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MODULE IN
213
FACILITATING LEARNING
 Part 1

Facilitating Introduction
Learning

Module 1 Metacognition

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et.al

Take the Challenge

In this module, challenge yourself to:

 explain metacognition to a friend.

 determine if you are novice or an expert learner.
 apply the metacognitive strategies in your own quest for
learning.

Introduction

Metacognition is such a long word. What does it mean? You will find
this out in this module.

It is the first module so you get to understand it and apply it from the
very beginning of this book.
Activity

Answer the following questionnaire. Put a check to the column that best
describes what is true lo you.

Part 1

Always Sometimes Never Your

(10) (5) (0) Score
I exert effort to find out why I need to do a
1. Particular Task.
2. I reward myself when I work
3. I see to it that I give myself regular breaks form
work.
4. I am able to keep my concentration and does not
let my mind “drift away”
5. I have ways of dealing with distractions.

6. I am willing to do the work I do not enjoy because

 I see it as important
7. I seek clarification from the teacher about her
expectations and standards.
8. I go to tutorials to improve my school work

Always Sometime Never Your

(10) s (0) Score
(5)
I make a weekly timetable for the school work I need
1. to accomplish.
2. I make a review schedule for examinations.
3. I plan to get the necessary resources and equipment
prior to starting work.
4. I submit all my assignments on time.

5. I have a place to work where I won’t be disturbed

6. I have time for family commitments and relaxation as

well as studying.
7. I prioritize tasks which should be done first, second
and so on.
8. I make lists of things to do.

9. I make a list of valuable references with bibliographic

details, page numbers of quotes and so on.
10. I review my work before submitting it.
Part 2

Part 3

Always Sometimes Never

(10) (5) (0)
I discuss work assignments with other students.
1.
2. I share resources with others students
3. I keep cuttings from newspapers and magazines which may
be of help to me.
4. I make sure I see TV programs which may be useful

5. I read the topic assigned before a session.

6. I ask questions and generally take part in group discussion

7. I listen out for key ideas when someone is talking

8. When I am listening to someone, I try to anticipate what

they will say next.

Always Sometimes Never

(10) (5) (0)
I get so worried about assignments that they make me fill ill.
1.
2. This worry about assignments makes me feel depressed
3. I feel miserable about doing assignment

4. I let these concerns about the work get on top of me.

5. When I need to work, others always succeed in persuading

me to go out.
6. I have difficulty in talking to others about my worries.

7. I ignore my personal fitness through worrying about

assignments.
8. The stress of assignments causes me to get behind and I
never seem to catch up.
Part 4

Always Sometimes Never

(10) (5) (0)
1. My notes indicate the main ideas, rather than merely repeat
what has been said.
2. I listen for key ideas when listening to a speaker.
3. I approach tutors for help
4. I organize or file my notes regularly
5. I re-write my notes under key ideas, headings, using
numbering or lettering schemes.
6. I have a shorthand technique of my own.
7. I underline or highlight key ideas so they stand out.

8. I decide, before reading a book, whether it is vital or

background reading.
9. I go over a book before diving into chapter one.
10. I check the contents page for relevance before reading a
book.
11. I look for summaries at the end of chapters.
Part 5
 Always Sometimes Never
(10) (5) (0)
1. I see to it that I understand what is really being
asked for in the assignment/project.
2. I read other references and read about the topic.
3. I make an outline/plan before doing my
assignment/project.
4. I spell-check for spelling mistakes.
5. My essays have clear introductions.
6. My essays have a conclusion
7. I frequently check back to the little during the
writing of an essay.
8. My essays/research paper has a full set of references
and bibliography.
9. I review project/assignment before submitting it.
10. I request someone else to look at/read my
project/assignment before submitting it.
Part 6

Adapted from Bradford University

Scoring:

The six parts of the questionnaire pertain to the following aspects of

study habits:
Part 1 Motivation
Part 2 Organizing and planning your work
Part 3 Working with others; Utilizing resources and feedback
Part 4 Managing school work stress
Part 5 Note-taking and reading
Part 6 Preparing an assignment/project

Use the scoring guide below

Scoring for Part 1 Motivation
Score: 10 for Always
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback: Scores from 55 to 80 mean that you do not appear to have many
problems in getting down to work and keeping to it.

 Scores from 31 to 50 mean that you sometimes get down

to work but you can be distracted, you might not always be
 certain why you are having to work. You probably could
benefit from learning some techniques that help you get down
to work more consistently and keep at it.
 Scores of 30 and below signify that you really do have
problems in getting down to work. Unless you develop
skills in this area you are likely to have many unsatisfactory
experiences as a student throughout your life.
You need to take action.

Scoring for Part 2 Organizing and Planning your Work

Score: 10 for Always
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never

Feedback: Scores from 70 to 100 mean you are well-organized and plan ahead
for your work.

 Scores from 40 to 65 mean you are not as well-organized as

you could be. Your time management might benefit from a
closer analysis.
 Scores of 35 and below mean you have little organization,
probably deal with things as they happen, constantly doing
things at the last minute, often not getting work completed.
You need to take action.

Scoring for Part 3

Score: 10 for Always
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never

Feedback: -Scores from 55 to 85 mean you make full use of resources available,
listen well and take an active part in seminars,

 Scores from 35 to 50 mean you probably collect resources

more effectively.
 Scores of 30 and below mean there are important resources
much of what is being said. You need to know what
resources are available, and you need to find out where they
 are and what they have to offer.
You need to take action.

Scoring for Part 4 Managing School Work Stress

Score: 10 for Never

5 for Sometimes
O for Always

Feedback: -Scores from 65 to 80 mean that although you sometimes get stressed
and worried you have the skills of knowing how to
minimize problems and look after yourself.

 Scores from 40 to 65 mean that you handle your anxieties and

concerns moderately well but could develop skills to manage
them more effectively.
 Scores of 35 and under mean that you are likely to get
overwhelmed with your problems which will make you much
less effective as a student. You need to acquire the skills of
managing stress more effectively.
You need to take action.

Scoring for Part 5 Note-taking and Reading

Score: 10 for Always
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback: Scores from 75 to 110 mean you prepare well and read efficiently,
learning as you go. You waste little time reading
irrelevant material.

 Scores from 45-70 mean your reading and note taking skills
are adequate, but could be improved.
 Scores of 40 and below mean your notes are likely to be of
little use to you, if they exist at all. You spend a lot of time
 reading or sitting in but come home with very little. You
need to become more selective in what you read or write
down.

You need to take action.

Scoring for Part 6 Preparing an Assignment/Project.

Score: 10 for Always
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback: -Scores from 70-100 mean that your essays are well thought
out, researched and clearly written.

 Scores from 40-65 mean that there is room for improvement

although you do demonstrate some skills.
 Scores of 35 and below mean that you probably wonder
why your essays always get such low marks. Resources and
support are available to help you improve your essay writing
skills.
Take action now.

Aspect of Study Habits My Score Interpretation

Part 1 Motivation

Part 2 Organizing and Planning your work;

Part 3. Working with others, Utilizing Resources

and Feedback
Part 4 Managing School works Stress

Part 5 Notice-taking and Reading

Part 6 Preparing an assignment/project.

Analysis

My Score in the Study Habits Questionnaire

What did you discover about your self-using this questionnaire? What aspects are
you strong in? What aspects do you need to improve in?
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Abstraction/Generalization

What you just did while answering the questionnaire and analyzing your
scores is an exercise in metacognition. You stopped for a moment and thought
about how you study and learn. You were reminded of your strengths and
weaknesses, then you wrote what it is that you can do to improve your study
habits. Hopefully, this will help you start to learn more effectively.

The most important goal of education is to teach students how to learn

on their own. The quotation on the side margin stresses this. It is vital that
students acquire the skills of how to learn, and that these skills enable them
to learn not just while they are in school but for a lifetime. This entails
deeper awareness of how one processes information, the ability to evaluate
his own thinking and to think of ways to make his own learning process more
effective. All these involve metacognition.

Just, what is metacognition? This appears to be such a high sounding

word that some people are confused about what it is about even before
they actually spend time to find out what it really means. It is not at all that
complicated. In fact we do metacognitive activities so often in our daily lives.
When you sense that you are experiencing some difficulty with a topic you
are studying, and you try out different strategies to learn better, you are
practicing metacognition. The word maybe long, seems to be so intangible
but it is worth focusing on because it can help you to be a more successful
learner. When you become a teacher, it can also help your students to learn
more efficiently and effectively.

The term "metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. According to

Flavell (1979, 1987), metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge
and metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognition, simply put, is
"thinking about thinking" or "learning how to learn". It refers to higher
order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the cognitive
processes engaged in learning. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired
knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge that can be used to control
cognitive processes. Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into three
categories: knowledge of person variables, task variables and strategy
are variables

Person Variables. This includes how one views himself as a learner

and thinker. Knowledge of person variables refers to knowledge about how
human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge
of one's own learning processes. For example, you may be aware that your
study more effectively if you study very early in the morning than late
in the evening, and that you work better in a quiet library rather than at
home where there are a lot of things that make it hard for you to focus and
concentrate.

Task Variables. Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about

the nature of the task as well as the type of processing demands that it will
place upon the individual. It is about knowing what exactly needs to be
accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will
demand from you. For example, you may be aware that it will take more
time for you to read and comprehend a book in educational philosophy than
it would for you to read and comprehend a novel.
Strategy Variables. Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness
of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this
strategy is effective. If you think your strategy is not working, then you may
think of various strategies and try out one to see if it will help you learn
better. Terms like meta-attention and meta-memory are related to strategy
variables. Meta-attention is the awareness of specific strategies so that you
can keep your attention focused on the topic or task at hand. Metamemory
is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.

These three variables all interact as you learn and apply metacognition.
Omrod, includes the following in the practice of metacognition:

 Knowing the limits of one's own learning and memory capacities

 Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within
a certain amount of time
 Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
 Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be
successful
 Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material
 Monitoring one's own knowledge and comprehension. In other words,
knowing when information has been successfully learned and when
its not
 Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored
information
 Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a
purposeful manner to ensure that a goal is met. For example, a
student may use knowledge in planning how to do homework: "I
know that I (person variable) have more difficulty with my science
assignments than English and find Araling Panlipunan easier task
variable), so I will do my homework in science first, then language
arts, then Araling Panlipunan. (strategy variable)." If one is only
aware about one's cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the nature
of the task but does not use this to guide or oversee his/her own
learning, then no metacognition has been applied.

Huitt believes that metacognition includes the ability to ask and

answer the following types of questions:

• What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?

• Do I know what do I need to know?
 • Do I know where I can go to get some information,
knowledge?
• How much time will I need to learn this?
What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this?

• Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?

• How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate rate?
• How can I spot an error if I make one?
•How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my
expectations/satisfaction?

Metacognition and Development

Researches such as that of Fang and Cox showed that metacognitive

awareness was evident in preschoolers and in students as young as eight years
old. Children already may have the capacity to be more aware and reflective
of their own learning. However, not many have been taught and encouraged to
apply metacognition. The challenge then to future teachers like you is to integrate
more activities that would build the your students' capacity to reflect on their
own characteristics as learners, the tasks they are to do and the strategies that
they can use to learn. Below are some examples of teaching strategies to
develop metacognition.

Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop

metacognition:
(Work hard on applying these strategies now in your role as a student. It will
surely be a rewarding learning experience for you.)

1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking (Example: have
student monitor a peer's learning/thinking/behaving in dyad)

2. Teach students study or learning strategies

TQLR - This can be taught to younger students (primary

grades). It is a metacognitive strategy before listening to a story or
presentation.
T is for Tune in. It is first important for the learner himself to
be aware that he is paying attention, and that he is ready
to learn.

Q is for Question. The learner is given questions or he thinks of

questions about what he will soon learn.

L is for Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to

listen. He becomes aware if he is momentarily detracted
and goes back to listen again.

R is for Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to

remember what was learned.
PQ4R - This is usually for older students in the intermediate
levels and onwards. This strategy is used in study a unit
or chapter

P - Preview. Scan the whole chapter before delving on each

paragraph. Heck out the objectives. Look for outlines or
advance organizers that will give you an idea about the
important topics and ideas in the chapter. Read the summary
of the chapter first. (But please don't stop at the summary
alone. No. No. No. This is not a good idea at all. Read the
whole chapter!)

Q- Question. Read the guide questions provided, or think of your

own questions about the topic.

R- Read. Check out sub headings as you read. Pay attention on

words that are printed in bold or italicized. Find out the
meaning of words that are not clear to you. Use a marker
or colored pencil to highlight important words or phrases.
(Do not highlight the whole paragraph!)

R- Recite. Work on answering the questions who had earlier.

R- Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back and read in
order to understand better.
R- Reflect. Think about what you read. Is everything clear to
you? What are the main points you learned? How is this
relevant or useful to you?

3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next

based on what they have read
4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures (Important
to have relevant knowledge structures well learned)
5. Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about
what's going on around them (Have you asked a good question
today?)
6. Help students to know when to ask for help (must be able to self-
monitor; require students to show how they have attempted to deal with
the problem of their own)
7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to
Novice and Expert Learners

In the last twenty years, cognitive psychologists have studied the

distinctions among learners in the manner they absorb or process information,
They were able to differentiate expert learners from novice learners. A very
important factor that separated these two types of learners mentioned is
metacognition. Expert learners employed metacognitive strategies in learning.
They were more aware of their learning process as they read, studied and did
problem solving. Expert learners monitored their learning and consequently
adjusted their strategies to make learning more effective.
 The Table below shows the difference between a novice learner and an
expert learner.
Differences Between Novice and Expert Learners

Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners

Knowledge in different subject  Have limited  Have deeper knowledge in
areas knowledge in the different subject areas because
different subject they look for interrelationships
areas in the things they learn
Problem  Satisfied at just  First try to understand the
scratching the problem, look for boundaries,
surface; hurriedly and create a mental picture of
gives a solution to the problem
the problem
Learning/thinking Strategies  Employ rigid  Design new strategies that
strategies that may would be appropriate to the
not be appropriate task at and
to the task at hand
Selectivity in Processing  Attempt to process  Select important information to
all information they process; able to breakdown
receive information to manageable
chunks
Production of Output  Do not examine the  Check their errors and redirect
quality of their their efforts to maintain quality
work, nor stop to output
make revisions

Stop and pause a while. Are you a novice learners? Or an expert

one?

Strive to apply the concepts of metacognition in your world of

learning, and for sure you will be on your way to be on your way
to be an expert learner, probably and expert teacher, too!
Application

Based on the principles of Metacognition, prepare your own metacognitive gameplan

on how you can apply metacognition to improve your study skills.
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2. Conduct a metacognitive observation based on the procedures below: (Source:
Prof.
Joanna M. Grymes, Ph.D. of Arkansas State University.

Meta-Cognitive Observation
1. Interview 3 different children - one age 4 - 6, one age 7–9, one age 10 or older.

These will be semi-structured clinical interviews. Record the questions you

ask and
the child's answers. You do not have to ask the questions exactly as they are posed
below, but the questions should be very similar. Follow up with additional questions
when children seem like they have more they can tell you. Remember to record any
follow up questions you ask. You do NOT have to rewrite the notes you take while
conducting the interviews, but you do need to hand them in.

Develop a list of 10 UNRELATED but common words. Take a familiar story

(like
a fairy tale or fable) and rewrite it so it is OUT OF ORDER (it may help to actually
write out the story so that you do tell it out of order).

For a child in kindergarten or younger, follow this procedure.

Tell child that you are going to say a list of 10 words, and you want the child
to remember the words and you'll ask the child to repeat the list in a little while.
Remind the child to listen closely, and then say the list slowly (about one word every
second or two).

Ask the child the following series of questions:

How many words do you think you will remember? What do you need to do
to remember the words? Are you good at remembering?

Do some filler questions (what are your favorite things, what do you like to
do... to fill up about 5 minutes between giving the list and now).

Ask the child to list all the words you asked them to remember. (record their
list) Ask the child what did they do the help them remember? Did it work?

Tell the child you are also going to tell them story and that you want them to
listen carefully and retell the story JUST LIKE YOU TOLD IT. Tell the story you
rewrote.

Bring a children's book of appropriate age. Using the book, ask children
questions
like, "where is the title of the book," "Where does it tell who wrote the book",
"Where's the beginning and where is the end of the book”. (These are essentially
filler
questions?

Ask the child to retell the story, reminding them they should retell it in the
order you told it.
Thank the child for helping you.

For a child in first grade or older, do the following:

 Tell child that you are going to say a list of 10 words, and you want the
child to
remember the words and you'll ask the child to repeat the list in a little while.
Remind
the child to listen closely, and then say the list slowly (about one word every
second
two).

Ask the child the following series of questions:

How many words do you think you will remember? What do you need to do
to remember the words? Are you good at remembering? What kinds of things do
you do to help you remember things? Does your teacher give you ideas to help
you remember things? What different ideas has your teacher given you? Do you
remember some specific examples of things you have learned in school to help you
remember things?
Do you use them? Do you think they are helpful?

How do you think you learn things best - by seeing it, by hearing it, or by
doing it? Does your teacher help you figure out how you learn things best, or help
you learn that way? Do you do activities to help you learn things in school? What
kinds of activities do you do? Do you think they help?

Ask the child to list all the words you asked them to remember. (record
their list)
Ask the child what they did to the help them remember. Did it work?
Tell the child you are also going to tell them a story and that you want them to
listen carefully and retell the story JUST LIKE YOU TOLD IT. Tell the story you
rewrote.

Ask the following series of questions: Do you like to read, why or why not?
Is there something that could change at school that might make you like reading
more (even more)? What kinds of things do you read at school? Do you get to
choose some of the things you read at school? Do you read outside of school.- if
so, what do you like to read? Why do you prefer to read those kinds of
things/books? If you don't read outside of school, why?
 Do you think reading is important? Many people think that reading well
helps you do better in school - do you? Why or why not?

What kinds of things do you do when reading to make sure you understand
what you are reading? Has your teacher helped you learn ways to help you read
better? To help you understand and remember what you read?

Ask the child to retell the story, reminding them they should retell it in the
order you told it. Thank the child for helping you.

3. Whatever the subject area, a teacher can apply metacognitive strategies

in his or her class to facilitate learning more effectively. Watch this short
video of the author's daughter sharing how her Grade 2 teacher taught
them about TQLR:

Title: TQLR metacognition in the primary grades

Youtube link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IfXdWeAzgCo

Description: This shows a simple song that a primary grade teacher is using to
prepare children to listen and respond to a lesson or a selection. It is a
very practical way of teaching children to apply metacognition early on.

What did you learn from the video? How can you also apply this?
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Make your own output: a song, chant, poster, question list on any of the
seven strategies discussed in the book. You may also create a video and upload
it in youtube. Tell about its purpose, and describe the chant or song. Have a
sharing in class.

