moti Masjid (Shah Jahan) and the Nagina Masjid
(Aurangzeb)
Musamman Burj (tower) — Shah Jahan died here
2. Ajanta Caves
30 caves
25 are viharas and 5 are chaityas
Dating around 2 c. BC to about 650 AD
Paintings on their walls are the most striking examples of ancient mural
Indian paintings
Only Buddhist, earlier caves from Hinayana phase of Buddhism (around the
Satavahanas time) and later ones from the Mahayan phase (around the
Vakataka time (300 AD - 400 AD), contemporaries of the Guptas).
A Chaityagriha at Ajanta caves:
 Dignaga — a controversial Buddhist monk lived in the Ajanta caves as per
Xuanzang, a Chinese scholar
Examples:
Reclining Buddha — Buddha in Mahiparinirbana (Grandest), and
assault of Mara on the same wall (sculpture on wall in stone)
Buddha is seated position, i.e., in Dharmachakrapravartana mudra in
the main Chaitya
Bodhisattava as a reliever of Eight Great Perils in Cave 4 (sculpture)
Paintings: Ruru Jataka, The pantings of Padmapani and
Vajrapani, Temptation of Mara and Depiction of Miracle of Srasvati
Indian Painting: Lepyachitras, lekhachitras and Dhulichitras. The first was the
representation of folklore, the second one was line drawing and painting on textile
while the third one was
painting on the floor.
Paintings Text: Buddhist text Vinayapitaka (4th BC - 3rd BC), play Mudraraksha (5th
c. AD), Kamasutra by Vatsyana, Vishnudharmottara purana (7th. c. AD) has section
called chitrasutra.
3. Ellora Caves
Locally known as “Verul Leni”
Brahmin (17) > Buddhist (12) > and Jaina (4) caves
Great Kailashnath Temple of the Rastrakutas excavated here.
Never lost unlike the Ajanta caves as they are located on an ancient trade
route.
Mentioned by Al-Masudi in the 10th c. AD
Sultan Hasan Gangu Bahmani also camped here in 1352 AD
Water Cisterns:
Each and every cave contains of provision for storing water by
harnessing it from the rain
Three storied complexes found in Ellora — unique “Teen thal"
Buddha in Bhumisparsa mudra. In front of this Buddha image is Sujata
offering Payasa , the episode reminding just before the events of the
Enlightenment Siddhartha before he became Buddha.
17 Brahmanical caves:
Abode of Ravana or Ravana ki khai (Cave 14)
Walls consists of mahisasur mardini (the slaying of the buffalo-
demon)
Lord Shiva as Nataraja performing the celestial dance
Ravana shaking Mt. Kailasa
Gajasamhara murti — Shiva slaying the elephant demon
Varaha
Durga
Sarasvati
Many more
Das avatar or ten incarnations of Vishnu (Cave 15)
Many hindu gods including Shiva, Parvati, Surya, Durga etc.
The Kailashnath Temple (Cave 16)
Largest cave excavation in India and probably the world.
Rashtrakutas, Krishna I
Rameshwara (Cave 21)
Dedicated to lord Shiva
 Dumar Lena
Near the Sita-ki-nahani or a pool created by a waterfall in the
Elaganga
Various episodes connected to Lord Shiva — Ravana shaking
Mt. Kailasa, Kalyanmurti, killing of demon Antaka, Lakulisa
4 Jaina Caves:
Indra Sabha cave
Series of shrines dedicated to Mahavira
Manastambha — huge monolithic pillar
At the center of the shrine is the Sarvatobhadra, a concept in
Jainism of worshipping the four important tirthankaras, viz.,
Adinatha or Rshibhanatha (1st), Parsvanatha (22nd), Neminatha
(23rd) and Mahavira (24th).
Jagganath Sabha cave
Chhota Kailasa Cave (resembling Mt. Kailasa)
4. Elephanta Caves
1. Dateable from 6-7 c. AD
2. Brahman caves and Buddhist caves
3. Sculpture: “Ardhnarisvara” — half woman form of Shiva, Siva and Parvati
playing chausar (sculpture), Mahesh-murti (three heads of Shiva)— the
aghora, turbulent, and fearsome; the tatpurusha (benign), vamadeva (lovable
and pleasing), cosmic dance of Nataraja, Kalyansundara murty, Ravana
Shaking Kailasa
4. Elephant sculpture known as Jijamata Udayaan
5. Taj Mahal
Shah Jahan
Ustaad Ahmad Lahori was the main architect
Pietra Dura
6. Mahabalipuram monuments
Built by the Pallavas