Purpose:

Description of your output :

Explanation:

4. Reflection

1. How accurate were the children in predicting how well they would remember
the word list? How well did they remember the list? Were they able to tell you
what they did to remember the words after repeating the list? Were there any
differences in age in terms of how accurate were their predictions or their lists?

2. How well did the children do in retelling the story? Did the children tend to tell
the story in the “correct” order or in the order you told it? Were their age
differences in how they responded here?

3. Consider the older children's responses to the questions about memory and
reading.
Given their responses, how well do schools seem to support children developing
meta-cognitive strategies for memory and reading? Did the children have a sense
of which way they learn best? Do they seem to think that teachers help them with
this? How effective do schools seem to be in creating/supporting an appreciation
ofreading in children? Do the children seem to see teachers being helpful in these
areas?
(Retrieved from
http://www.clt.astate.edu/grymesj/old%20courses/hglmetacogobs.htm )

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Synapse Strengtheners

1. Surf the internet for additional readings on metacognition

2. Make a collection of metacognitive strategies that can make learning more
effective and efficient.
3. Make a collection of teaching strategies that develop metacognition in
students.

5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…NOW!

From the module on Metacognition, I learned that……

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 MODULE 2 – LEARNER- CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRONCIPLES (LPC)
Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process
By: Lucas et.al

 Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:
 Explain the 14 principles
 Advocate for the use of the 14 principles in the teaching learning
process.
 Identify ways on how you can apply the 14 principles in instruction as
a future teacher.
Introduction:
You, the learner, are the center of instruction. The world of
instruction revolves around you. This module is focused on the fourteen
(14) principles that run through the twenty- seven (27) modules of this
book.
Activity:
Do these activities before you read about the Learner- Centered Principles?
1. Examine the title,” Learner- Centered Principles”. Quickly, jot down at least
10 words that come to your mind.
2. Go back to each word and write phrases about why you think the word can
be associated with LCP.
Analysis:
From groups of three members each. Share your responses. Summarize your
group’s responses.
We think that Learner- Centered Principles focus on
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Abstraction/ Generalization:
LEARNER- CENTERED PYSCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
The Learner- Centered Psychological Principle were put together by
the American Psychological Principles were put together by the certain to
the learner and the learning process. The 14 principles have the following
aspects:
 They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and
under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or
physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to
acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that
interact with these internal factors.
 The principles are intended to deal historically with learners in the
context of real- world learning situations. Thus, they are best
 understood as an organized set of principles, no principle should be
viewed in isolation.
 The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive
and metacognitive, (2) motivational and effective, (3)
developmental and social, and (4) individual difference factors
influencing learners and learning.
 Finally, the principles are intended to apply to shall learners- from
children, to teachers to administrators, to parents, and to community,
members involves in our educational system.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the Learning process

The learning of complex subject matter is effective when it is an

intentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience.

 There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit

formation in motor learning, and learning that involves the generation
of knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning strategies.
 Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that
students can use to construct meaning from information,
experiences, and their thoughts and beliefs.
 Successful learners are active, goal- directed, self- regulating, and
assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning.

2. Goals of the Learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and

instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.

 The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed.

 To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the
thinking and learning strategies necessary for continued learning
success across the life span, students must generate and pursue
personally relevant goals. Initially, students’ short goals and learning
may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be
refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening their
understanding of the subject matter so that they can teach longer –
term goals.
 Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals
that are consistent with both personal and educational aspirations
and interests.
3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.

Knowledge widens and depends as students continue to build links between

new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The
nature of these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to,
modifying or recognizing existing knowledge or skills. How this links are
made or develop may vary in different subjects’ areas, and among students
with varying talents, interest, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge

 Becomes integrated with the learners’ prior knowledge and

understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used
most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new
situations.
 Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge
by a number of strategies that have been shown to be effective with
learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic
organization or categorizing.

4. Strategic thinking

The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking

and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

 Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to

learning, reasoning, problem and solving, and concept learning.
 They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them
reach learning and performance goals and to apply their knowledge
in novel situations.
 They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by
reflecting on the methods they use to see which work well for them,
by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or
interacting with appropriate models.
 Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in
developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental

operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.

 Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set
reasonable learning or performance goals, select potentially
 appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor their
progress toward these goals.
 In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs
or if they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal.
They can generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or
reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal).
 Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop this
higher order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning
and personal responsibility for learning.

6. Context of learning

Learning is the influenced by environmental factors, including

culture, technology, and instructional practices.

 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major

interactive role with both the learner and learning environment.
 Cultural or group influences on students can impact many
educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation
toward learning, and ways of thinking.
 Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for
learner’s level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their
learning and thinking strategies.
 The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is
nurturing or not, can also have significant impacts on student
learning.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and Emotional influences on learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s

motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and
habits of thinking.

 The rich internal world thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for
success or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality
of thinking and information processing.
 Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of
learning have a marked influenced or motivation. Motivational and
emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and
information processing as well as an individual’s motivation to learn.
 Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation
and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also
enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner’s attention
 on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g.,
anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying
about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment,
ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation,
interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity

all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.

Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking

 Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking and creativity are major Indicators
of learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of
meeting basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal control.
 Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting
and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and
difficulty to the learners’ abilities and on which they believe they can achieve.
 Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-
world situations and meet needs for choice and control.
 Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and
motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners’
perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice
and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended
learner effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn,
the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
 Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of
complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable
learner energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time
 Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies
that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving
high standards of comprehension and understanding.
 Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices
that enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and
 methods that increase learners’ perceptions that a task is interesting and
personally relevant.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and
constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and
social domains is taken into account.
 Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental
level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
 Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional,
and physical domains, achievement in different instructional domains may
also vary.
 Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness such as reading
readiness, for example preclude learners from demonstrating that they are
capable in other areas of performance.
 The cognitive, emotional, and social development of individual learners and
how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home,
culture, and community factors.
 Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling and the quality of
language interactions and two-way communications between adults and
children can influence these developmental areas.
 Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children
with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities can facilitate
the creation of optimal learning contexts.
11. Social Influences on Learning
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with others.
 Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact
and collaborate with others on instructional tasks.
 Learning settings that allow for social interaction, and that respects diversity,
encourage flexible thinking and social competence.
 In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an
opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to
 higher levels of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-
esteem.
 Quality personal relationships that provide stability trust, and caring can
increase learners’ sense of belonging, self-respect, and self-acceptance, and
provide a positive climate for learning.
 Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-
motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning
such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular subject, high levels
of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and undue pressure to
perform well.
 Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier
levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel
safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and create a
learning community.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
 Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
 In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired
their own preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they
learn. However, these preferences are not always useful in helping learners
reach their learning goals.
 Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and
expand or modify them, if necessary.
 The interaction between learner differences and curricular and environmental
conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes.
 Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also
need to attend to learner perceptions of the degree to which these
differences are accepted and adapted to by varying instructional methods
and materials.
13. Learning and Diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic,
cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account.
The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction
apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race beliefs, and
socioeconomic status all can influence learning. Careful attention to these
factors in the instructional setting
 Enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate
learning environments.
 When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities,
backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and
accommodated in learning tasks and contexts levels of motivation and
achievement are enhanced.
14. Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing
the learner as well as learning progress including diagnostic, process, and
outcome assessment are integral parts of the learning process.
 Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher
at all stages of the learning process.
 Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenge to work towards
appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learners’ cognitive
strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is
important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree of
difficulty.
 Ongoing assessment of the learner’s understanding of the curricular material
can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress
toward the learning goals.
 Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes assessment
provides one type of information about achievement levels both within and
across individuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions.
 Performance assessments can provide other sources of information about
the attainment of learning outcomes.
 Self-assessments of learning progress can also improve students self
appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.
 Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled
them into five areas:
1. The Knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation
of all future learning. The learner’s previous knowledge will influence new
learning specifically on how he represents new information, makes
associations and filters new experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect
and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more effectively
(metacognition).
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within),
reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks
all have crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey
for each person because each learner has his own unique combination of
genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a society as well
as within an individual.

Synapse and Strengtheners

1. Read more on Learner-Centered Classrooms and make a poster about it.

Name: __________________________________ Yr. & Sec.__________________

Application
The application activity will be done in module 27 when you revisit the 14
principles. For now, keep the 14 principles in mind as you explore the rest of the
module. Always try to relate the principles to the concepts you will learn, especially
when you do the 5-minute non-stop writing at the end of each module. Happy
learning!
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…. NOW!
From the module on Learner-Centered Psychological Principles, I learned that…
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_
Part 2
Facilitating
Learning

FOCUS ON THE LEARNING

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process
By: Lucas et.al

UNIT 2.1 ꟷ Review of the developmental theories

The educational trend brought out by a number of ground-breaking
researches tells us that you can be an effective facilitating learning if you have a
good working knowledge of your learnings’ development in this unit, they very basic
developmental theories are reviewed.

Module 3 PIAGETS’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Take the Challenge!
In this module, challenge yourself to:
 describe Piaget’s stages in your own words,
 conduct a simple Piagetian Task interview with children,
 match learning activities to the learners’ cognitive stage.
Introduction
Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory of development is truly a classic in the field of
educational psychology. This theory fuelled other researchers and theories of
development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.
Activity
The activities presented here are for students who already had a background
of Piaget’s theory, either from their general psychology class or from their course in
child and adolescent development. This module is meant to be a review of the
theory. However, if more appropriate to the students, these activities may also be
done after the discussion of the salient point of the theory.
1. Watch the following video of Piagetian tasks in youtube.com. jot down
your observation while you watch the videos
 Added: February 10, 2007
 From: jenningh
Piaget-preparational stage
Category How to & DIY (http://youtube.com/watch?
v=YtLEWVu815o)
 Added: February 22, 2017
From: enuffer
A four year and sever year old engaging in classic Piagetian
conversation tasks (4 minutes) (http://youtube.com watch?
v=MpREiRpgv8)
 Added: February 10, 2007
From: jenningh
Piaget- concrete operation stage- d piaget- concrete operation
stage- deductive reasoning (http://youtube.com/watch?
v=YJyuy4B2aKU)
2. Piagetian Task Observation. Complete this task with a preschool aged
child (3-5), a younger primary child (grade K-2) and an older
primary/intermediate grade child (grade 3-5)
Complete at least 3 different tasks with each child
A. Conduct the 3 Piagetian tasks with 3 different children (see above). RECORD
your actions, statements, and the Child’s responses and actions. Hints:
setting up a chart/table with spaces for you to record can be helpful to make
sure you follow the protocols correctly.
B. For each child, for each task, determine what stage of conversation the child
seems to achieved (preconverser, transition, conserver). Give a rationale for
your choice that is based on the child’s actions/response for each task.
You should have a minimum of 3 children, 3 task each, with assessment of
the child’s performance of each task.
STEP FOR EACH TASK- to be followed completely and in order.
1. Physical set up task. Provide a “story” to go with the task.
2. Assure the child establish equivalenceꟷ sees properties of both as equal.
3. Rearrange one using the story.
4. Ask the child: Do both the same amount now or does one have more?
How they know that?
5. Go back to the original set up and re-establish equivalence.
 6. Rearrange the other in a DIFFERENT manner; use the same or another
story. Ask the child, “Are they both the same or does one have more
now?”
7. Provide a response to the OPPOSITE of how the child originally
responded ꟷask the child if the “other” child was correct and why/why
not.
8. Re-establish equivalence

TYPES OF TASKS:
Conversation of matterꟷ for examples, clay balls (start as balls, then change
to pancakes, snakes, or multiple smaller balls)
Conversation of numberꟷ 2 sets of 7 familiar items (move closer together
and further apart)
Conversation of liquidꟷ colored water in the same and different containers
Conversation of lengthꟷ equal lengths of string or ribbon
Conversation of areaꟷ area covered by other objects (for example ꟷ 2 equal
sized pieces of green construction paper to be the “grass” and blocks/leggos
as barns)
Conversation of weightꟷ need a weight or balance for this one ꟷ take two
balls of clay that weight the same, change shapeꟷ does weight change
Conversation of displacementꟷ two clays balls same size, two large
containers of water ꟷchanging the volume (shape) of the object is what
displace volumeꟷ not its weight or position
(Based on E Labinowicz (1980). The Piaget Primer. Thinking, learning,
teaching. Menio park, CA: Addison-Wesley.
Analysis
For Activity 1:
1. Describe what is seen in the video
2. Identify the cognitive stage where the children in each of the video are
in. explain your answer.
For Activity 2: (Your Teacher may prescribe a format for your report or you may
design your own format)
1. Make an observation report. You should have minimum of 3 children.
3 tasks each.
 2. Write an assessment of each child’s performance of each task.
Indicate your assessment of the child’s conversation stage and the
rationale you use to justify your assessment.
3. Use these CONVERSATION STAGES to identify the specific cognitive
stage of each child.
PRESCONSERVER- consistently centers on only one dimension of the
situation; perception guides thinking rather than logic.
TRANSITIONAL THINKER- is inconsistent, may be swayed by not
having answer challenged, may converse in the first example but not
in the second
CONSERVER- consistently able to conserve and provide logical and
accurate reasons for answer.
Abstraction/Generalization
For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development.
His research method involved observing small number of individual as they
responded to cognitive tasks that he designed. These tasks were later known as
Piagetian tasks.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemology”
because he was interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget
was initially into biology and he also had a background in philosophy. Knowledge
from both these disciplines influenced his theories and research of child
development. Out of his researches, Piaget came uo with the stages of cognitive
development.
Piaget examined the implications of his theory not only to aspects of
cognition but also to intelligence and moral development. His theory has been
applied widely to r=teaching and curriculum design specially in the preschool and
elementary curricula.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema. Piaget used the term schema to refer to the cognitive structures
by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an
individual’s way to understand or create meaning about thing or experience. It is
like the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer has folders that contain files of
things he has had an experience with. For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first
time, he creates his own schema of what dog is. It has four legs and a tail. It barks.
It’s furry. The child then “puts this description of a dog ‘on file’ in his mind. When he
sees another similar dog, he “pulls” out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind,
looks at the animals, and says, “four legs, tail, barks, furry… That’s a dog!’
Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing
or previously created cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog,
this time a smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by adding this
new information (a different-looking dog) into his schema of a dog.
Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema. If the
same child now sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog but somehow
different. He might try to fit it into schema of a dog, and say, “Look mommy, what a
funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too!” then the mommy explains, “that’s not a
funny looking dog. That’s a goat!” with mommy’s further descriptions, the child will
now create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filing
cabinet.
Equilibration. Piaget believed that the people have the natural need to
understand how the world works and find order, structure, and predictability in their
life. Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accommodation. When our experience do not match our schemata (plural of
schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This
means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood.
We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish
equilibrium once more.
Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the
environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget’s
theory is similar in nature to other constructivist perspective of learning like Brunner
and Vygotsky.

Piaget’s Stage of Cognitive Development

Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage. The first stage corresponding from birth to
infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping,
sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The
term sensori-motor focuses on the prominence of the sense and muscle
movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the world.
In working with children in the sensori-motor stage, teachers should aim to
provide a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play with.
 Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know that an object
still exists even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.
Stage 2. Pre-operational Stage. The pre-operational stage covers from about
two- to seven-year-old, roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at
this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of
symbols. This stage is high-lighted by the following:
Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects and events. A
symbol is a thing that represents something else. A drawing is a written word, or a
spoken word comes to be understood as representing a real object like a real MRT
train. Symbolic function gradually develops ion the period between 2 to 7 years.
Riel, a two-year old may pretend that she is drinking from a glass which is really
empty. Though she already pretends the presence of water; the glass remains to be
a glass. At around four years of age, Nico, may, after pretending to drink from a
empty glass, turns the glass into a rocket: ship or a telephone. By the age of 6 to 7
the child can pretend play with objects that exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is six,
can do a whole ninja turtle routine without any costume nor “props”. Tria, who is 7
can pretend to host an elaborate princess ball only in her mind.
Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view
and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take
the perspective of others. You see this in five-year-old boy who buy a toy truck for
his mother’s birthday. Or three-year-old girl who cannot understand why her
cousin’s call her daddy, uncle and not daddy.
Centration. This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one
aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects. For example, when a child is
presented with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will
say they have the same amount of water. However, once water from one of the
glasses is transfer to an obviously taller but narrower glass, the child might say that
there is more water in the taller glass. The child only focus sed on “centered” only
one aspect of the new glass, that is taller glass. The child was not able to perceive
that the new glass is also a narrower. The child only centered on the height of the
glass and excluded the width in determine the amount of water in the glass.
Reversibility. Pre-operational children still has the inability to
reverse their thinking. They can understand that 2+3 is 5, but cannot
understand that 5 – 3 is 2.
 Animism. This is the tendency of the children to attribute human like
traits Or characteristic to inanimate objects. When at night, the child id
asked, where the sun is, she will reply, “Mr. Sun is asleep.”
Transductive reasoning. This refers to pre-operational child’s type
of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning appears to be from
particular to particular i.e., if A causes B, then B cause A. For example, since her
mommy comes home every day around six o’clock in the evening, when asked why
it is already night, the child will say, “because my mom is already home.”

Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. This stage is characterized by the

ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects. This covers
approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school years. The
concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different
features of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one
aspect or dimension. This allows the child to be more logical when dealing with
concrete objects and situation.
Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now
follow that certain operation can be done in reverse. For example, they can already
comprehend the communication properly of addition, and that subtraction is the
reverse of addition. They can also understand that the ball of clay shaped into a
dinosaur can again be rolled back into a ball of clay.
Conservation. This the ability to know that certain properties of object like
number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance. Because of the development of the child’s ability of decentering and
also reversibility the concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the
amount of water was in a taller but narrow container is still the same as when the
water was in the shorter but wider glass. The children progress to attain
conservation abilities gradually being a pre-conserver, a transitional thinker and then
a conserver.
Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or to arrange things in a series
based on one dimensional such as weight, volume or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. In this final stage of formal
operations covering ages 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can
now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the
following:
Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different
hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make
afinal decision or judgement. This can be done in the absence of concrete
objects. The individuals can now deal with “What if” questions.
Analogical Reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the relationship to
narrow down possible answer in another similar situations or problem. The
individual in the formal operations stage can make an analogy. If United
Kingdom is to Europe, then the Philippines is to ________. The individual will
reason that since UK is found in the continent of Europe then the Philippines
is found in what continent? The Asia is his answer. Through reflective
thought and even in the absence of the concrete objects, the individual can
now understand relationships and do analogical reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning. This id the ability to think logically by
applying a general rule to a particular instance or situation. For example, all
countries near the North pole have cold temperatures. Greenland id near in
the North Pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature.
From Piaget’s finding and comprehensive theory, we can derive the
following principles:
1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of
cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations
that engage learners and require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and
accommodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of
motor or mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking
students to perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive
capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present
challenges.

Synapse Strengtheners
 Organize a talk show. Four students volunteer (or will be assigned by
teacher) to acts as Piaget. Students 1 will be interrogated on Stage 1 of Piaget,
students 2 on stage 2, student 3, on Stage 3 and Students 4 on Stage 4. The
students acting Piaget should master the stage assigned to them to enable them to
answer questions from classmates.
The students should use the pronoun YOU when they ask the question and
four students acting as Piaget must use the pronoun I when they answer the
question.
Name:_______________________________________ Yr. & Sec. _______________
Application
1. Read the matrices below showing the application of Piaget’s principles in
teaching.

Teaching the Preoperational Child

Principle Application

Use concrete props and visual aids to illustrate

lesson and help children understand what is  • Use physical illustrations.

being presented.  • Use drawing and illustrations.

Make instructions relatively short, using  • After giving instructions, ask a student to

actions as well as words, to lessen likelihood demonstrate them as a model for the rest of the class.

that the students will get confused.  • Explain a game by acting out the part of a
participant.

Do not expect the students to find it easy to  

• Avoid lessons about worlds too far removed from the
see the world from someone else’s
perspective since they are likely to be very child’s experience.
 • Discuss sharing from child’s own experience.
egocentric at this point.
• Use cut-out letter to build words.
Give children a great deal of physical practice
 • Avoid overuse of workbooks and other paper-and-pen
with the facts and skills that will serve as
tasks.
building blocks for later development.

 • Provide opportunities to play with clay, water, and

Encourage the manipulation of physical
sand.
objects that can change in shape while
 • Engage students in conversations about the changes
retaining a constant mass, giving the students
the students are experiencing when manipulating
a chance to move towards the understanding
of conversation and two-way logic needed in objects.
the next stage.  • Take field trips.

Provide many opportunities to experience the

world in order to build a foundation for  • Use and teach words to describe what they are
concept learning and language. seeing, doing, touching, tasting, etc.
 •Discuss what they are seeing on T.V.

(Toddler and Early Childhood)

Teaching the Concrete Operational Child

Principle Application
Continue to use concrete props  • Provide time-line for history lessons.
and visual aids, especially when  • Provide three-dimensional models in science.

dealing with sophisticated material.  • Demonstrate simple scientific experiments in which the students
can participate.
 • Show craftwork to illustrate daily occupation of people of an
Continue to give students a chance
earlier period.
to manipulate objects and test out
 • Use materials that present a progression of ideas from step to
their ideas.
step.

Make sure that lectures and  • Have students read short stories or books with short logical
readings are brief and well chapters, moving to longer reading assignments only when the
organized. students are ready.

Ask students to deal with no more  • Require reading with a limited number of characters.

than three or four variables at a  • Demonstrate experiments with a limited number of steps.

time.
 • Compare students’ own lives with those of the characters in a
story.
Use familiar examples to help
 • Use story problems in mathematics.
explain more complex ideas so
 • Give students separate sentences on slips of paper to be grouped
students will have a beginning into paragraphs.
point for assimilating new
information.
 • Use outlines, hierarchies, and analogies to show the relationship
 of unknown new material to already acquired knowledge.

Give opportunities to classify and

group objects and ideas on  • Provide materials such as Mind Twisters, Brain, Teaser, and
riddles.
increasingly complex levels.
 • Focus discussions on open-ended questions which stimulate
Present problems which require
thinking (e.g. are the mind and the brain the same thing?)
logical, analytical thinking to solve.
(Middle Childhood)

Teaching Students Beginning to Use Formal Operation

(Adolescent)
Principles Application
Continue to use many of the teaching  • Use visual aids such as charts and illustrations as well a

strategies and materials appropriate for simple but somewhat more sophisticated graphs and

students at the concrete operational diagrams.

 • Use well-organized materials that offers step by step
stage.
explanations.
 • Provide students opportunities to discuss social issues.
 • Provide consideration of hypothetical “other words”.
Give students an opportunity to explore
 • Ask students to work in pairs with one student acting as
many hypothetical questions. the problem solver, thinking aloud while tackling a problem,
with the other students acting as the listener, checking to
see that all steps are mentioned and that everything seems
Encourage students to explain how they logical.
solve problems.  • Make sure that at least some of the tests you give ask for
more than role memory or one final answer, easy questions,
for example, might ask the students to justify two different
positions on an issue.
Whenever possible, teach broad
 • While discussing a topic such as the Civil War, consider
concepts, not just fats, using materials
what other issues have divided the country since then.
and ideas relevant to the students.
 • Use lyrics from popular music to teach poetic devices, to
reflect on social problems, and so on.

2. Make a simple Piagetian-Based Learning Activity Plan.

3. Choose the age-level you want to work with, and the topic you want to
explore.
Topic________________________________________________________________
 For what age level? Check one.
 Toddler/Early Childhood
 Middle Childhood
 Adolescent
4. Pick 5 or more application from the matrix and describe the specific activity
you plan to do.
Example:
Topic__________________________________________________________
Application Specific Plan

Provide timeliness for history lesson I will ask my students to make a time line of
Rizal’s Life.
Application My Specific Plan
5 Minutes Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!
From the module on Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development, I learned that
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 MODULE 4
Erickson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et.al

“HEALTHY CHILDREN WILL NOT FEAR IF THEIR ELDERS HAVE INTEGRITY

ENOUGH NOT TO FEAR DEATH”
-ERIK ERIKSON

Take the Challenges!

In this module, challenge yourself to:

 Explain the 8 Stages of Life to someone you care about,

 Write a short story of your life using of Erikson’s theory as framework.
 Suggest at least 6 ways on how Erikson’s theories can be useful for you as a
future teacher.

Introduction

Erikson’s Stage of psychosocial development is a very relevant, highly

regarded and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving theory
guides us and helps to tell us why.

Activity

Erik Erikson’s Stage Theory of Development Questionnaire

This contains selected items from Rhona Ochse and Comelis Plug’s
self- report questionnaire assessing the personality dimensions associated with
Erikson’s first 5 Stages of psychosexual development. It can serve to make the
stages personally relevant to you.
 Indicate how often each of these statements apply to you by using
the following scale:
0 =never applies to you
1 = occasionally or seldom applies to you
2 = fairly often applies to you
3 = very often applies to you

Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust

( Infancy and Early Childhood)
____ 1. I feel Pessimistic about the future of humankind.
____2. I feel the world’s major problems can be solve
____3. I am filled with admiration of human kind.
____4. People can be trusted
____5. I feel Optimistic about my future.
Total Score Stage 1

Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt

( Infancy and Childhood)
____6. When people try to persuade me to do something I
don’t want to, I refuse.
____7. After I have made a decision, I feel I have a
mistake.
____8. I worry that my friends will find fault with me.
____9. I am unnecessary apologetic.
____10. When I disagree with someone, I tell them.
Total Score Stage 2

Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt ( Infancy and

Childhood)
_____11. I am prepared to take a risk to get what I want.
_____12. I feel hesitated to try out a new way of doing
something.
____13. I am confident in carrying out my plans to a
successful conclusion.
____14. I feel what happen to me the result of what I
have done is.
____15. When I have difficulty in getting something right,
I give up.
Total Score Stage 3

Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority

( Infancy and Childhood)
____16. When people look at something I have one, I feel
embarrassed.
____17. I get a great deal of pleasure from working.
_____18. I feel too incompetent to do what I would really
like to do in life.
_____19. I avoid doing something difficult because I feel I
would fail.
____20. I feel competent.
Total Score Stage 4

Stage 5: Identity Versus Identity Diffusion

( Adolescence)
_____21. I wonder what sort of people I really am.
____22. I feel certain about what I should do with my life.
____23. My worth is recognized by others.
_____24. I feel proud to be the sort of people I am.
_____25. I am Unsure as to how people feel about me.
Total Score Stage 5

Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation

( Early Adulthood)
____26. I feel that no one has ever known the real me.
_____27. I have a feeling of complete “togetherness” with
someone.
_____28. I feel it is better to remain free than to become
committed to marriage for life.
____29. I share my private thoughts with someone.
____0. I feel as though I am alone in the world.
Total Score Stage 6
Scoring:

Items on the questionnaire were derived from Erikson’s statement

about each stage.

Scores for each subscales range from 0-15, with high scores reflecting greater
strength on a particular personality dimension.

1. The response to item 1 should be reversed (0=, 1=2, 2=1,3=0) and the
added to the numbers given in response to items 2,,4,and 5 to obtain a
trust score.
2. Responses to items 7,8 and 9 e reversed an added to items 6 and 10 to
assess autonomy.
3. Answer to 12 and 15 should be reversed and added to items 11, 13, and 14
to measure initiative.
4. Answer to 16, 18 and 19 should be reverse and then added to 17 and 20 to
calculate industry.
5. Responses to 21 and 25 must be reversed and added to 22, 24,and 25 to
obtain a measure of identity.
6. Answer to 26, 28 and 30 are reversed and added to 27 and 29 to give
intimacy.
 Analysis

Plot your score for each stage; encircle your score for each stage.

What did you discover about yourself after answering the questionnaire?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
______________

Have these scores in mind as you read about Erikson’s stages and see
how the stages can guide you in self-understanding and in understanding others as
well.

Abstraction/Generalization
Introduction to the 8 Stages:

1. Erikson’s ‘psychosocial’ term is derived from the two source words namely
psychological ( or the root, “psycho” relating to the mind, rain, personality,
etc.) and social ( external relationship and environment), both at the heart
of Erikson’s theory. Occasionally, you’ll see the terms extended to bio
psychosocial, in which “bio” refers to life, as in biological.
2. Erikson’s theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson
extended the theory and incorporates cultural and social aspects into
Freud’s biological and sexually oriented theory.
3. It is also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps aided
by his own journey through the ‘psychosocial crisis’ stages model that
underpinned his work.
4. Like other influential theories, Erikson’s model is simple and well-designed.
The theory is a basis for broad or complex discussion and analysis of
personality and behavior, and also for understanding and for facilitating
personal development- of self and others. It can help the teacher in
becoming more knowledgeable of and at the same time understand the
various environmental factors that affect his/her own and his/her ‘ students’
personality and behavior.
5. Erikson’s 8 stages theory is a tremendously powerful model. It is very
accessible and obviously relevant to modern life, from several difficult
perspective, for understanding and explaining how personality and behavior
develop in people. As such Erikson’s theory is useful for teaching, parenting,
self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing with conflict, and generally
for understanding self and others.
6. Various terms are used to describe Erikson’s model, for example Erikson’s
biopsychosocial or bio-psycho-social theory ( bio refers to biological, which in
this content means life); Erikson’s human development cycle or life cycle and
variation if these. All refers to the same eight stages psychosocial theory, it
being Erikson’s most distinct work and remarkable model.
7. The epigenetic principle. As Boerce explains, “This principle says that we
develop through a predetermined unfolding or our personalities in eight
stages. Our progress through each stage is in part determined by our
success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages. A little like the
unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time in a certain
order, which nature, through each genetics, has determined. If we interfere
in the natural order of development pulling a petal forward prematurely or
out of order, we ruin the development of entire flower. “Erikson’s theory
delved into how personality is formed and believes that the earlier stages
serve as the foundation of the later stages. The theory highlighted the
influenced of one’s environment, particularly on how earlier experience
gradually build up the next and result into one’s personality.
8. Each stages involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional
force. A helpful term used by Erikson for this opposing force is ‘contrary
dispositions’. Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its
inherent challenges. Erikson used the words ‘syntonic’ for the first-listed
‘positive’ disposition in each crisis (e.g. Trust) and ‘dystonic’ for the second-
listed “negative” disposition (e.g. Mistrust). To signify the opposing or
conflicting relationship between each pair of forces or dispositions, Erikson
connected them with the word “versus”.
9. If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial
strength which will help us through the rest of the stages of our lives.
Successfully passing through each crisis involves ‘achieving’ a healthy ratio
or Balance between the two opposing dispositions that represents each
crisis.
10. On the other hand, if we don’t do so well, we may develop maladaptation
and malignancies, as well as endanger all our future development. A
malignancy is the worst of the two, and involves too little of the positive
and too much of the negative aspect of the task. Such as a person who can’t
trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much of
the positive and too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too
much.
11. The crisis stages are not sharply define steps. Element tends to overlap and
mingle from one stage to the next an to the preceding stages. It’s a broad
framework and concept, not a mathematical formula which replicates
precisely across all people and situations.
12. Erikson was keen to point out that the transition between stages is
“overlapping”. Crisis stage connects with each other like inter-laced fingers,
not like a series of neatly stacked boxes. People don’t suddenly wake up one
morning and be in a new life stage. Changes don’t happen in regimented
clear-cut steps. Changes are graduated, mixed-together and organic.
13. Erikson also emphasized the significance of “mutuality” and “generativity” in
his theory. The terms are linked. Mutuality reflects the effect of generations
on each other, especially among families, and particularly between parents
and children and grandchildren. Everyone potentially affects everyone else’s
experiences as they pass through the different crisis stages. Generativity ,
actually a named disposition within one of the crisis stage ( generativity v
stagnation, stage seven), reflects the significant relationship between adult
and the best interest of children – one’s own children, and ina way everyone
else’s children – the next generation, and all following generations.

Now you are ready to go over to the eight stages. As you read, enjoy
filling up the concept map we made, found at the beginning of each
stage. This will help you remember the important term in each stage
and how these terms are interrelated. The first stage is done for you.
Use the side margins to write your thoughts about the stage and how
they connect to your own life now and as a future teacher.
 The Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development:

(The following discussion is a shortened version of George Boerce’s work on

Erik Erikson used in this module with permission from Dr. Boercee Shippenburg
University, Pennysylvania)

Stage One

Stage 1
Infancy
To Much________ To Much _________

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

Sensory maladjustment Trust Vs Mistrust withdrawal

Virtue
hope

Psychosocial Crisis

The first stage, Infancy, is approximately the first year or year and a
half of life. The crisis is trust vs mistrust. The goal is to develop trust without
complete climinating the capacity of mistrust. If the primary caregivers, like the
parent can give the baby a sense of familiarity, consistency, and continuity, then the
baby will develop the feeling that the world is a safe place to be, that the people are
reliable and loving. If the parent are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the
infant or harm it, if other interests cause both parents to turn away from the infant’s
needs to satisfy their own instead, then the infant will develop mistrust, he or she
will e apprehensive and suspicious around people.

Maladaptation/Malignancy

Please understand that this doesn’t mean that the parents have to be
perfect. In fact, parents are who are overly protective of the child, are there the
minute the first cry comes out, will lead that child into the maladaptive tendency
which Erikson calls “sensory maladjustment”. Overly trusting, even gullible, this
person cannot believe anyone would means them harm, and will use all the
defenses at their command to find an explanation or excuse for the person who did
him wrong. Worse, of course, is the child whose balance is tipped way over on the
mistrust side: they will develop the malignant tendency of “withdrawal”,
characterized y depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis.

Virtue
 If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of
“hope”, the strong belief that, even when things are not going well work out well in
the end. One of the sign that a child is doing well in the first stage is when the child
isn’t overly upset by the need to wait a moment for the satisfaction of his or her
needs: mom and dad doesn’t have to be perfect. I trust them enough to believe
that, if they can’t be here immediately, they will be here soon, things may be tough
now, but they will work out. This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us
through disappointment in love, our career, and many other domains of life.

Stage Two

Stage 2

_____________
Too much ________ Too much _____

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

________________ ___________________ _________

---_

Virtue

will power or determination

Psychosocial Crisis

The second stage is early childhood, from about eighteen months to

three or four years old. The task is to achieve the degree of autonomy while
minimizing shame and doubt. If mom and dad, or caregiver permits the child, now a
toddler, to explore and manipulate his or her environment, the child will develop a
sense of “autonomy or independence”. The parents should not discourage the child,
but neither should they push. A balance is required. People often advice new
parents to be “firm but tolerant” at this stage, and advice is good. This way, the
child will develop instead a shame and doubt. If the parents come down hard on
any attempt to explore and e independent, the child will soon give up with the belief
that he/she cannot and should not act on their own. We should keep in mind that
even something as innocent as laughing at the toddler’s effort can lead the child to
feel deeply ashamed, and to doubt his or her abilities.

And there are other ways to lead children’s to shame and doubt. If you
give children unrestricted freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to help
children do what they should learn to do themselves, you will also give them the
impression that they are not good for much. If you aren’t patient enough to wait for
your child to tie his or her shoe-laces, your child will never learn to tie them, and will
assume that this is too difficult to them.

Maladaptation/Malignancy
 Nevertheless, a little “shame and doubt” is not only inevitable, but
beneficial. Without it, you will develop the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls
“impulsiveness” a sort of shameless willfulness that leads you, in later childhood and
even adulthood, to jump into things without proper consideration of your abilities.
Worse, of course is too much shame and doubt, which leads to his malignancy
Erikson calls “compulsiveness”. The compulsive person feels as if their entire being
rides on everything they do, and so everything must be done perfectly. Following all
the rules precisely keeps you from mistakes must be avoided at all costs. Many of
you know how it feels to always be ashamed and always doubt yourself. A little
more patience and tolerance with your own children may help them avoid your path
and give yourself a little slack, too!

Virtue

If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and
doubt, you will develop the virtue of “will power or determination”. One of the most
admirable – and frustrating – things about two or three years old is their
determination. “Can do” is their motto. If we can preserve that “can do” attitude
(with appropriate modesty to balance it) we are much better off as adults.

Stage Three

Stage 3
___________
Too much _______ Too Much _________

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

__________ _________ __________

Virtue
____________
Psychosocial Crisis

Stage three is the early childhood stage, from three or four to five or six. The
task is to learn initiative without too much guilt. Initiative means a positive response
to the world’s challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling
purposeful. Parents can encourage initiative by encouraging trying out their ideas.
We should accept and encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is a
time for play, not for formal education. The child is now capable, as never before, of
imagining a future situation, one that isn’t a reality right now. Initiative is the
attempt to make that non-reality a reality.
 But if the children can imagine the future, if they can plan, then they can e
responsible as well, and guilty. If my two year old flushes my watch down toilet, a
can safely assume that there were no “evil intention” it was just a matter of shiny
objects going round and round and down. What fun! But if my five years old does
the same thing …. Well, she should know what’s going to happen to the watch,
what’s going to happen to daddy’s temper, and what’s going to happen to her! She
can be guilty of the act, and she can begin to feel guilty as well. The capacity for
moral judgment has arrived.

Erikson is, of course, a Freudian and as such, he includes the oedipal

experience in this stage. From this perspective, the Oedipal crisis involves the
reluctance a child feels in relinquishing his or her closeness to the opposite sex
parent. A parent has a responsibility, socially, to encourage the child to “grow up –
you’re not a baby anymore!” But if this process is done too harshly and too abruptly,
the child learns to feel guilty about his or her feelings.