Pallava king Narsimhavarman I (630 AD - 668 AD)
9 monolithic temples:
Five Rathas — known after the five Pandava brothers (monolith
carved)
Shore temples (three) — house reclining vishnu or ananthshayana
vishnu
Temple of Rivage
Varaha Mandapa, Adivaraha cave temples
Sculpture: Arjuna’s Penance, Descent of the Ganges led by Bhagiratha
Caves of Govardhanadhari and Mahisasurmardini
Jal-Sayana Perumal temple
7. Sun Temple at Konark
Built in the 13th c. AD (by Narsimhadeva I of Eastern Ganga Dynasty)
River — Chandrabhaga
Sculptures of Balarama, Varaha, and Trivikarma
Mayadevi temple — one of the wives of Surya
Vaishnava temple
8. Churches and Convents of Goa
Church of Bom Jesus (most important)
Tomb of St. Francis Xavier
 Monument influential in spreading Manueline, Mannerist and Baroque art
to Asia
Alfonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa in 1510 and the Portuguese held till
1961
The Se Cathedral
Chapel of St. Catherine
Convent of St. Francis of Assisi
St. Gagtan
"Our Lady of the Rosary" church
Tower of St. Augustine
Church of St. Cajetan
9. Fatehpur Sikri
Built by Akbar
Diwan-i-Aam
Diwan-i-Khas
Daulat Khana
Panch Mahal
Palace of Birbal
Palace of Jodha Bai
Buland Darwaza
Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chisthi
Khass Mahal
Anup-Talao
Here practically, all Mughal institutions such as the ‘Ibadat-Khanah’, ‘Din-i-Ilahi’, ‘Tarikh-i-
Ilahi’ , Jharokha-Darshan, the doctrine of Sulh-i-Kul and policy of liberal patronage to
indigenous arts and literatures, were founded. It was also here that workshops of various
handicrafts were established.
10. Hampi monuments (Vijaynagara)
14th-16th c. AD
Krishna Temple Complex
Narasimha, Ganesh and Hemakuta complex of temples
Achyutaraya temple complex
“Vijay” Vitthala temple complex — most exquisite; contains Kalyan
Mandapa, Utsava Mandapa
56 carved pillars emitting musical notes
Pattabhirama temple
Lotus Mahal
Adopted islamic features in independent buildings such as the Queen’s bath
and Elephant Stables — multi-religious and multi-ethnic society
Raya Gopura was first built here
11. Khajuraho monuments
Chandellas (950-1050 AD)
Ibn Batuta noted them in 1335
Nagara style — Mountain Kailasa representation
Lakshmana temple, Kandriya Mahadev, Nandi temple etc.
12. Chola Temples
11th c. AD — 12th c AD temples
Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur — Rajaraja I
inscriptions of Dakshin Meru
The temple of Gangaikondacholapuram — Rajendra I
Solar Altar, the lotus altar with eight deities
 The Airvatesvara temple at Darasuram — Rajaraja II
13. Pattadakal monuments (Karnataka)
Chalukya Dynasty
Hindu + Jain temples
The Temple of Virupaksha — built by Queen Lokmahadevi
Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal (city of crowned rubies) — Chalukya sites
Vesara style developed here
Temple of Papanath
Aihole (“laboratory of Chalukyan architecture”) — Temple of Ladkhan
14. Sanchi Buddhist monuments
15. Humayun’s tomb
16. Qutb Minar
17. Mountain Railways of India
18. Mahabodhi complex at Bodh Gaya
19. Bhimbetka rock shelters
20. Champaner-Pavagadh Archeological Park
Kalikamata temple on top of pavagadh hill
Structures in the area are blend of Hindu and Muslim architecture, specially
the Great Mosque (Jami Masjid) — model for later mosque architecture in
India
21. Chattrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus)
22. Red Fort Complex
23. The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur
24. Hill Forts of Rajasthan
25. Rani-ki-vav (the Queen’s step well) at Patan, Gujarat
Built during reign of Solanki dynasty
Maru-Gurjara architectural style
Inverted temple
26. Western Ghats
27. Great Himalayan National Park Conservation Area
28. Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks
29. Sundarbans National Park
30. Mans Wildlife Sanctuary
31. Keoladeo National Park
32. Kaziranga National Park

Other Important Things:

Only two living remains of Gupta period paintings: (1) Ajanta caves (2) Bagh Caves
Other caves:
Pandav leni (or Trirasmi caves)
3rd BC - 2nd AD
Hinayana Buddhist caves
Nothing to do with Pandavas or Mahabharata
All Buddhist
Ratnakara was ancient name of Indian Ocean
The four Asharam stages were not mentioned in vedic scriptures, and only post-
vedic (proper mention)
Somapura Mahavihara — Pala Buddhist Vihar (Palas were patrons of Buddhism)
Pala means “protector"
 Alas from 8th AD onwards — 10 c AD
Nalanda and Vikramashila flourished under them.
Dharampala and Devapala — great rulers
Pala School of Miniature paintings and distinct school of art
“Gauda riti” style developed during their reign
1. The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha was assassinated by his
commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Sunga.
2. The last Sunga king, Devabhuti was assassinated by his
Brahmana minister Vasudeva Kanva who usurped the throne
3. The last ruler of the Kanva dynasty was deposed by the Andhras.
1. Narasimha Saluva ended the Sangama dynasty and seized the throne for himself
and started the Saluva dynasty.
2. Vira Narasimha deposed the last Saluva ruler and seized the throne for himself.
3. Vira Narasimha was succeeded by his younger brother, Krishnadeva Raya.
4. Krishnadeva Raya was succeeded by his half-brother, Achyuta Raya.
Mudras of Buddha:
Abhaya
Dhyana
Dharmachakra
mentioned in the Gandhara scriptures as a “preaching” mudra at
Buddha’s first sermon in Sarnath