Maladaptation/Malignancy

Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency
Erikson calls “ruthlessness”. To be ruthless is to e heartless or unfeeling or e
“without mercy”. The ruthless person takes the initiative alright; they have their
plans, whether it’s a matter of school or romance or politics or career. It’s just that
they don’t care who they step on to achieve their goals. The goals are the only
things matter, and guilty feelings and mercy are only signs weakness. The extreme
form of ruthlessness is sociopathy.

Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually relatively easy on the

ruthless person. Harder on the person is the malignancy of too much guilt, which
Erikson calls inhibition. The inhibited person will not try things because “nothing
venture, nothing lost” and, particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They are so
afraid to start and take a lead on a project. They fear that if it fails, they will be
blamed.

Virtue

A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose. A sense

of purpose is something many people crave in their lives, yet many do not realize
that they themselves make their purposes, through imagination and initiative. I think
an even better word for this virtue would have been cocrage, the capacity for action
despite a clear understanding of your limitations and past failings.

Stage Four
Stage 4
_______
Too much ____________ Too much_______
Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy
Maladaptation
_________________ ___________ ________

Virtue
___________
Psychosocial Crisis

Stage four is the school-age stage when the child is from about six to twelve.
The task is to develop a capacity for industry while avoiding an excessive sense of
“inferiority” children must “tame the imagination” and dedicate themselves to
education and to learning the social skills their society requires of them. There is a
much broader social sphere at work now. The parents and other family member are
joined by teacher and peers and other member of the community at large. They all
contribute. Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers must accept.
Children must learn that there is pleasure not only in conceiving a plan, but in
carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of success weather it is in school or on
the playground, academic or social.

A good way to tell the different between a child in the third stage and one in
the fourth stage is to look at the way they play games. Four year-olds may love
games, but they will have only a vague understanding of the rules, may change
them several times during the course of the game, and e very unlikely to actually
finish the game, unless it is by throwing the pieces at their opponents. A seven
year- old , on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules, consider them pretty much
sacred, and is more likely to get upset if the game is not allowed to come to its
required conclusion.

If the child is allowed too little success, because of harsh teachers or

rejecting peers, for example, then he or she will develop instead a sense of
inferiority or incompetence. An additional source of inferiority Erikson mentions is
racism, sexism, and other form of discrimination: if a child believes that success is
related to who you are rather than to how hard try, then why try?

Maladaptation/Malignancy

Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called “narrow

virtuosity”. We see this in children who aren’t allowed to “be children” the ones that
parents or teacher push into one area of competence, without allowing the
development of broader interests. These are the kids without a life: child actors,
child athletes, child musician, child prodigies of all sorts. We all admire their
industry, but if we look a little closer, it’s all that stands in the way of an empty life.

Much more common is the malignancy called “inertia”. This includes all of us
who suffer from the “inferiority complexes” that Alfred Adler talked about. If at first
you don’t succeed, don’t ever try again! Many of us didn’t do well in mathematics,
for example, so we’d die before we took another math class. Other was humiliated
instead in the P.E. class, so we never try out for a sport or play a game of
basketball. Other never developed social skills- the most important skills of all – and
so we never go out in public. We become inert.

Virtue

A happier things is to develop the right balance of industry and inferiority –

that is, mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep us sensibly humble.
Then we have the virtue called “competency”.
 Stage Five

Stage 5
________
Too much________ Too much_________

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

__________ _________ ____________

Virtue
__________
Psychosocial Crisis

Stage five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around 18 or

20 years old. The task during adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid role
confusion. It was adolescence that interested Erikson first and most, and the
patterns, he saw here were the bases for his thinking about all the other stages.

Ego Identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in to the rest of
society. It requires that you take all you’ve learned about life and yourself and mold
it into a unified self-image, one that your community finds meaningful.

There are a number of things that make things easier. First, we should have
a mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the adolescence’s respect, one with
good adult role models and open lines of communication.

Further, society should provide clear rites of passage, certain

accomplishment and rituals that help to distinguish the adult from the child. In
primitive and traditional societies, an adolescent boy may be asked to leave the
village for a period of time to live on his own, hunt some symbolic animal, or seek
an inspiration vision. Boys and girls may e required to go through certain tests of
endurance, symbolic ceremonies, or educational events. In one way or another, the
distinction between the powerless, but irresponsible, time of childhood and the
powerful and responsible time of adulthood, is made clear.

Without these things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning an

uncertainty about one’s place in society and the world. When an adolescent is
confront y role confusion, Erikson says he or she is suffering from an identity crisis.
In fact, a common question adolescents in our society ask is a straight- forward
question of identity; “Who am I?”
 One of Erikson’s suggestions for adolescence in our society is the
psychosocial moratorium. He suggests you take a little “time out”. If you have
money, go to Europe. If you don’t, um around the US quit school and get a jo and
go to school, take a break, smell the roses, get to know yourself. We tend to want
to get to “success” as fast as possible, and yet few of us have ever taken the time to
figure out what success means to us. A little like the young Oglala Lakota Indian
that Erikson study, perhaps we need to dream a little.

There is such a thing as much as” ego identity” where a person is involved in
a particular role in a particular society of]r subculture that there is no room left for
tolerance. Erikson calls this maladaptive tendency “fanaticism”. A fanatic believes
that his way is the only way. Adolescents are, of course, known for their idealism,
and for their tendency to see things in lack-and-white. These people will gather
other around them and promote their beliefs and life-style without regard to other
right to disagree.

The lack of identity is perhaps more difficult still, and Erikson refers to the
malignant tendency here as “repudiation”. To repudiate is to rejects. They reject
their membership in the world of adults and, even more, they reject their need for
identity. Some adolescent prefers to go to groups that go against the norms to form
their identity: religious cults, militaristic organizations, group founded on hatred,
groups that have divorced themselves from the painful demands of mainstream
society. They may become involved in destructive activities, drugs, or alcohol or you
may withdraw into their own psychotic fantasies. After all, being “bad” or being
“nobody” is better than not knowing who you are!

If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erikson
called “fidelity”. Fidelity means loyalty, the ability to live in societies standards
despite their imperfections and incompleteness and inconsistencies. We are not
talking about blind loyalty; we are not talking about accepting the imperfection.
After all, if you love your community, you will want to see it become the best it can
be. But fidelity means that you have found a place in that community, a place that
allows you to contribute.

Stage Six

Stage 6
Young Adulthood
Too much________ To much________

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

promiscuity Intimacy exclusion

Virtue
love
Psychosocial Crisis

If you have made it this far, you are in the stage of young adulthood, which
last from about 18 to about 30. The age in the adult stage is much fuzzier than in
the childhood stages, and people may differ dramatically. The task is to achieve
some degree of intimacy, as oppose to remaining in-isolation.

Intimacy is the ability to e close to others, as a lover, a friend, and as a

participant in society. Because you have a clear sense of which you are, you no
longer need to fear “losing” yourself, as may adolescent do. The “fear of
commitment” some people seems to exhibit is an example of immaturity in this
stage. This fear isn’t always so obvious. Many people today are always putting off
the progress of their relationships: I’ll get married (or have a family, or get involve
in important social issues) as soon as I finish school, as soon as I have a job, as
soon as I have a house, as soon as… if you’ve been engage for the last ten years,
what’s holding you back?

Neither should the young adult need to prove him or herself anymore. A
teenage relationship is often a matter of trying to establish identity through (couple-
hood). Who am I? I’m her boyfriend. The young adult relationship should be a
matter of two independent egos wanting to create something larger than them. We
intuitively recognize this when we frown on a relationship between a young adult
and a teenager; we see the potential for manipulating of the younger member of
the party y the older.

Maladaptation/Malignancy

Erikson calls the maladaptive form “promiscuity” referring particularly to the

tendency to become intimate too freely, too easily, and without any depth to your
intimacy. This can be true in your relationship with friend and neighbors and your
whole community as well as with lovers.

The malignancy he calls “exclusion”, which refers to the tendency to isolate

oneself from love, friendship, and community, and to develop certain hatefulness in
compensation of one’s loneliness.

Virtue

If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with you for
the rest of your life the virtue or psychosocial strength Erikson’s called “love”. Love,
in the context of his theory, means being able to put aside differences and
antagonism through “mutuality of devotion”. It includes not only the love we find in
a good marriage, but the love between friends and the love of one’s neighbor, co-
worker, and compatriot as well.
 Stage Seven

Stage 7
Middle Adulthood
Too much________ Too much___

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

Overextension Generativity and Stagnation Rejectivity

Virtue
Capacity for caring

Psychosocial Crisis

The seven stages is that middle adulthood. It is hard to pin a time to it, but
it would include the period during which we are actively involved in raising children.
For most people in our society, this would put it somewhere between the middle
twenties and the late fifties. The task here is to cultivate the proper balance of
“generativity and stagnation”.

Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a concern for the

next generation and all future generation. As such, it is considerably less “selfish”
than the intimacy of the previous stage: Intimacy, the love between lovers and
friends, is a lover’s between equals, and it is necessarily mutual. With generativity,
the individual, like a parent, does not expect to be repaid for the love he gives to his
children, at least not as strongly, few parents expect a “return on their investment”
from their children; if they do, we don’t think of them as very good parent!

Although the majority of people practice generativity by having and rising children,
there are many other ways as well. Erikson considers teaching, writing, invention,
the art and science, social activism, and generally contributing to the welfare of
future generations to be generativity as well – anything, in fact, that satisfies that
old “need to be needed”. Stagnation, on the other hand, is self-absorption, caring
for no-one. The stagnant person stops to be a productive member of society.

Maladaptation/Malignancy

It is perhaps hard to imagine that we should have any “stagnation” in

Our lives, but the maladaptive tendency Erikson called “overextension “illustrates
the problem. Some people try to be so generative that they no longer allow time for
themselves, for rest and relaxation. The person who is overextended no longer
contributes well. I’m sure we all know someone who belongs to so many clubs, or is
devoted to so many causes or tries to take so many classes or hold so many jobs
that they no longer have time to any of them!

More obvious, of course, in the malignant tendency of “rejectivity” too

little generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer participating in or
contributing to the society. And much of what we call “the meaning of life” is a
matter of how we participate and what we contribute.

This is the stage of “midlife crisis”. Sometimes men and women take a
look at their lives and ask that big, ad question “what am I doing all this for?”.
Notice the question carefully: because their focus is on themselves, they ask what,
rather than whom, they are doing it for. In their panic and getting older and not
having experienced or accomplish what they imagined they would when they were
younger, they try to recapture their youth. Men are often the most flambouyant
example: they leave their long-suffering wives, quit their humdrum jobs, buy some
“hip” new clothes, and start hanging around singles bars. Of course, they seldom
find what they are looking for, because they are looking the wrong thing!
Virtue

But if you are successful at this stage, you will have a capacity for
caring that will serve you through the rest of your life.

Stage Eight

Stage 8
________________
Too much__________ To much___

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

_______________ _____________________ ________

Virtue
______________
Psychosocial Crisis

This last stage, referred to delicately as late adulthood or maturity, or

less delicately as old age, begins sometimes around retirement, after the kids have
gone, say somewhere around 60. Some older folks will protest and say it only starts
when you feel old and so on, But that’s an effect of our youth-worshipping culture,
which has even old people avoiding any acknowledgement of age. In Erikson’s
theory, reaching this stage is a good thing, and not reaching it suggests that earlier
problems retarded your development!

The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair.

This stage seems like the most difficult of all. First comes a detachment from
society, from a sense of usefulness, for most people in our culture. Some retire from
jobs they’ve held for years; other find their duties as parents coming to a close,
most find that their input is no longer requested or required.

Then there is a sense of biological uselessness, as the body no longer

does everything it used to, women go through a sometimes dramatic menopause;
men often find they can no longer “rise to the occasion” then there are the illnesses
of the old age, such as arthritis. Diabetes, heart problems, concerns about breast
and ovaries and prostate cancers. There come fears about things that one was
never afraid of before - - the flu, for example, or just falling down. Along with the
illness come concerns of death. Friends die, relatives die. One’s spouse dies. It is, of
course, certain that you, too will have your turn, faced with all this, it might seem
like everyone would feel despair.

In response to this despair, some older become preoccupied with the

past. After all, that’s where things were better. Some become preoccupied with their
failures, the ad decisions they made, and regret that (unlike some in the previous
stage) they really don’t have the time or energy to reverse them. We find some
older people become depressed, spiteful, paranoid, hypochondriacally, or developing
the patterns of senility with or without physical bases.

Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby coming to
terms with the end of life. If you are able to look back and accept the course of
event, the choices made, your life as you lived it, as being necessary, then you
needn’t fear death, although most of you are not at this point in life perhaps you
can still sympathize by considering your life up to now. We’ve all made mistake,
you wouldn’t be who you are. If you have been very fortunate, or if you have played
it made very few mistakes, your life would not have been as rich as is.

Maladaptation/malignancy

The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is

what happens when a person “presumes” ego integrity without actually facing the
difficulties of old age. The person in old age believes that he alone is right. He does
not respect the ideas and views of the young. The malignant tendency is called
disdain, by which Erickson means a contempt of life, one’s own or anyone’s. the
person becomes very negative and appears to hate life.

VIRTUE

Someone who approaches death without fear has the strength erikson calls
wisdom. He calls it a gift to children, because “healthy children well not fear life if
their elders have integrity enough not to fear death”. He suggest that you
understand “gifted” in as broad a fashion as possible: I have found that there are
people of very modest gift who have taught me a great deal, not their wise words,
but by their simple and gentle approach to life and death, by their “generosity of
spirit”
Synapse Strengtheners

1. Read on Erickson’s ideas about the work he did with the Sioux Indians and
his research on Gandi.
 APPLICATION

1) Make a synthesis of the concept of erikson’s theory. Apply these concepts

by thinking of suggestions on what the teacher
2) r should remember and do in order to facilitate learning and development
of the virtues in each of the stage below.

Life stage/ Significant Virtue Suggestions for

Psycho social relationship issues teachers
crisis
Infancy Hope and drive( faith, inner
calm grounding, basic feeling
that everything will be okay-
enabling exposure to risk, a
trust in life and others, inner
resolve and strength in the
face of uncertainly and risk)
Toddler hood Willpower and self control (self
determination, self belief, self
reliance, confidence in self to
decide things, having a voice,
being one’s own person
persistence, self-discipline,
independence of though,
responsibility, judgment
preschool Purpose & direction ( sence of
purpose decision –making,
working with the leading
others, initiating project and
ideas, courage to instigate,
ability to define personal
direction and aim and goals,
able to take initiative and
appropriate risk)
School age Competence and
method( making things,
producing result, applying
skills and processes
productively, feeling valued
and capable of contributing,
ability to apply method and
process in pursuit of ideas or
objective, confidence to seek
and respond to challenge and
learning, active busy
productive outlook)
Adolescent Fidelity& devotion( self-
period confidence and self-esteem
 necessary to freely associate
with people and ideas based
on merit, loyalty, social and
interpersonal integrity,
discretion, personal standard
and dignity, pride and personal
identity, seeing useful personal
role(s) and purpose(s) in life )
Young adult Love & affiliation (capability to
give and receive love –
emotionally and physical,
connectivity with others,
socially and inter-personally
comfortable, ability to form
honest reciprocating
relationship and friendship,
capacity to bond and commit
with others for mutual
satisfaction- for work and
personal life, reciprocity- give
and take- towards good)
 Application

5 Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…… NOW!

From the module of erikson ‘s psycho- social theory of development

I learned that
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 MODULE 5.
Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory
Adapted from : Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et al

In this module, challenge yourself to:

• explain the what the zone of proximal development is.

• demonstrate appreciation for the use of scaffolding to

facilitate learning.

• teach a simple skill using scaffolding.

Introduction

The key theme of Vygotsky's theory is that social interaction plays a very
important role in cognitive development. He believed that individual development
could not be understood without looking into the social and cultural context within
which development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky's term for the appropriate
assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task. Learn more
about it as you do the activity. Read on!

Activity

1. As a child, recall a skill that you wanted to learn and eventually learned well,
through the help of another person. (like swimming, riding a bike, playing
the piano, skating, etc.)
2. What made you interested to learn the skill?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________

3. Who taught or assisted you?

____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

4. Describe how you went about learning the skill. Describe what steps or actions
the person did in order to help you learn.

____________________________________________________________________
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___________________________
 Analysis

1. Form groups of three members each. Share your answers in 1-4.

2. What factors in the environment influenced you to learn the

skills.________________________________________________________________
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Abstraction Generalization

1. Did the person who taught or assisted you make use of scaffolding? If yes, how?
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When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a teacher who used
the Socratic method. This method was a systematic question and answer approach
that allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher levels of
understanding. This experience, together with his interest in literature and his work
as a teacher, led him to recognize social interactions and language as two central
factors in cognitive development. His theory became known as the Socio-Cultural
theory of development.

Social Interaction. Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens

through participation in social activities, making the social context of learning
crucial. Parents, teachers, and other adults in the learners' environment all
contribute to the process. They explain model, assist, give directions, and provide
feedback to the learner. Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and
enrich the learning experiences.
 Language. Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that
others already have. Learners can use language to know and understand the world
and solve problem. Language serves a social function but it also has an important
individual function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking.
Children talks to themselves. Observe preschoolers play and you may hear,
"Gagawin ko itong airplane (holding a rectangular block), tapos ito ang airport
(holding two long blocks)". For Vygotsky, this "talking-to-oneself" is an indication of
the thinking that goes on in the mind of the child. This will eventually lead to private
speech. Private speech is a form of self-talk that guides the child's thinking and
action.

Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning. Children learn

better through hands-on activities than passive learning. Learning by doing is even
made more fruitful when children interact with knowledgeable adults and peers.

When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, s/he may not be immediately
proficient at it. So, alone s/he may perform at a certain level of competency. We
refer to this as the zone of actual development. However, with the guidance of a
competent adult or a more advanced peer, the child can perform at a higher level of
competency. The difference between what the child can accomplish alone and what
she can accomplish with the guidance of another is what Vygotsky referred to as
zone of proximal development. The zone represents a learning opportunity
where a knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more advanced peer
can assist the child's development. See the illustration on the next page.

The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task s/he cannot
accomplish independently is called scaffolding. Scaffolding is not about doing the
task for the child while s/he watches. It is not about doing short cuts for the child.
Unzipping the lunch bag, opening the food container and putting straw in the child's
juice tetra pack for her/him is not scaffolding. Scaffolding should involve the
judicious assistance given by the adult or peer so that the child can move from the
zone of actual to the zone of proximal development. When the adult unzips the
zipper an inch or two, and then holds the lunch bag still so that the child can
continue to unzip the lunch bag is scaffolding. Loosening the food container lid just
a bit and letting the child open the lid himself is scaffolding. Leading the straw to
the hole and letting the child put the straw through the tetra pack hole is
scaffolding.