Bhumisparsa
Word “Hindu” first used as a reference to people of India by: Arabs
Brahmavadini — “expounder” of the Vedas are those women who composed any
hymns of Vedas
Lopmudra (wife of sage Agasthya), Viswawara, Sikta, Ghosa, Maitreyi
Bronze icons of Nataraja during Chola period
“Yavanapriya” — pepper loving Greeks
“Anuvrata” — small vows taken by household to observe non-violence, not to kill
any life.
Yugas (four aeons): Krita, Treta, Dvapara, Kali
Jain literature:
Gometshwara statue at Shravanbelagola built by Chamundaraya (Western Ganga
feudatory of the Rashtrakutas)
“Kevala Jnana”
Arihant — human being who destroys all passions and desires
Ajivikas was a Saiva sect
Travelers to India
Megasthenes from court of Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta Maurya
Wrote Indica
Fa-Hien (Faxian) in the court of Chandragupta II during Gupta reign
Pilgrimage to Lumbini
Hieun-Tsang (Xuanzang)
Visited Harsha’s court
Presided over a Buddhist council in Kannauj
Also traveled south to Amravati and Nagarjunakonda and then Kanchi
of Pallavas
I-tsing (Yijing) or I-ching or Zhang Wen Ming
Visited the Srivijaya empire
Visited Nalanda University in India
Al-Beruni
Tarikh-Al-Hind
Explored almost every aspect of Indian life
Came with Mahmud of Ghazni in around 1000 AD
Ibn Battuta
Moroccon explorer
In around 1330 AD, he came to India
During the reign of Muhammad Bin Tuglaq
Scientists and writes:
Baudhayan: Mathematics, Sulva Sutra (pythagoras theorem known as
Baudhyan theorem, value of pi)
Aryabhatta: Mathematician (5th c.AD) and Astronomer, Aryabhatiya
Algebra
Geometry
Trigonometry
Number Theory
Khagol observatory at Nalanda (Aryabhatta studied here)
Earth is round and rotates on its axis
Brahmagupta: 7th c. AD, Mathematics; wrote Brahm Sputa Siddantika —
postulated that all things gravitate towards the earth.
Bhaskaracharya: 12th c. AD, Mathematics, wrote: Siddhanta Shiromani
Mahavircharya: wrote Ganit Sara Sangraha (850 AD)
Science:
Kanad — Vaisheshika School, “kana” — atomic theory
Varahmira: 587 AD — Astronomy — wrote: Brhat-Samhita
Nagarjuna: 10th c AD scientist. Alchemist. Treatise: Rasaratnakar
Atreya Samhita is the treatise on Ayurveda
Charka: Medicine — Rajya Vaidya of Kaniska, Charak Samhita (Ayurveda)
Susrutha (1200 BC -600 BC): Medicine (Susruta Samihta), plastic surgery
and removal of cataract — use of medical and surgical instruments.
Yoga and Patanjali, Yoga derived from Sanskrit word Yoktra. Its literal
meaning is “yoking the mind to the inner self after detaching it from the
outer subjects of senses”.
Physical yoga is called Hathyoga. Generally, it aims at removing a
disease and
restoring healthy condition to the body.
Rajayoga is mental yoga. Its goal is self realization and liberation from
 bondage by achieving physical mental, emotional and spritiual
balance.
In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, Aum is spoken of as the symbol of God. He
refers to Aum as a cosmic sound, continuously flowing through the ether, fully
known only to the illuminated.
Besides Yoga Sutras, Patanjali also wrote a work on medicine and worked on
Panini’s grammar known as Mahabhasaya
Controls in Yoga
Yama — Practicing self-control
Niyama — Observation of the rules
Asana — fixed postures
Pranayam — breath control
Pratyahara — choosing the object
Dharna — fixing the mind
Dhyana — concentrating on a chosen object
Samadhi — complete dissolution of the self, merging mind and
the object
Literature:
Jaina:
12 Angas
12 Upanga agamas
6 Chedasutras
4 Mulasutras
10 Prakirnaka Sutras
2 Culikasutras
Asvaghosa: Buddha Charita (80 AD - 150 AD)
Vasubandhu: founder of Yogacharya form of Buddhism (4 c. AD)
Shudraka: Literature — wrote: Mricchkatika (Gupta time)
Bhasa: 13 Plays
Visakhadutta: Literature — wrote: Devi Chandraguptam and Mudrarakshasha
(court intrigues of chandragupta mauryas time) [9th. c. AD]
Kalidasa: Anijanshakuntalam
Amarsimha: Amarkosha
Banbhatta: Literature — wrote: Harshacharita (Asthana Kavi in court of
Harsha)
Bilhana: Literature — wrote: Vikramankadevacharita and
Charupanchashika (11th c. AD Kashmiri Poet)
9 Gems of Chandragupta II
Amarsimha
Kalidasa
Vetala Bhatta
Varahamira
Vararuchi
Dhanvantri
Kahapanak
Shanku
Harisena
9 Gems of Akbar
Birbal
Faizi
 Todar Mal
Raja Man Singh
Abdul Rahim Khan-i-khana
Fakir Aziao-Din
Tansen
Mulla Do-Piyaza
Abul-Fazl ibn Mubarak
Krishna Deva Raya’s important courtiers named Astadiggajas — the eight
giants
Pallava — Panamalai (city), Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram, Mahablipuram
Name of Asoka mentioned by which Edict: Maski edict
Silver coins by Guptas known as “Rupaka"
First gold coins in India introduced by Indo-Greeks (Kushans)
Avalokiteshvara also known as Padmapani
Corporation of merchants in ancient India: Manigrama
Eight Fold Path forms the theme of: Dharma Chakra Pravartana Sutra
Ashokan Pillars telling us about Sangam period: II and XIII
Invasions in Indian history:
Alexander the Great 326 BC (not really invasion though)
Indo-Greeks
Shakas
Parthians
Kushans
White Huns
Mahmud of Ghazni
Mohammad of Ghor — Ghurid Dynasty
Timur (1398 AD)

Intangible World Heritage

1. Thatheras of Jandiala Guru, Punjab — traditional brass and copper craft

2. Sankirtana — ritual singing, drumming and dancing Manipur (Vaishnava)
3. Buddhist Chanting of Ladakh
Four major sects:
Nyangma
Kagyud
Shakya
Geluk
Each sect has several types of chanting etc.
4. Chhau dance — Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisa
1. Seraikela — Jharkhand
2. Purulia — WB
3. Mayurbhanj — Odisa
5. Kalbelia Folk Dance and songs in Rajasthan
1. expression of traditional way of life
2. use of Khanjari percussion instrument and Poongi (bein), a woodwind
instrument
6. Mudiyettu Sanskrit theatre in Kerela
7. Novruz
March 21
 8. Ramman, religious festival and ritual theatre of Garhwal Himalays
Late April celebrated in honor of BHUMIYAL devta
9. Kutiyattam, Sanskrit theatre in Kerela
10. Ramlila
11. Traditional Vedic Chanting
1. Rig Veda: vedic hymns
2. Sama Veda: musical arrangements of hymns
3. Yajur Veda: prayers and sacrificial formulae
4. Atharva Veda: Incantations and Spells and magical stuff

Buddhist Literature:
Sangam

Tamil
Tolkapiayyam
Tirukkural by Thiruvaluvar
Avvaiyar
Silappadikaram
Manimekalai
Bhakti Movement — literature — 12 Alvars (Andal women poet) started it and spread
then