The examples given above shows how a right amount of assistance can allow
the child to accomplish the task. The instructor should scaffold in such a way that
the gap is bridged between the learner's current skill levels and the desired skill
level. As learners become more proficient, able to complete task on their own that
they could not initially do without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn. This is
called scaffold and fade-away technique. Scaffolding, when done appropriately
can make a learner confident and eventually he can accomplish the task
independently without any need for assistance.
 POTENTIAL LEVEL (Level that the learners achieves with
the assistance of the teacher or more advanced peer)

ACTUAL LEVEL(Level that the L

achieves when alone) E
A
R
N
I
N
INSTRUCTION G
with scaffolding
Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD)

The Zone of Proximal Development (represented by the dotted line)

Synapse Strengthens

1. Vygotsky and Piaget were contemporaries who both focused intently on

cognitive development. Read further on their theories and identify the
commonalities and differences between their theories.
 Application

An exercise in scaffolding:

1. Choose a skill you are good in.

2. Identify an individual to whom you can teach this skill. Somebody who will
benefit from scaffolding.

3. Break down the steps you will take in teaching the skills.

4. Determine how you will use scaffolding. Describe the specific actions you will
do to scaffold.

5. Teach the skill to the individual.

6. Describe how the learning activity went.

5 Minute Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!

From the module on Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory, I learned that…..

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 Module 6

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Adapted from : Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et al

Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:

 Explain the stages of moral development.

 Analyze a person’s level of moral reasoning based on his/her
responses to moral dilemmas.
 Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your
work as teacher later on.

Introduction

Individuals, when confronted by situations where they need to make moral

decisions, exercise their own ability to use moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was
interested in studying the development of moral reasoning. He based his theory on
the findings of Piaget in studying cognitive development. Our ability to choose right
from wrong is tied with our ability to understand and reason logically.

Activity

Read the moral dilemma below.

In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There
was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that
a druggist in the same town had recently discovered, the drug was expensive to
make , but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He
paid $400 for the radium and charged %4,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick
woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money and tried
every legal means, but he could only get together about $2,000, which is half of
what is cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying, and asked him to sell it
cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, “No, I discovered the drug and
I’m going to make money from it. “ So, having tried every legal means, Heinz gets
desperate and considers breaking into the man’s store to store the drug for his wife.

If you were Heinz would you steal the drug? Why? Why not?

Analysis

Examine the answer you gave. Compare it with the responses provided below to
which of these responses is your answer most similar?

Stage 1 – “No, I wouldn’t steal the drug, because I would be punished. The law
says stealing is wrong, so it wrong.”

Stage 2 – “No, I wouldn’t steal the drug, because while I want to save my wife,
being punished would be worse than losing her. I could just get married again.”

Stage 3 – “No, I wouldn’t seal the drug, because people would see me as a selfish
thief who breaks rules just for my own benefit.”

Stage 4 – “No, I wouldn’t steal the drug, because there is a greater good to be
maintained – rules exist in order to protect all members of society. If I were to act
on my own selfish behalf and steal, it would set a dangerous precedent with terrible
long term ramifications.”

Stage 5 – “No, I wouldn’t steal the drug, though it would pain me miserably. I
believe the rights of my wife to the drug are valid, but they must be balanced
against the rights of the druggist. Her rights to life are greater. I believe the
druggist is acting immorally, and that he should be implored to sell it cheaper, but I
would stop short of stealing and breaking laws that all of us have decided to accept
as good members of society.

Stage 6 – “I would steal the drug, administer it to my life, and then turn myself in to
the police. I would then demand that I be punished to the full extent of the law.
While stealing is reprehensible, my ethical principles value life above property, and
therefore, to be true to myself and to life itself, I must break the lesser law in order
to follow the greater good.”
 In what level of moral development did your response to the dilemma fall?
Reflect on what this indicates about your moral reasoning in this moral dilemma.

Abstraction/Generalization

1. Lawrence Kohlberg adopted and built on Piaget/s work, and set the groundwork
for the present debate within psychology on moral development. Like Piaget, he
believed that children from ways of thinking through their experiences which include
understandings of moral concepts such as justice, rights, equality and human
welfare. Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgement and extended the
ages covered by Piaget, and found out that the process of attaining moral maturity
took, longer and occurred slower that Piaget had thought.

2. If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian tasks) to learn about the cognitive
development of children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg dilemma). The
case you read in the activity part of this module is one of the most popular of these
dilemmas. Like Piaget, he presented these dilemmas to the individuals in his
research and asked for their responses. He did not aim to judge whether the
responses were right or wrong. He was interested in analyzing the moral reasoning
behind the responses.

3. From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning group into
three major levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social-moral
reasoning or perspective of the person.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

According to Kohlberg, moral development occurs in six stages.

Level Sta Description

ge
Pre-conventional Level – Moral 1 Punishment/Obedience. One is
reasoning is based on the motivated by fear of punishment. He will act
consequence/result of the act, not on in order to avoid punishment.
the whether the act itself is good or 2 Mutual Benefit. One is motivated to act
bad. by the benefit that one may obtain
later.”You scratch my back, I’ll scratch
 yours.
Conventional – Moral reasoning is 3 Social Approval. One is motivated by
based on the conventions or “norms” of what others expect in behaviour – good
society. These may include approval of boy, good girl. The person acts because
others, law and order. he/she values how she/he will appear to
others. He/she gives importance on what
people will think or say.
4 Law and Order. One is motivated to act in
order to uphold law and order. The person
will follow the law because it is the law.

Post-conventional – Moral reasoning 5 Social Contract. Laws that are wrong can
is based on enduring or consistent be changed. One will act based on social
principles. It is not just recognizing the justice and the common good.
law, but the principles behind the law. 6 Universal Principles. This is associated
with the development of one’s conscience.
Having a set of standards that drives one to
possess moral responsibility to make
societal changes regardless of
consequences to oneself. Examples of
persons are Mother Teresa, Martin Luther
King. Jr.

Kohlberg and Moral Education

Kohlberg stressed that the goal of moral education, is to encourage

individuals to develop to the next stage of moral reasoning. The most common tool
for doing this is to present a “moral dilemma” and have students in groups
determine and justify what course the actor in the dilemma should take. Through
discussion, students are able to practice moral reasoning and are able to learn from
other perspective.

Kohlberg and his challenges came up with the “just community” schools
approach towards promoting moral development (Power, Higgins, & Kohlberg,
1989). The fundamental goal of these schools is to enhance students’ moral
development by offering them the chance to participate in a democratic community.
Here, democracy refers to more than simply casting a vote. It entails full
participation of community members in arriving at consensual rather than “majority
rules” decision making. One primary feature of these schools is their relatively small
size (often they are actually schools within schools), aimed at providing the students
with the sense of belonging to a group which is responsive to individual needs.

At the center of the approach implementation is a community meeting in

which issues related to life and discipline in the schools are discussed and
democratically decided, with an equal value placed on the voices of students and
teachers. An underlying goal of these meetings is to establish collective norms which
express fairness for all members of the community. It is believed that by placing the
responsibility of determining and enforcing rules on students, hey will take prosocial
behaviour more seriously. At the same time, this approach stems from the cognitive-
developmentalist view that discussion of moral dilemmas can stimulate moral
development.

It is important to note that, a “just community school” simply leaves students

to their own devices. Teachers play still exert a substantial leadership function in
these discussions, promoting rules and norms which have a concern for justice and
community, and ultimately enforcing the rules. This function is not an easy one, as
teachers must listen closely and understand a student’s reasoning, in order to help
the student to the next level of reasoning. This requires a delicate balance between
letting the students make decisions, and advocating in a way which shows them the
limits in their reasoning. A primary advantage to the just community approach is
its effectiveness in affecting students actions, nit just their reasoning. Students are,
in effect, expected to “practice what they preach”, by following the rules determined
in community meetings.

The most comprehensive and authoritative source for work on Kohlberg’s

approach to moral education is to be found in: Power, F. C., Higgins, A., & Kohlberg,
L. (1989). “Lawrence Kohlberg’s Approach to Moral Education.” New York: Columbia
University Press.
 Synapses Strengtheners
Strengtheners
1. Read the Moral Dilemma Discussion guide found in (http://tigger.uic.edu/-
lnucci/MoralEd/practices/practice3lindext.html). Try out these guidelines with
a moral dilemma.
2. Research on the views of Eliot Turiol (Domain Theory) and Carol Galligan
( Moral Reasoning and Gender). Relate them with Kohlberg’s Theory.

Name: Yr. & Sec.____________

Application

1. Identify the stage of moral development shown in the following.

1. Joy allows her classmates to copy her homework so that they will
think she is kind and will like her to be their friend.
2. Ricky does everything to get passing grades because his mom will
take his play station away if he gets bad grades.
3. A civic action group protests the use of pills for family planning,
saying that although the government allows this it is actually murder
because the pills are abortifacient (causes abortion).
4. Jinky lets Hannah copy during their math test because Hannah
agrees to let her copy during their sibika test.
5. Karen decides to return the wallet he found in the canteen so that
people will praise her honesty and think she’s such a nice girl.
6. John decides to return the wallet he found in the canteen because he
believes it’s the right thing to do.
7. Lyka wears her ID inside the campus because she likes to follow the
school rules and regulations.
8. A jeepney driver looks if there’s a policeman around before he u-
turns in a no u-turn spot.
9. Liza volunteers to tutor at-risk children in her community for free so
they will learn to love school and stay in school.
10. Little Riel behaves so well to get a star stamp from her teacher.
2. Below are some implications of Kohlberg’s theory. Think of more specific learning
activities to respond to these implications for the grade or your year level you plan
to teach.

Grade or Year Level:

Implications Specific Learning Activities

IMPLICATIONS FOR LEARNING:
 Most schools label students in stages 1
and 4 (i.e punishment and law/order)
 Students must be responsible for their
moral growth.
 Students must hear a variety of views
so that they may decide what is right
and wrong.
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING:
 Teachers should offer more
opportunities for debate about issues
so student can hear a variety of
perspectives.
 View issues from a global perspective-
How do other cultures look at these
issues?
 Students will begin to move into the
upper stages of morality as they look
beyond existing laws to decide what is
right and wrong.
5-Minue Non-Stop Writing begins…. NOW!

From the module on Kholbert, Moral Development, I learned that…..

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
 Unit 2.2 Student Diversity

Module 7 Individual Differences

Adapted from: facilitating learning and cognitive process.
By: Lucas et. Al

Take the Challenge!

In this module challenge yourself to:

 Identify the different factors that bring about diversity in the

classroom.
 Demonstrate a positive attitude towards diversity as an
enriching element in the learning environment.
 Come up with teaching strategies that consider student
diversity.

Introduction

You’ve probably heard someone say that everyone is unique. Though it

sounds really like a cliché, one cannot ignore the truth in it. as a facilitator of
learning, the teacher is tasked to consider the individual differences among
the students in planning for effective instruction.

Activity

Group activity

1. Examine the class where you belong.

2. Each of you will provide information about your

Name
Age
Gender
Nationality
Province
 Language spoken
Hobbies/interest
Favorite subject
Subject you are best in
Subject you find difficult
Ambition
(What you want to be in the future)

3. Tally your all responses to come up with a class profile.

Analysis

1. In what ways are you and your classmate similar?

_____________________________
2. In what ways are you and your classmate difference?
________________________________________
3. How does the girl differ from boy in behavior?
______________________________________________
4. In what ways does an America differ from a Filipino?
______________________________________
5. How does life in a province differ from that in the city?
___________________________________________
6. Are you glad that you have similarities and difference?
__________________________________
7. How can the teacher utilize these similarities and difference in teaching you?
_____________________________________________

Abstraction/ Generalization

Factors that Bring about Student Diversity

In all learning environments, individual interact with others who are in some
way different from them. Recall how this difference were shown in your class tally
gender and racial, ethnic or cultural background (nationality, province, language).
This diversity also comes from other factors like the following:

1. Socioeconomic status- the Millionaires lifestyle differ from that of the middle
income or lower income group.
 2. Thinking learning style- some of learn better by seeing something: others by
just listening and still others by manipulating something. (you will learn
these in module 8).
3. Exceptionalities- in class their maybe one who has difficulty in spoken
language comprehension or seeing, hearing, etc. we will have more on these
in module 9.

How Student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment

A teacher maybe challenged to handle a class with student so diverse. There

may be students having different attitudes and aptitudes, and behavior. Some
teacher might see this diversity as a difficult predicament, really a hassle! Yet a
more reflective teacher may see a diverse classroom as an exciting place to learn
not just for her students, but for herself, as well. A wise teacher my choice to
respect and celebrate diversity! Read on to discover the benefits and learning
opportunities that student diversity can bring to your classroom.

1. Student self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. Exposing students to

other with diverse background and experiences also serves to help student
focus to their awareness of themselves. When they see other is different,
students are given references points or comparative perspectives which
sharpen assessment of their own attitude values and behaviors.
2. Students diversity contributes to cognitive development. The
opportunity to gain access to the perspective of peers and to learn from
other students, rather than the instruction only, maybe especially important
for promoting the cognitive. development of the learners. Supreme court
justice, Wiliam J brennan “the classroom is peculiarly the market place of
idea. The depth and breadth of student learning are enhanced by exposure
to other from diverse backgrounds. Student diversity in the classroom bring
about different points of view and varied approaches to the learning process.
As the German philosopher, Nietzsche, said over 100 years ago:

“The more affect we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different
eyes we can use to observe one thing, the more complete will our concept of this
thing, our objective, be”

3. Students diversity prepare learners for their role as responsible

members of society. Suzanne Morse stresses on competency that has
 strong complication for instructional strategies that capitalize on diversity.
“the capacity to imagine situations or problems from all perspective to
appreciate all aspect of diversity furthermore, she argues: “the classroom
can provide more than just theory given by a teacher in a lecture. Which
student diversity, the classroom becomes a “public place” where community
can be practiced.
4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is
integrated into the classroom teaching and learning process, it ca become
vehicle for promoting harmonious race relation. Through student centered
teaching strategies, diverse students can be encouraged to interact and
collaborate with one another, on learning task that is emphasize unity of
effort while capitalizing on their diversity of backgrounds.

Some tips on student diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.

Student will be made to realize that they have something in common with
the rest. They also differ in several ways.
2. Integrate learning experience and activity which promote students
multicultural and cross-culture awareness.
 You can encourage or even initiate co-curricular experiences that are
aimed at promoting diversity awareness. These activities could be
held to coincide with already scheduled national weeks or months
which are designed for appreciation of diverse groups. Disability
awareness week, lingo ng wika, indigenous people week, etc.
 Let interview other students on campus who are from diverse
background (foreign students of students from other ethnic/racial
group). The students of different racial and ethnic origin serve as
source in hand information of topics related to their culture. This can
also opportunity for interaction among students. Who may otherwise
never come in contact with each other.
 Invite students to internet discussion groups or e mail have students
visit foreign countries and talk to natives of those countries.
  Ask student if they have them share these experiences with other
member of the class.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identity pattern of unity that
transcend group differences.
 Clyde Kluckholn, an early American anthropologist who spent a lifetime
studying human diversity across different cultures, conclude from his
extensive research that, “every human is, at the same time, like all other
humans, like some humans, and like no other human” (cited in Wong 1991).
His observation suggests a paradox in human experience namely: We are all
the same in different way.
 It may be important to point out to students the biological reality that human
being share approximately 95% of their genes in common, and that less
than 5% of our genes account for the physical differences that exist among
us. When focusing in human differences, these commonalities should not be
overlooked, otherwise our repeated attempts to promote student diversity
may advertently promote student divisiveness. One way to minimize this risk,
and promote unity along with diversity, is to stress the universality” of the
learning experience by raising students’ consciousness of common themes
that bind all groups of people in additional highlighting the various on those
theme.
 Periodically place students in homogenous groups on the basis of shared
demographic characteristics (e.g., same gender groups or same
race/ethnicity groups) and have them share their personal views or
experience with respect to course issues. Then form a panel comprised of
representative from each other who report their group ideas. You can serve
a moderator and identify the key differences and recurrent themes that
emerge across different group, or students who are not on the panel can be
assigned this task.
 Try to form groups of student who are different with respect to one
demographic characteristics but similar with respect to race ethnicity or
similar on age but different gender). This practice can serve to increase
student awareness that human who are members of different groups can, at
the same time, be members of the same group, and share similar
experiences, needs and concerns.
 After students have completed self-assessment instruments (e.g., learning
style inventories or personality profiles), have them line up or move to a
corner of the room according to their individual scores of overall profile. This
practice can visibly demonstrate to students how members of different
student populations can be quite similar with respect to their learning styles
or personality profiles, i.e., students can see how individual similarities can
often overshadow group differences.
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all sub-groups.
 Make a conscious attempt call on, or draw in students from diverse groups
by using effective questioning techniques that reliably elicit student
involvement. In addition to consciously calling on them in class, other
strategies for “ drawing in” and involving students include: (a) assigning
them the role of reporter in small- group discussions, i.e., the one who
report backs the group’s ideas to the class , and (b) having them engaged in
paired discussions with another classmate with the stipulation that each
partner must take turns assuming the role of both listener and speaker , and
(c) scheduling instructor-student conferences with them outside the
classroom.
 Learn the names of your students, especially the foreign names that you
may have difficulty pronouncing. This will enable you to establish early,
personal rapport with them which can later serve as social /emotional
foundation or springboard for encouraging them in participate.
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student
diversity in learning styles.
 Diversity the sensory/perceptual modalities through which you deliver and
present information (e.g., orally, in print, diagrammatic and pictorial
representations, or “hands on” experiences).
 Diversify the instructional formats or procedures you use in class:
 Use formats that are student-centered ( e,g., class discussions, small
group work) and teacher –centered ( e.g., lectures, demonstrations).
 Use formats that are unstructured (e.g., step-by step instructions).
 Use procedures that involve both independent learning (e.g.,
independently completed projects; individual presentations) and
interdependent learning ( e.g., collaborative learning in pairs or
small groups).
 6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to
provide multiple contexts that are relevant to students from
diverse backgrounds.

Specific strategies for providing multiple examples and varied contexts that are
relevant to their varied backgrounds include the following:

 Have students complete personal information cants during the first week of
class and use this information to select examples or illustrations that are
relevant to their personal interests and life experiences.
 Use ideas, comments, and questions that students raise in class, or which
they choose to write about to help you think of examples and illustrations to
use.
 Ask students to provide their own examples of concepts, based on
experiences drawn from their personal lives.
 Have students apply concepts by placing them in a situation or context that
is relevant to their lives ( e.g., “ How would you show respect to all persons
in your home?”).
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles
by allowing them personal choice and decision-making
opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they will
learn it.
Giving the learner more decision- making opportunity with respect to
learning tasks: (a) promotes positive student attitudes toward the subject
matter,(b) fosters more positive interactions among students, and (c) results
in students working more consistently with lesser teacher intervention. Also,
when individuals are allowed to exert some control over a task, they tend to
experience less anxiety or stress while performing that task.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student
learning.
You can accommodate student diversity not only by varying what
you do with your teaching, but also by varying what you ask, students to do
to demonstrate learning. In addition to the traditional paper-and-pencil tests
and written assignments, students can demonstrate their learning in variety
of other of performance formats, (a) individually-delivered oral reports,(b)
panel presentations, (c) group projects, (d) visual presentations (e.g.,
 concept maps, slide presentations, power-point presentations , collages,
exhibits), or (d) dramatic vignettes- presented live or on videotape. One
potential benefit of allowing students to choose how they demonstrate their
learning is that the variety of option exercised may be a powerful way to
promote student awareness of the diversity of human learning styles.
9. Purposely, form small discussion groups of students from diverse
backgrounds. You can form groups of students with different
learning styles, different cultural background, etc.
Small peer-learning groups may be effective for promoting student
progress to a more advanced stage of cognitive development. Peer- learning
groups may promote this cognitive advancement because: (a) the instructor
is removed from center stage, thereby reducing the likelihood that the
teacher is perceived as the ultimate or absolute authority; and (b) students
are exposed to the perspectives of other students, thus increasing their
appreciation of multiple viewpoints and different approaches to learning.

Synapse Straighteners

1. Think of a slogan that celebrates diversity in the classroom. Make posters

and have Student Diversity Day Poster Exhibit.

Name: ____________________________________ Yr. & Sec. ___________

Application

Describe/ present the concept on individual differences by means of the

following: (You may choose one only.)

 Song
 Poem
 Jingle
 Slide presentations
 Power point presentation
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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_____________________________

5 - Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…NOW!

From the module on Individual Differences, I learned that…
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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 Module 8 Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences
Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and
Cognitive Process
By: Lucas et.al

Take the challenges:

In this module, challenge yourself to:

 Describe the different learning/thinking styles and multiple

intelligences.
 Pinpoint your own learning/thinking style/s and multiple
intelligences.
 Plan learning activities that match learner’s learning/thinking
styles and multiple intelligences.

Introduction

One factor that brings about student diversity is thinking/learning styles.

Individuals think and learn in distinct ways. In any group of learners there will
always be different learning characteristics, particularly in the learners’ manner of
processing information. Some would absorb the lesson better when they work with
their hands than when they just listen. Others would prefer to watch a video about a
topic. Students likewise have preferred ways of expressing their thoughts, feelings
and ideas. Some would prefer to write, others would draw or even dance and sing.
These preferences involve thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences.

Activity

What type of learner are you? What’s your style? Answer the Learning Style
Inventory below, and find out!

1. If I have to learn how to do something, I learn best when I:

(V) Watch someone show me how.

(A) Hear someone tell me how.
(K) try to do it myself.

2. When I read, O often find that I:

(V) Visualize what I am reading in my mind’s eye.

(A) Read out loud or her the words inside my head.
(K) Fidget and try to “feel” the content.
3. When asked to give directions, I:

(V) See the actual places in my mind as I say them or prefer to draw them.
(A) Have no difficulty in giving them verbally.
(K) Have to point or move my body as I give them.

4. If I am unsure how to spell a word, I::

(V) Write it in order to determine if it looks right.

(A) Spell it out loud in order to determine if it sounds right.
(K) Write it in order to determine if it fells right.

5. When I write, I:

(V) Am concerned how neat and well spaced my letters and words appear.
(A) Often say the letters and words to myself.
(K) Push hard on my pen or pencil and can feel the flow of the words of letters as I
form them.

6. If I had to remember a list of items, I would remember it best if I:

(V) Wrote them down.

(A) Said them over and over to myself.
(K) Moved around and used my fingers to name each item.

7. I prefer teachers who:

(V) Use the board or overhead projector while they lecture.

(A) Talk with a lot of expression.
(K) Use hands-on activities.

8. When trying to concentrate, I have a difficult time when:

(V) There is a lot of clutter or movement in the room.

(A) There is a lot of noise in the room.
(K) I have to sit still for any length of time.

9. When solving a problem, I:

(V) Write or draw diagrams to see it.

(A) Talk myself through it.
(K) Use my entire body or move objects to help me think.

10. When given written instructions on how to build something , I:

(V) Read them silently and try to visualize how the parts will fit together.
(A) Read them out loud and talk to myself as I put the parts together.
(K) Try to put the parts together first and read later.

11. To keep occupied while waiting, I:

 (V) Look around, stare, or read.
(A) Talk or listen to others.
(K) Walk around, manipulate things with my hands, or move/shake my feet as I sit.

12. If I had to verbally describe something to another person, I would:

(V) Be brief because I do not like to talk at length.

(A) Go into great detail because I like to talk.
(K) Gesture and move around while talking.

13. I someone were verbally describing something to me, I would:

(V) Try to visualize what she was saying.

(A) Enjoy listening but want to interrupt and talk myself.
(K) Become bored if her description gets too long and detailed.

14. When trying to recall names, I remember:

(V) Faces but forget names.

(A) Names, but forget faces.
(K) The situation that I met the person other than the person’s name or face.

Scoring Instructions: add the number of responses for each letter and enter the
total below. The area with the highest number of responses is your primary mode of
learning.

Visual Auditory
Kinesthetic

V = ___________ A = ___________ K = ___________

(Retrieved from: http://www.gigglepotz.com/learnstyles.pdf)

Analysis

Share your answers with your group:

1. What do your scores tell you about your learning and thinking styles?
2. Do you agree with your scores?
3. Is it possible for one to score equality on the three styles? Explain.

Abstraction/Generalization

The inventory you just answered reflects whether you are a visual, auditory or
kinesthetic learner. This is only but one way of describing the variation of learning
and teaching styles. A. Hilliard describes “Learning style” as the sum of the patterns
of how individuals develop habitual ways of responding to experience. Howard
Gardner identified nine kinds of intelligences that individuals may have

Learning/thinking Styles

Learning/Thinking Styles refer to the preferred way an individual

processes information. They describe a person’s typical mode of thinking,
remembering or problem solving. Furthermore, styles are usually considered to be
bipolar dimensions. For instance your particular learning/thinking style would lie at a
point in a continuum. Having a particular learning/thinking style simple denotes a
tendency to behave in a certain manner. Your style is a usually described as a
personality dimension which influences your attitudes, values, and social interaction.

There are several perspectives about learning-thinking styles. We shall

focus on sensory preferences and global-analytic continuum.

Sensory preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two

types of sensory input and maintain a dominance in of the following types.

Visual Learners. These learners must see their teacher’s actions and
facial expression to fully understand the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer
sitting in front so no one would block their view. They may think in pictures and
learn best from visual aids including: diagrams, illustrated text books, overhead
transparencies, videos flip-charts and hand-outs. During a lecture or classroom
discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the
information.

Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners into:

Visual-Iconic. Those who prefer this form of input are more interested in
visual imagery such as fil, graphic displays, or pictures in order to solidify learning.
They usually have good “picture memory” a.k.a iconic imagery and attend to
pictorial detail. They would like to read a map better than to read a book.

Visual-symbolic. Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with
abstract symbolism such as mathematical formula or the written word. They would
prefer to read a book than a map and would like read about things than hear about
them. They tend to be good abstract thinkers who do not require practical means
for learning.

Auditory Learners.

They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through
and listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the
underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch,
speed and other nuances. Written information may have little meaning until
it is heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a
tape recorder. They can attend aurally to details, translate the spoken word
easily into the written word, and are not easily distracted in their listening
ability.

Auditory Learners also fall into two categories:

 The “Listeners”, This is the more common type, “Listeners,” most likely
do well in school. Out of school too, they remember things said to them and make
the information their own. They may even carry on mental conversations and figure
out how to extend what they learned by reviewing in their heads what they heard
others say.

The “Talkers”, They are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss. They often
find themselves talking to those around them. In a class setting when the instructor
is not asking questions, auditory-verbal processors (talkers) tend to whisper
comments to themselves. They are not trying to be disruptive and may not even
realize they need to talk.

Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners.

Tactile/Kinesthetic persons benefit much from a hands-on approach, actively

exploring the physical world around them. They may find it hard to sit still
for long periods. They may not benefit so much from the discussion or the
written materials, and may become distracted by their need for activity and
exploration. Those preferring this form of input move toward active, sensori-
motor learning. They tend to prefer “learning by doing” preferring the use of
psychomotor skills to, say, abstract thinking skills. They tend to have good
motor memory and motor coordination.

Global -- Analytic Continuum

Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step

processes of learning. They tend to see finite elements of patterns rather
than the whole; they are the “three seers”. they are more comfortable in a
world of details and hierarchies of information.

Global. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see
the whole pattern rather than particle elements. They are the “forest seers”
who give attention only to the overall structure and something ignore details.

Several theorists have tied the global-analytic continuum the left-brain /

right-brain continuum. In accord with Roger Sperry’s model, the left-brained
dominant individual is portrayed as linear (analytic), verbal, mathematical thinker
while the right-brained person is one who is viewed as global, non-linear, and
holistic in thought preferences.

Both sides of the brain can reason, but through different strategies in an
individual, one side maybe more dominant than the other. The left brain is regarded
as analytic in approach while the right is described as holistic or global. A successive
processor (left brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step sequential format, beginning
with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a skill. A simultaneous
processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with the general concept and then
going on to specifies. See the comparison below:
 LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)
Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes information linearly 4. Processes information in
varied order
5. Respond to logic 5. Responds to emotion
6. Plans ahead 6. Impulsive
7. Recalls people’s names 7. Recalls people’s faces
8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less punctual
10. Prefers formal study design 10. Prefers sound/music
background while studying
11. Prefers bright lights while 11. Prefers frequent mobility
studying while studying

Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by Howard
Gardner in Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner defines intelligence as “an ability or set
of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or fashion a product that is
valued in one or more cultures”. Gardner believes that different intelligences may be
independent abilities-a person can be low in one domain area but high in another.
All of us possess the intelligences but in varying degrees of strength and skill.
His most current research indicates that there are nine distinct forms of
intelligence. These are the tails leading to children’s learning that teachers should
address in their classrooms all the time. They are:
Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) – learning visual and
organizing ideas spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order to
understand them. The ability to “see” things in one’s mind in planning to
create product or solve a problem.

Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart)- learning through the spoken and

written word. This intelligence was always valued in the traditional classroom
and in traditional assessments of intelligence and achievements.

Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart)- learning through

reasoning and problem solving. Also highly valued in the traditional
classroom, where students were asked to adapt to logically sequenced
delivery of instruction.

Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart)- learning through interaction with one’s

environment. This intelligence is not domain of “overly native” learners. It
promotes understanding through concrete experience.
 Musical (Music Smart)- learning through patterns, rhythms and music.
This includes not only auditory learning, but the identification of patterns
through all the senses.

Intrapersonal (People Smart)- learning through interaction with others.

Not the domain of children who are simply “talkative” or “overly social.” This
intelligence promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with others.

Naturalist (Nature Smart)- learning through classification, categories and

hierarchies. The naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in
meaning. It is not simply the study of nature; it can be used in all areas of
study.

Existential (Spirit Smart)- learning by seeing the “big picture”. “why are
we here?” “What is my role in the world?” “what is my place in my family,
school and community?” This intelligence seeks connections to real world
understanding and application of new learning.

It is important for teachers to use their knowledge about thinking/

learning style and multiple intelligences in planning activities to help their
students to effectively learn.

While researches on these typologies continue, it is clear that the

teachers can no longer just teach the text book and it is sensible practice to
teach each child according to his/her thinking/learning styles and multiple
intelligence.

Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple

Intelligence

1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from

recalling factual information to drawing implications and making value
judgements.
2. Provide a general overview of material to learned, i.e., structured overviews,
advance organizers, etc., so that students’ past experiences will be
associated with the new ideas.
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate
using both the right- and left-brain hemispheres.
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing, or reading experience.
5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set
induction, etc.
6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information.
(Write directions on the board and give them orally.)
7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning
(writing summaries, creating opinion surveys, etc.).
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising (“The example you’ve
provided is an excellent one to point to the concept of…..”). (From Cornett,
C. E. (1983). What you should know about teaching and learning styles.
Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.)
Application
Application

1. Choose a topic from your field of specialization.

2. Think of at least ten learning activities relevant to the topic you picked.
3. Indicate the thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences that each
learning activity can address. Remember, a learning activity may address
both thinking/learning style and multiple intelligence.

Topic Learning Activity Learning style/Multiple Intelligence

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Synapse Strengtheners

1. Read about other categories of thinking/learning styles, such as field

dependent/field independent types, and concreate-abstract continuum.
2. Make a compilation of teaching strategies based on the different
thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligence.
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…..Now!
From the module on Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligence, I learned that…
Module 9: Learners with Exceptionalities
Adapted from: Facilitating and Cognitive Process
By: Lucas et.al

Take the challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:
 Describe the basic categories of exceptional learners.
 Define and distinguish the terms disability and handicap.
 Demonstrate “ people first” language when referring to exceptional learners
and advocate for its use.

Introduction
One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in learning
is the presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with
exceptionalities as persons who are different in some way from the “normal” or
“average”. The term “exceptional learners” includes those with special needs related
to cognitive abilities, behaviour, social functioning, physical and sensory
impairments, emotional disturbances, and giftedness. Most of these learners require
a lot of understanding and patience as well as special education and related serves
if they are to reach their full potential of development.

Activity:
Watch any of the following films
The Rain Man
I am Sam
Son-rise a Miracle of love
The Life of Helen Keller

Analysis
1. Describe the main character in the movie you watch.
_________________________________
_________________________________
 2. What was his/her exceptionally?
Describe.________________________________
_________________________________

3. What problems difficulties did the main character experience?

_______________________________________________

4. Who provided support? What support did he/she get from his/her
environment?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
__________

Abstraction Generalization

From the movie you watched you saw the challenges that confront a person
with special needs. The person’s adjustment entails the support of the people
around him. As a future teacher, you would probably encounter learners with special
needs. More so if special education is your major. It is therefore necessary that you
have both the right information and proper attitude in dealing with special
learners. This will help you perform your task to facilitate learning. Let us begin by
differentiating the words disability and handicap.
Disability. A disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that “
interferes with a person’s ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may
refer to physical, sensory, or mental condition” ( schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). The
word disability has become the more accepted term, having replaced the word
handicap in federal laws in the US, one of which is the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA is the law that provides comprehensive
service and support for exceptional learners. Our very own 1987 Philippine
Constitution, Article XIV, Sec.2, uses the word “disabled” in paragraph(5) “ Provide
adult citizens, the disabled, and cut-of-school youth with training.
 Handicap. The word handicap does not have the same meaning as
disability. A handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or
impairment. The degree of disadvantage ( or the extent of the handicap) is often
dependent on the adjustment made by both the person and his environment.
Therefore, the extent to which a disability handicaps an individual can vary greatly.
Two persons may have the same disability but not the same degree of being
handicapped. For example, they both have a hearing impairment, one knows sign
language and can read lips while the other cannot. The first individual would not
have as much handicap as the second one. Another example, two persons who
move around on a wheel chair, the one studying in a school campus with wheelchair
accessibility in all areas would be less handicapped than one in a school without
wheel chair accessibility.

Categories of Exceptionalities
There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities. Special
education practitioners would have varying terms and categories. For this short
introduction of categories, we are basing it on the categories found in Omrod’s
Educational Psychology, (2000)

Specific cognitive or academic difficulties

Learning Disabilities. Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific
cognitive process like perception, language, memory, or metacognition that are not
due to other disabilities like mental retardation, emotional or behavioural disorders,
or sensory impairments. Examples of learning disabilities include dyslexia (reading),
dyscalculia (number operations) and dysgraphia (writing).
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. ADHD is manifested in either
or both of these: (1) difficulty in focussing and maintaining attention and (2)
recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behaviour.
Speech and Communication Disorders. There is difficulty in spoken
language including in spoken language voice disorders, inability to produce the
sounds correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language comprehension that
significantly hamper classroom performance.
Social/Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties
 Emotional /Conduct Disorders. This involves the presence of emotional
states like depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they
notably disturb learning and performance in school.
Autism. Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired
social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviours and limited interests.
Individuals with autism usually have an intense need for routine and a predictable
environment.
Mental Retardation. Mental retardation refers to significant sub-average
intelligence and deficits in adaptive behaviour. There is difficulty in managing
activities of daily living and in conducting themselves appropriate in social situations.
Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments.

PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND HEALTH IMPAIREMENTS

Physical and health impairments. This involves physical or medical conditions

( usually ling-term) including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and strength,
(2) reduced mental alertness, and/or (3) little muscle control.

Severe and multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of two or more
different types of disability, at times at a profound level. The combination of
disabilities makes it necessary to make specific adaptations and have more
specialized educational programs.

Sensory impairments

Visual Impairments . These are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes
or optic nerves that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.

Hearing Impairment. These involves malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves

that hinder perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.

Giftedness. This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development. There

is unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects: intellectual
ability, aptitude in academic subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts or
leadership.

PEOPLE-FIRST LANGAUGE
 What is People-First Language? Just as the term would imply, this language
trend involves putting the person first,, not the disability (e.g. a person with a
disability, not a disabled person). Thus, people-first language tells us what
conditions people have, not what they are (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). This is
similar to saying” person with AIDS, rather than “AIDS victim”. Other suggestions
for referring to those with disabilities include:

 Avoiding generic labels ( people with mental retardation id preferable to

the mentally retarded);
 Emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheel-chair is
preferable to confined to a wheel-chair);
 Avoiding euphemisms (such as physically challenged) which are regarded
as condescending and avoid the real issues that results from a disability;
 And avoiding implying illness or suffering (had polio is preferable to is a
polio victim, and has multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple
sclerosis) (Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2000;
Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996).

Using people-first language and applying the guidelines above will remind you to
have a more respectful and accepting attitude toward learners with
exceptionalities. The presence of impairments requires them to exert more
effort to do things than others like us find quite easy. They are learners who
may turn to you for assistance. Beginning with the right attitude, one of
compassion ( not if pity nor ridicule) will make you a more effective teacher,
one with the hand and the heart who can facilitate their learning and
adjustment.

SYNAPSE STRENGTHENERS

1. Make a collection of teaching guidelines or tips on how to work with students with
exceptionalities. Follow the categories shown in this module. Present your
guidelines/tips in bulleted form.

2. Advocate for people-first language by telling at least 5people about how to use
people-first language when referring to learners with exceptionalities.

3. Surf the internet for the Sun-rise program for autism. It is based on the life
changing experience of Ron Kauffman who had autism but recovered. Most
practitioners believe that autism is incurable, but the son-rise program has another
approach. Read about it and write a reaction paper on it.

Name:______________________________ Yr & Sec._________________

APLLICATION

Revise the following sentences to adhere to the people-first language and the other
guidelines given in this module.