Vira Shaivas
Basava founded Vir Shaiva school or virshaivism that rejected he caste
system, denied the supremacy of the Brahmins and condemned ritual
sacrifice.
Akka Mahadevi was an important figure in this movement.
Alvars
Tamil Nadu
Devotion to Lord Vishnu
5th -10th c. AD
12 in number
Andal is a female in the 12 (only one)
Nayanars
Shaivites
Group of 63 saints in 6th c AD to 8th c AD devoted to Shiva Bhakti in Tamil
Nadu
Their names first complied by Sundrar
Most important were three: Sambandar, Appar, Sundrar
Sambandar is most important
From different backgrounds
From Tamil Nadu
Rama Bhakti
Ramananda was the leader of Rama Bhakti
Lived in 15th c. AD
Ashram in Varanasi
Renounced Sanskrit
Shaiva-Siddhanta
The Shaiva Siddhanta school is a form of Shaivism found in the south. It
incorporates the teachings of the Shaiva nayanars and espouses the belief
that Shiva is Brahman and his infinite love is revealed in the divine acts of the
creation, preservation and destruction of the universe, and in the liberation of
the soul
Vaishnava Bhakti
Ramanujacharya (1017–1137)
Madhvacharya (1199–1278)
Nimbarka (13th Century)
Vallabhacharya (1479–1531)
Srimanta Sankardeva (1449–1568)
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534)
Swaminarayan (1781-1830)
Shakti

Important Battles Medieval India:

1. Battle of Tarain (First)(1191)

This battle was fought at Tarain near Thaneswar. Prithviraj of Chauhan
 Dynasty defeated the Mohaammad of Ghor
2. Second Battle of Tarain(1192)
It was fought at same Tarain battlefield as in the first Tarain battle. This was
fought by Mohammad Ghori against Prithvi Raj Chauhan. This time Prithvi
Raj was defeated.
3. Battle of Chandawar (1194)
Ghori defeats Jaichandra
4. Battle of Panipat (1526)
In this battle Babur defeated the Army of Afghans and killed their king Ibrahim
Lodi.
5. Battle of Haldighati(1576)
This was started between Akbar and Rana of Mewar Pratap. Decisive Mughal
victory.
6. First Carnatic War(1745–48)
This war was fought by British and French armies. French occupied Madras,
later returned it to British.
7. Second Carnatic War(1749–54)
French army under the command of Duplex fought with British and British
won. In 1755 they made a provisional treaty.
8. Third Carnatic War(1756–63) — Battle of Wandiwash
In 1758 French occupied Fort Saint David. But defeated at Wandiwasi(1760).
Britishers won.
9. Battle of Plassey(June-1757)
British Army under the command of Robert Clive fought with Bengal Nawab
Siraz-ud-daula and British won and Mir Jafar was made Nawab. Siraz-ud-
daula,while he was unarmed was killed mercilessly by Muhammad Beg,a
person who was under his assylum.
10. Battle of Buxar(1764)
British army under the command of Major Manri defeated the combined army
of Mir Kasim nawab of Bengal, Shuja-ud-daulah nawab of Awadh, Shah
Alam, Mughal emperor.

Importance Stuff

BRICS
South Africa admitted last in 2010
Russia current chair
7th summit in Ufa, Russia 2015
2016 in New Delhi, India
First summit at Yekaterinburg, Russia in 2009
New Development Bank creation mooted in 2013, Durban meeting
At St. Petersburg, 2013, China pledged $41 bn to New Development Bank
Bank Created in Fortaleza summit in Brazil with a reserve currency pool of
$100 bn
Documents on cooperation between BRICS export credit agencies and an
agreement of cooperation on innovation were also inked.
"Fragile Five"
India, Brazil, Indonesia, Turkey and South Africa — due to their vulnerable
currencies
In March 2015, India and Indonesia have escaped the fragile five
 MINT: Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey
Next 11 or N-11:
Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines,
Turkey, South Korea and Vietnam
CIVETS: Columbia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt, Turkey and South Africa
Economic Cooperation Organization:
Eurasian political and economic organization
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)
China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan
India and Pakistan membership has been approved in July 2015
(technically by next year)

Vellanvagai - land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors brahmadeya - land gifted to

Brahmanas shalabhoga - land for the maintenance of a school devadana,
tirunamattukkani - land gifted to temples pallichchhandam - land donated to Jaina
institutions

Vetti and Kadamai are taxes by Cholas