1. The teacher thought of many strategies to teach the mentally challenged.

____________________________________________________________________
_

___________________________________________________________________

2. Their brother is mentally retarded.

3. Their organization is for the autistic.

4. He is a polio victim who currently suffers from post-polio syndrome.

5. There was a blind girl in my Psychology class.

6. I attended a seminar about learning disabled children.

7. That classroom was designed for the deaf and blind.

 8. I like to read books about the handicapped.

9. When she saw suffering from a spinal cord injury, in a car accident, she
became a paraplegic and was confined to a wheel-chair.

10. He is behaving like that because he is abnormal.

5-MINUTE NON-STOP WRITINF BEGINS,,,,,, NOW!

From the module on Learners with exceptionalities I learned that………….

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Module 10: Behaviourism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner
Adapted from: Facilitating and Cognitive Process
By: Lucas et.al

Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:

 Explain the basic principles of behaviorism.

 Make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning.
 Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more
effectively.

Introduction

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable

behavior. It emphasis that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and
reinforcement (rewards and punishment). It does not give much attention to the
mind, and the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. Contribution in
the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov, Watson,
Thorndike and Skinner.

ACTIVITY

1. Think of a teacher that’s most unforgettable to you in elementary or high

school.
 2. Are there things that when you encounter at present (see, hear, touch,
smell) makes you “go back to the past” and recall this teacher? What are
these things?

3. What kinds of rewards and punishment did she/he apply in your class? For
what student behaviors were the rewards and punishment for?

Student behavior Reward/punishment

1.

2.

3.

4.

Analysis
1. What makes this teacher unforgettable for you?
2. Why do your answers in no. 1 make you recall this teacher? Describe the
connection these things have on your past teacher.
3. Were the rewards and punishments given effective? Please elaborate.

Abstraction/Generalization
Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov a Russian physiologist is well known for his work in classical
conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved
meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation in order
to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical conditioning.
Pavlov’s experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus)
caused no response from the dog. Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of
the dog initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell
was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning,
the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned
response). This is classical conditioning. See illustration below
Stage 1-before conditioning

Bell (neutral stimulus)

No response

Stage 2-During conditioning

Bell (neutral stimulus)

Paired with

Meat (unconditioned stimulus) Salivation (unconditioned

response)

Stage 3-After conditioning

Bell (conditioned stimulus) Salivation (conditioned

response)

Classical Conditioning

Somehow you were conditioned to associate particular objects with your teacher. So
at present, when you encounter the objects, you are also reminded of your teacher.
This is an example of classical conditioning

Pavlov also had the following findings:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of
the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.
Extinction, if you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease
in response to the bell.

Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an

elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.

Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells 9stimuli)
and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.

Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the
bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as light may be flashed at the
same time that the bell is rung, eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the
light without the sound of the bell.

Edward L. Thorndike. Edward Thorndike’ connectionism theory gave us the

original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago he
wrote a text book entitled, Educational Psychology. He explained that learning is the
of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or “habits”
become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.
The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses
came to be repeated than others because of rewards. The main principle of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately
explained without considering any unobservable internal states.

Thorndike’s theory on connectionism, stated that learning has taken place

when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is
formed. He came up with three primary laws.
Law of effect. The law of effect stated that a connection between a stimulus and
response is strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward)and the
connection between the stimulus and the response is weakened when the
consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he found that
negative reward, (punishment)did not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some
seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance

Law of Exercise. Tells us that the more an s-R (stimulus response) bond is
practiced the stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be
associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to
be revised when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not
necessarily enhance performance.

Law of Readiness. This states that, the more readiness the learner has to respond
to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is
ready to respond to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to
the person. Example, if the teacher says, “okay we will now watch the movie
(stimulus you’ve been waiting for.” And suddenly the power goes off, the students
will feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but was
prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not at all ready to respond to a
stimuli and is asked to respond, that also becomes annoying. For instance, the
teacher calls a student to stand up and recite, and then the teacher asks the
question and expects the student to respond right away when he is still not ready.
This will be annoying to the student. That is why teachers should remember to say
the question first, and wait for a few seconds before calling on anyone to answer.

Principles derived from Thorndike’s Connecionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise)

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the
same action sequence (law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

John Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas. He
too was initially involved in animal studies, then became involved in human behavior
research.

He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions
of love and rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus-response
associations through conditioning. He believed in the power of conditioning so much
that he said if he is given a dozen healthy infants he can make them into anything
you want them to be, basically through making stimulus-response connections
through condition.

Experiment on Albert. Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment

concerning an Albert, a young child and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was
not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert
touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became
conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later, the child’s response was generalized to
other small animals. Now, he was also afraid of small animals. Watson then
“extinguished” or made the child “unlearn” fear by showing the rat without the loud
noise.

Surely, Watson’s research methods would be questioned todays; nevertheless, his

work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the development of emotional
responses to certain stimuli. This may help us understand the fears, phobias and
prejudices that people develop.

Burrhus Frederick Skinner. like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed
in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory zeroed in only
on changes in observable behavior, excluding any likelihood of any processes taking
place in the mind. Skinner’s 1948 book, Walden Two, is about a utopian society
based on operant conditioning. He also wrote, Science and Human Behavior (1953)
in which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning function in social
institutions such as government, law, religion, economics and education.

Skinner’s work differs from that of the three behaviorist before him, in that he
studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the
environment). Thus, is theory coming to be known as

Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change
in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to
events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence
such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular
Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is
conditioned to respond.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforce is anything

that strengthens the desired response. There is a positive reinforce and a negative
reinforce.

A positive reinforce is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the

response. An example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises to extra
time in the play area to children who behave well during the lesson. Another is a
mother who promises a new cell phone for her son who get good grades. Still other
examples include verbal praises, star stamps, and stickers.

A negative reinforce is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a

response when it is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforce is not a
punishment, in fact it is a reward. For instance, a teacher announces that a student
who gets an average grade of 1.5 for the two grading periods, will be no longer take
the final examination. The negative reinforce is “removing” the final exam, which we
realize is a form of reward for working hard and getting an average grade of 1.5.

A negative reinforce is different from a punishment because a punishment is a

consequence intended to result in reduced responses. An example would be a
student who always comes late is not allowed to join a group work that has already
began (punishment) and therefore loses points for that activity. The punishment
was done to reduce the response of repeatedly coming to class late.

Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement: Responses that are

not reinforced are not likely to be repeated. For example, ignoring a student’s
misbehavior may extinguish that behavior.

Shaping of behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out
that pressing a lever will produce food. To accomplish such behavior successive
approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the association
between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be
rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving toward the
lever, for brushing against the lever, and finally for pressing the lever.

Behavioral chaining come about when a series of steps are needed to be learned.
The animal would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned.
This can be given reinforcement (rewards) until the entire process of tying the shoe
lace is learned.

Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioural response is accomplish,

reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact it can be maintained more
successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules.
Partial reinforcement schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules.
 Module 11 Neo behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura

Adapted from: facilitating and cognitive process

By: Lucas et.al

Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:

- explain Tolman's purposive behaviorism.

- explain Bandura's social learning theory.

Introduction

With new researches, explanation provided by the basic principles of behaviorism

appeared not to satisfy all learning scenario. New theories came into view which
maintained some of the behaviorist concept but excluded others, and added new
ideas which later came to be associated with the cognitive views of learning. The
neo-behaviorists, then, were a transitional group, bridging the gap between
behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning.

Activity 1. Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Solve maze A. Enter on the left side and exit at the top.

Solve maze B. Enter on the top and exit on the left side.
Analysis

1. How did you solve Maze A? What strategy did you use? (Trial and error,
examined the maze before proceeding with your pen, and
etc)____________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_______
____________________________________________________________________
_______

2. Was it easier to solve maze B? Why?

___________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_______
____________________________________________________________________
_______
____________________________________________________________________
_______
____________________________________________________________________
_______

Abstraction/ Generalization. Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

Usually, people who worked on the maze activity which you just did would say they
found the second maze easier. This is because they saw that the two amazes were
identical, except that the entrance and exit points were reversed. Their experience
in doing maze A helped them answer maze B a lot easier.
People create mental maps of things they perceived. These mental
maps help them respond to other things or tasks later, especially if they are the
similarity. You may begin to respond with trial and error (behaviorist). But later on
your response becomes more internally driven (cognitive perspective). This is what
neo behaviorism is about. It has aspects of behaviorism but it also reaches out to
the cognitive perspective (focused on more internal elements).

Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is
often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman's theory
was founded on two psychological views those of the Gestalt psychologist and those
of John Watson, the behaviorist.

Tolman believe that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs
and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge
through purposeful and goal-directed behavior.

Tolman stated in his sign theory, that an organism learns by pursuing signs to a
goal, i.e.., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He stressed the
organized aspect of learning: "The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by
just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming
impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a
tentative cognitive-like map of the environment. And it it's this tentative map,
indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships, which finally
determines what responses if any, the animal will finally make"

Tolman's form of behaviorism the relationship between stimuli rather than stimulus-
response . Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with
already meaningful stimuli ( the significate) through a series of pairings, there was
no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning. In your maze activity, the
new stimulus or "sign" (maze B? Because associated with already meaningful
stimuli, the significate (maze A). So you may have connected the two stimuli, maze
A and maze B, and used your knowledge and experience in maze A to learn to
respond maze B

Tolman's Key Concepts

Learning is always Purposive and goal directed. Tolman asserted that learning
is always Purposive and goal directed. He held the notion that an organism acted or
responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed individual do more than merely
respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing condition, and they strive
toward goal. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, Purposive, and cognitive

Cognitive maps in rats. In his famous experiment, one group of rat was placed at
random starting location in a maze but the food was always in the same location.
Another group of rats had the food placed in different locations which always
acquired exactly the same pattern of turn from their starting location. The group
that had the food in the same location from their starting location. The group that
had the food in the same location performed much better than the other group,
supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific
sequence of turns. This is tendency to "learn location" signified that rats somehow
formed cognitive maps that help them perform well on the maze. He also found out
that organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.

Applied in human learning, since passes by the same route going to school every
day, he acquires a cognitive map of the location of his school. So when
transportation re-routing is done, he can still figure out what turns to make to get to
school the shortest or easiest way.
Lantent Learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with
the individual until needed. It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at once.
According to Tolman it can exist even without reinforcement. He demonstrated this
in his rat experiments wherein rats apparently "learned the maze" by forming
cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this knowledge of the maze only when
they needed to.

Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad operate thebt.v
remote control and observes how the t.v. is turned on or how channel is changed,
and volume adjusted. After sometime the parents are surprised that on the first time
that their daughter holds the remote control, she already knows which buttons to
press for what function. Through latent learning, the child know the skills before
hand, even though she has never done them before.

The concept of intervening variable. Interviewing variables are variables that

are not readily seen but serve as determinants of behavior. Tolman believe that
learning is mediated or is influenced by expectations, perceptions, representation,
needs and other internal or environmental variable. Example, in his experiment with
rats he found out that hunger was an intervening variable.

Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman connected that

reinforcement is not essential for learning although it provides an incentive for
performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was able to acquire knowledge
of the way through a maze . To develop a cognitive map, even in the absence of
reinforcement.

Activity 2: Bandura's Social Learning theory

10-year-old boy in Texas Hangs Himself After Watching Saddam Execution

The Associated Press HOUSTON Jan 4,2007 (AP)
Police and family members said a 10-year-old boy who died by hanging himself from
a bunk bed was apparently mimicking the execution of former Iraqi leader Saddam
Hussein.

Sergio Pelico was found dead Sunday in his apartment bedroom in the Houston-area
city of Webster, said Webster police Lt. Tom Claunch. Pelico's mother told police he
had previously watched a news report on Saddam's death.

"It appears to be accidental," Claunch said. "Our gut reaction is that he was
experimenting."

An autopsy of the fifth-grader's body was pending.

Julio Gustavo, Sergio's uncle, said the boy was a happy and curious child.

He said Sergio had watched TV news with another uncle Saturday and asked the
uncle about Saddam's death.

"His uncle told him it was because Saddam was real bad," Gustavo said.

Sergio's mother, Sara Pelico DeLeon, was at work Sunday while Sergio and other
children were under the care of an uncle, Gustavo said. One of the children found
Sergio's body in his bedroom.

Police said the boy had tied a slipknot around his neck while on a bunk bed. Police
don't believe the boy intentionally killed himself.

Clinical psychologist Edward Bischof, of California, said children Sergio's age mimic
risky behaviors they see on TV - such as wrestling or extreme sports - without
realizing the dangers. He said TV appeared to be the stimulant in Sergio's case.

"I would think maybe this kid is trying something that he thinks fun to act out
without having the emotional and psychological maturity to think the thing through
before he acts on it," Bischof said.

Family members held a memorial for the boy Wednesday in the apartment complex
activity center. Gustavo said the family is trying to put together enough money to
send Sergio's body to Guatemala for burial.

"I don't think he thought it was real," Gustavo said of Saddam's hanging. "They
showed them putting the noose around his neck and everything. Why show that on
TV?"
Analysis- Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

1. What do authorities say might be the reason why Sergio hanged himself?
_____________________________________________
2. Comment on the opinion of the clinical psychologist?_________
____________________________________________________
3. What do you think is the effect of television on the behavior of young people
(preschool to college) cite specific example.___________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Abstraction/Generalization

--Albert Bandura’s Social Learning theory

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context,
it considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as
observational learning imitation, and modeling. The ten-year old boy Sergio Pelico
did watch Saddam’s execution in T.V and must have imitated it.

General principles of Social Learning theory

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those
behavior.

2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning
has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior , in contrast social
learning theorists say that because people can learn through observation alone,
their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or
may not result in a behavior change.

3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years social learning theory
has

become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness

and
expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effects on

the behaviors that people exhibit.

4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between

behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.

How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling

People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura
suggested the environment also reinforces modeling.

This is in several possible ways:

1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a student who changes
dress to fit I with a certain group of students has a strong livelihood of being
accepted and thus reinforced by the group.

2. The observer is reinforced by the third person. The observer might be modeling
the action of someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student.
The teacher notices this and compliments and praises the observer for modeling
such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior.

3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors

that we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results. For example, a
student in my multimedia class could observe how the extra work a classmate does
is fun. This student in turn would do the same extra work and also experience
enjoyment.

4. Consequences of the models behavior affect the observers behavior vicariously.

This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a
response and then the observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura
illustrated this by having students watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown
doll. One group of children saw the model being praised for such action. Without
being reinforced, the group of children began to also hit the doll.

Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and punishment

1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have
indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause.

2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual

exhibits a behavior that has been learned.

3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote

learning. Therefore attention pays a critical role in learning. And attention is
influenced by the expectation of reinforcement. As example would be, where the
teacher tells a group of students that what they will study next is not on the test.
Students will not pay attention, because they do not expect to know the information
for a test.

Cognitive factors in social learning

Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviors factors (actually
operant factors).

1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning

through observation and the actual limitation of what has been learned. This is
similar to Tolman’s latent learning.

2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists contend that

attention is a critical factor in learning.

3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the

consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain
behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The learner
needs to be aware however, of the response reinforcements and response
punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only when the learner is aware of
that connection.

4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the
environment and the and the person. In fact each of these three variable, the
person, the behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each other.
5. Modeling: There are different types of models: There is the live model, and actual
person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can
be a person or action portrayed in some other medium, such as television,
videotape, computer programs.

Behaviors that can be learned through modeling

May behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling. Examples

that can be cited are students can watch parents read, students can watch the
demonstrations of mathematics problems, or see someone act bravely in a fearful
situation. Aggression can be learned through modes. Research indicates that
children become more aggressive when they observed aggressive or violent models.
Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and modeling. This
includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop
through modeling.

Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur

Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can
successfully model the behavior of someone else:

1. Attention- The person must first pay attention to the model

2. Retention- The observer must first able to remember the behavior that has been
observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.

3. Motor reproduction- The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that
the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to
replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready
developmentally to replicate the action. For, example, little children have difficulty
doing complex physical motion.

4. Motivation- The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation.

Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since
these four conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the
same behavior differently.

Effects of modeling on behavior:

Modeling teaches new behaviors

Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.

Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For example a student might
see a friend excel in basketball and he tries to excel in football because he is not tall
enough for basketball.

Educational Implications of social learning theory

Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use,

1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate

behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners
about the rewards and consequences of various behaviors.

3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead

of using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide a faster, more
efficient means for teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling a teacher
must make sure that the four essential conditions exist, attention, retention, motor
reproduction, and motivation.

4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they
do not model inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is
especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.

Synapse Strengtheners

1. How are Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Bandura’s Social Learning theory
able to bridge behaviorism and cognitive theory?

2. Read this article about Bandura’s views bout television and violence, Albert
Bandura Lecture- Bing Distinguished Lecture Series “The Power of Social Modeling:
The Effects of Television Violences” by Christine Van De Velde (at
http://www.standford.edu/dept/bingschool/rsrchart/bandura.htm). Make a reaction
paper.

Name: Yr & Sec:

Application- Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

State personal message derive from the key concepts of Tolman’s purposive
behaviorism. Use the table provided below:

Key Concept of Tolman’s Theory on Personal Message

Purposive Behaviorism
1. Learning is always purposive and goal- 1.1. To make my students do what I
directed. require them to do, I should state the
goal clearly and specifically.
1.2.
1.3.
2. Cognitive maps helps students 2.1.
 perform well. Organisms select the
shortest or easiest path to achieve a
goal.
2.2.
3. Latest learning stays with the 3.1.
individual until needed.
3.2.
4. Learning is influenced by expectations, 4.1.
perceptions, representation, needs and
other internal variables like hunger.
4.2.

4.3.

Application- Bantura’s Social Learning Theory

Chapter 3 key concepts of Bantura’s social learning theory then state how you apply
the concept as you teach. Use the table provided for this purposes.

3 Key Concepts of Albert Bandura How I apply it in my teaching

1. 1.1.
1.2.
2. 2.1.
2.2.
3. 3.1.
3.2.
5 minute Non-Stop Writing begins…..NOW!

From the modules on Neobehaviorism: Tolman and Bandura, I learned

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Unit 3.2 Cognitive Perspective

Module 12 Gestalt Psychology

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et.al

In this module, challenge yourself to,

-describe the different gestalt principles.

-list ways of applying gestalt psychology in the teaching-learning process

-demonstrate

Introduction

Gestalt psychology was at the confront of the cognitive psychology. It served

as the foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the external
and mechaniscle focus of behaviorism. It considered the mental processes and
products of perception.

Activity

Examine the pictures below.

These are just some illustrations that “challenge” our perceptual skills. You can
collect other interesting pictures to share to the class.

Analysis

What was your experience in figuring out the pictures? (Easy, took time, etc.)
What helped you perceived the interesting pictures. How did you go about
examining the pictures? (Focus on the background, the foreground, the shape, etc.)

Abstraction/generalization

When you look at the pictures in the activity, your mind followed certain
principles of perception. Gestalt psychology is concerned with such principles.

Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It

emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and dynamic nature of visual
perception. The term gestalt, means 'form' or 'configuration'. Psychologists, Max
Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka studied perception and
concluded that perceivers (or learners) were not passive, but rather active. They
suggested that learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process
and restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual process.
Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like past experiences,
needs, attitudes, and one's present situation can affect his perception.

One may have difficulty perceiving both the words 'you' and 'me' in the first
picture in the activity if one is trying to forget an ex-sweetheart who caused pain, or
simply because he was lookingon the fore ground and not the background.

According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are
guided by certain principles or laws. These principles or laws determine what we see
or make of things or situations we meet.

Gestalt principles
Law of Proximity. Elements that are closer
together will be perceived as a coherent
object. On the left, there appears to be three
columns, while on the right, there appears to
be three horizontal rows. When objects we are
perceiving are near each other, we perceive
them as belonging together.
 Law of similarity. Elements that look similar
will be perceived as part of the same form.
There seems to be a triangle in the square.
We link similar elements together.

Law of closure. We tend to fill the gaps or

"close" the figures we perceive. We enclose a
space by completing a contour and ignoring
gaps in the figure.

Law of good Continuation. Individuals have

the tendency to continue contours whenever
the elements of the pattern establish and
implied directing. People tend to draw a good
continuous line.

Law of good Pragnanz. The stimulus will be organized into as a good

figure as possible. In this example, good refers to symmetry, simplicity,
and regularity. The figure is perceived as a square overlapping a
triangle, not a combination of several complicated shapes. Based on our
experiences with perception, we "expect" certain patterns and therefore
perceive that expected pattern.
Law of Figure/Ground. We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first.
A stimulus will be perceived as seperate from its ground.

Insight Learning

Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning taking place by discovery

or insight. The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohker in
which he described experiments with apes where the apes could use boxes and
sticks as tools to solve problems. In the box problem, a banana is attached to the
top of a chimpanzee's cage. The banana is out of reach but can be reached by
climbing upon and jumping from a box. Only one of Kohler's apes (sultan) could
solve this problem. A much more difficult problem which involved the stacking of
boxes was introduced by Kohler. Those problem required the ape to stack one box
on another, and master gravitational problems by building a stable stack. Kohler also
gave the apes sticks which they used to rake food into the cage. Sultan, Kohler's
very intelligent ape, was able to master a two-stick problem by inserting one stick
into the end of the other in order to reach the food. In each of this problems, the
important aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking
to create new organizations (of materials). Kohler referred to this behavior as insight
or discovery learning.

Kohler proposed the view that insight follows from the characteristics of objects
under consideration. His theory suggested that learning could occur when the
individual perceives the relationships of the elements before him and reorganizes
these elements and comes to a greater understanding or insight. This could occur
without reinforcement, and once it occurs, no review, training, or investigation
necessary, significantly, insight is not necessarily observable by another person.

Gestalt Principles and the Teaching- Learning Process

The six gestalt principles not only influence perception but they also impact on
learning. Other psychologists like Kurt Lewin, expounded on gestalt psychology. His
theory focusing on "life space adhered to gestalt psychology. He said that an
individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perceptions and also his
learning. Inner forces include the attitude and behavior of the teacher and
classmates. All these forces interact and impact on the person's learning. Mario
polito, an italian psychologist writes about the relevance of gestalt psychology to
education.

Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the here
and now. It considers with interest the life space of teachers as well as students. It
takes interest in the complexity of experience, without neglecting anything, but
accepting and amplifying all that emerges. It stimulates learning as experience and
the experience as a source of learning. It appreciates the affections and meaning
that we attribute to what we learn. Knowledge is conceived as a continuous
organization and rearrangement of information according to needs, purposes and
meanings. It asserts that learning is not accumulation, but remodeling or insight.
Autonomy and freedom of the student is stimulated by the teacher. The time
necessary for assimilation and for cognitive and existential remodeling is respected.
The contact experience between teachers and students is given value; an authentic
meeting based on sharing ideas and affections.

Synapse Strengtheners
1. Read more on gestalt psychology and list more applications of its principles
on the teaching and learning process.

Name:_________________________________ Yr.& Sec. __________________

Application

 Identify the gestalt principle applied in each of the following learning

activities. Discuss your answer with a learning partner.

1. The teachers relates a new topic with something the student

already knows

2. Topics with commonalities are taught next to each other.

3. The most important words in the paragraph are written in folder

fonts.

4. The teacher shows down her pace and varies her tone of voice to
emphasize a point.

5. Teachers remind children to keep their numbers in straight

columns when doing math operations.

 Formulate 5 items like the ones you went through then exchange work with
your learning partner. Your learning partner answers the 5 items you
prepared while you also answer what your learning partner made.
 5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…..Now!
From the module on Gestalt Psychology , I learned that…

Module 13

Information Processing

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et.al

Take and Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:

• describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving
knowledge.

• cite education implications of the theory on information processing.

Introduction

Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how

knowledge enters and is stored and retrieved from our memory. It was one of the
most significant cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong implications
on the teaching-learning process.

Activity

From groups of about 3-5 members each.

1. Brainstorm on how you can liken the man’s cognitive processes, like
acquiring information, putting them to memory, remembering, etc. to that of the
functioning of a computer.

Analysis

Discussion Questions

1. In what ways are our cognitive processes like the functioning of a computer?

2. In that ways do our cognitive processes differ from the functioning of a

computer?

3. Can a computer perform all our cognitive processes? Explain your answer.

Abstraction Generalization

Information Processing Theory

Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy

The terms used in the information processing theory (IPT) extends this analogy. In
fact, those who program and design computers aim to make computers solve
problems though processes similar to the human mind. Read on the know more
about IPT

Cognitive psychologist believed that cognitive processes influenced the nature of

what is learned. They considered learning as largely an internal process, not an
external behavior change (as behaviorist theorist thought). They looked into how we
receive, perceive, store and interprets what she/he receives shapes what he/she will
learn. All these notions comprise what is called the information processing theory.

IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the
environment through the senses and what takes place in between determines
whether the information will continue to pass though the sensory register then the
short term memory and the long term memory. Certain Factors would also
determine whether the information will be retrieved or ‘’remembered’’ when the
learner its. Let us go into the details.

We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.

‘’Types’’ of Knowledge

• General vs. Specific; This involves whether the knowledge useful in many
tasks, or only in one.

• Declarative – This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of

how things are. They may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your
name, address, a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your
crush.

• Procedural – This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include

making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator.

• Episodic – This includes memories of life events, like your high school
graduation.

• Conditional – This is about ‘’knowing when and why to apply declarative or

procedural strategies.

The stages of IPT involves the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short
term memory and the long term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages
in the progression of external information becoming incorporated into the internal
cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.).

These three primary stages in IPT are.

• Encoding – Information is sensed, perceived, and attended to.

• Storage – The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of
time, depending upon the processes following encoding.

• Retrieval – The information is brought back at the appropriate time, and

reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.

What made IPT plausible was the notion that cognitive processes could be described
in a stage like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information
is taken into the memory system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most
theories of processing revolve around three main stages in the memory process.

Sensory Register

The first step in the IP model, holds all sensory information for a very brief time.

• Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more

than what our minds can hold or perceive.

• Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely
brief – in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.

• There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is

more persistent than visual.

The Role of attention

• To bring the information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give

attention to it. Such that, we can only perceive and remember later those things
that pass through the attention “gate”.

• Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested
in the material; when there is conscious control over attention, or when information
involves novelty, surprise, salience, and distinctiveness.

• Before information is perceived, it is known as ‘’PR categorical’’ information.

This means that units that point, the learner has not established a determination of
the categorical membership of the information. To this point, the information is
coming in as uninterested patterns of stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can
categorize, judge, interpret, and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive
we have no means by which to recognize that the stimulus was ever encountered

Short Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

• Capacity: The STM can only hold 3 to 9 ‘’chinks’’ of information, sometimes
described as 7 + / = 2. It is called working memory because it is where new
information is temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STM maintain
information for a limited time. Until the learner has adequate resources to process
the information, or until the information is forgotten.

• Duration: Around 18 second or less

• To reduce the loss of information in 18 second, you need to do maintenance

rehearsal. It is using repletion to keep the information active in STM, like when you
repeat a phone number just given over and over.

Long Term Memory (LTM)

The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It
holds the stored information until needed again.

• Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.

• Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite

Executive Control Processes

The executive control processes involve the executing processor or what is

referred to as metacognitive skills, these processes guide the flow of information
through the system, helps the learner make information informed decisions about
how to categorize, organize or interpret information. Example of processes are
attention, rehearsals, and organization.

Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed

• There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs

• Decay – Information is not attended to, and eventually ‘fades’ away. Very
prevalent in Working Memory

• Interference – New or old information ‘blocks’ access to the information in

question.

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information

• Rehearsal- This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.

• Meaningful Learning- This is making connections between new information
and prior knowledge.

• Organization- It is making connections among various pieces of information.

Info that is organized efficiently should be recalled.

• Elaboration- This is adding additional ideas to new information based on

what one already knows. It is connecting new info with old, to gain meaning.

• Visual Imagery- This means forming a “picture” of the information.

• Generation- Things we “produce” are easier to remember than things we

“hear”.

• Context- Remembering the situation helps recover information.

• Personalization- It is making the information relevant to the individual.

Other Memory Methods

• Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy)- You will remember the
beginning and end of “list” most readily

• Part Learning- Break up the “list” or “chunk” information to increase

memorization.

• Distributed Practice- Break up learning session, rather than cramming all the
info in at once (Massed Practice)

• Mnemonic Aids – These are memory techniques that learners may employ to
help them retain and retrieve information more effectively. This includes the loci
technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word and association techniques,
among others.
 Executive Control Processes (including Metacognition)

Maintenance Rehearsal
Rehearsal, Elaboration,
Meaningful, Learning
Organization, Visual,
Imagery, Generalization

Long
Short
Sense Perception Term Term
s
Memory Memory
Sensory

Memory

Decay Forgetting Retrieval

The Information Processing Model

Information is received though the sense and goes to the sensory memory for a
very brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to
the STM and if given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent
to the LTM. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes
applied to the information will then determine if information can be retrieved when
needed later.
Synapse Strengtheners

1. Read more on specific mnemonic techniques and write about how you can
use it to make information processing more effective in yourself and your
student.
2. Does forgetting go with advancing in age? What do experts say?

Application

As a small group, cite a teaching implication process given in the table below.
One is done for you.

Process Teaching Implication

1. Information is received through 1.1 Be sure that learners’ sense

the senses functioning will.

2.1

3. If information is not relevant, it 2.1

decays.

2.2

5. If information goes to the short 5.1

term memory and if given
attention and is found to be
relevant, it is sent to the Long 1.2

Term Memory

2. If information is not properly 4.1

encoded, forgetting occurs.

4.2
 5. There are methods to increase 5.1
retrieval of information when needed
5.2
(see methods on page 112)

5- Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…. NOW!

From the module on Information Processing I learned that….

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Module 14 Bruner’s Constructivist Theory
Adapted from: facilitating learning and cognitive process
By: Lucas et.al

Introduction:

Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A ajor theme in
the theory of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct
new ideas or concept based upon the current/past knowledge.

Activity
Think of a topic that you studied when you were in preschool or elementary
years and then you studied again in high school and probably you had that same
topic again in college.

What was the topic?

Try to recall how the topic was discussed/ tackled in a class (use a visual aids
scratches, experiences, field trip, etc.)

Describe what and how you learned about the topic during
preschool/elementary.

Describe what and how you learned about the topic during high school.

Describe what and how you learned about the topic in college.

Analysis
Compare and contrast how the topic was taught to you in the different levels
(try to recall the activities, materials details given, etc.)

Why do you think the same topic was taught in three in the different levels in
school? Cite three or more reasons in bulleted form.




Abstraction/Generalization

In the activity you just had, you would have surely seen that a single topic can
be taught in preschool/elementary, then again in high school, and still again in
college. Take for instance, in learning about Jose Rizal, in elementary we may have
his picture in a postcard, know that he is our national hero, born on June 19, 1861
in Calamba Laguna, and maybe even have a field trip there. In high school, we may
study his two novels is more detail. In college, we would go deeper into analyzing
Rizal’s works and may look into the personal and social factors that influenced him
in his life and work and write a tenn paper on it. This repeated topic on Rizal is a
way of applying the principles in Bruner’s Theory. He gave us important concepts in
development of representations, the spiral curriculum and discovery learning. These
concepts are all in line with the constructivist approach (constructivist will be
discussed in module 17)

Bruner’s Main Concepts

Representation
Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge three develops in three
stages. These three stages also become the three ways to represent knowledge.
1. Enactive representation- at the earliest ages, children learn about the
world through actions. Children represent objects in terms of their immediate
sensation of them. They are represented in the muscles and involved motor
responses, or ways to manipulate the environment (i.e, riding a bicycle and
trying a knot, tasting the apple).
2. Iconic representation- this second stage is when learning can be obtained
through using models and pictures. The learner can now use mental images
to stand for certain objects or events. Iconic representation allows one to
recognize objects when they are changed in minor ways (e.g. mountains
with and without snow at the top).
3. Symbolic representation- In this third stage, the learner has developed
the ability to think in abstract terms. This uses symbol system to encode
knowledge. The most common symbol systems are language and
mathematical notation.

Bruner advised that teachers utilize and bring together concrete, pictorial then
symbolic activities to facilitate learning. Before children comprehend abstract
mathematical operations, teachers can first have the numbers represented
enactively (with blocks) and then, iconically (in pictures). Children can later on
handle number concepts without concrete objects and only with numbers and
number signs (symbolic).

Spiral curriculum
 Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to hosting cognitive
development. Students will not understand the concept if teachers plan to teach it
using only the teacher’s level of understanding. Instruction needs to be anchored on
the learners’ cognitive capabilities. The task of the instructor is to translate
information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner’s current state of
understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the
student continually builds upon what they have already learned.
In a spiral curriculum, teacher must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same
content in different ways in depending on students’ developmental levels. This is
why certain topics are initially presented in grade school in a manner appropriate for
grade schoolers, and then the same topic is tackled in high school, but on mush
deeper level. Sometimes a topic can be revisited within the same semester or
school year. For instance, the 14 learner-centered principles were introduced to you
in Module 2, and will again be tackled in module 28. This time the 14 principles were
be taken up as a means to integrate and summarize all your learning in this course/
subject. Many other concepts and principles discussed in this book are also taken up
in your other subjects like child and adolescent development and principles of
teaching to name few. This is part of spiral learning. It helps you get a clearer
understanding, thus more effective learning.

Below are the principles of instruction stated by Bruner:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make
the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the
student (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the
gaps (going beyond the information given).

Discovering learning

Discovery learning refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. Teacher plans and
arranges activities in such a way that students search, manipulate, explore, and
investigate. Students learn new knowledge relevant to the domain and such general
problem-solving skills as formulating rules, testing and gathering information. Most
discovery does not happen by chance. Students require background preparation.
Once students possess prerequisite knowledge, careful structuring of material allows
them to discover important principles.

Classroom example:
Learning becomes more meaningful when students explore their learning
environment rather than listen passively to teachers
 In elementary school- teachers might use guided discovery to help
children learn animal groups (e.g. mammals, birds, reptiles). Rather than
provide students with the basic animal groups and examples for each, the
teacher could ask students to provide the names of types of animals. Then
 the students and the teacher could classify the animals by examining their
similarities and differences. Category labels can be assigned once
classification are made. This approach is guided by the teacher to ensure
that classifications are proper, but students are active contributors as they
discover the similarities and the differences among animals.
 In high school- a chemistry teacher might use “mystery” liquids and have
students discover the elements in each. The students could proceed through
a series of experiments designed to determine if certain substances are
present in a sample. By using the experimental process, students learn about
the reaction of various substances to certain chemicals and also how to
determine the contents of their mystery substance.
Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four
major aspects:
1. Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for
learning”. Bruner believe that any subject could be taught at any stage of
development in a way that fits the child’s cognitive abilities. This feature
specifically states the experience which move the learner toward a love of
learning in general, or of learning something in particular. Motivational,
cultural, personal factors contribute to this. Bruner emphasized social factors
and early teacher’s and parents’ influence on this. He believed that learning
and problem solving emerged out of exploration. Spontaneous explorations.
2. Structure of knowledge. The ways in which a body of knowledge can be
structured so that it can be the most readily grasped by the learner. Bruner
emphasized the role of structure in learning and how it may be made central
in teaching. Structure refers to relationships among factual elements and
techniques. This will depend on different factors, and many preferences
among learners. Bruner offered considerable detail about structuring
knowledge.
1. Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it
mental process in the structuring of knowledge. Details are better
retained when placed within the context of an ordered and
structured pattern.
2. To generate knowledge which is transferable to other contexts,
fundamental principles or patterns are best suited.
3. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge in a
subject area is diminished when instruction centers on a structure
and principles of orientation. This means that a body of knowledge
must be in a form simple enough for the learner to understand and
it must be in a form recognizable to the student’s experience.
3. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in
general, the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing, or
lack of it can make learning easier or more difficult. Spiral curriculum refers
to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon them and
elaborating to the level of full understanding and mastery.
4. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishment should be selected and paced
appropriately. He investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally,
interest in the subject matter is the best stimulus for learning. Bruner did not
like external competitive goals such as grades or class ranking.
Categorization

Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the

construction of internal cognitive maps. He believed that perception,
conceptualization, learning, decision making, and making inferences all involved
categorization. Categories are “rules” that specify four things about objects. The
four things are given below:
1. Criterial attributes – required characteristics for inclusion of an object
in a category. (Example, for an object to be included in the category
“car” it must have an engine, 4 wheels, and be possible means of
transportation,)
2. The second rule prescribe how the criteria attributes are combined
3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties. (Example, it could
be a car even if a tire was missing, and if it was used for hauling
cargo it would be shifted to a different category of “truck” or perhaps
a “van”.)
4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits attributes. Some attributes vary
widely, such as color. Others are fixed. For example, a vehicle without
an engine is not a car. Likewise, a vehicle with only two wheels would
not be included in “car”.

There several kinds of categories:

1. Identify categories – categories include object based on their
attributes or features.
2. Equivalent categories- (provide rules for combining categories.)
equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render
objects equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based
on related functions (example, “car”, “truck”, “van” could all be
combined in an inclusive category called “motor vehicle”), or by
formal criteria, for example by science, law, or cultural agreement.
For example, an apple is still an apple whether it is green, ripe, dried,
etc. (identity). It is food (functional), and it is a member of a botanical
classification group (formal).
3. Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory input.
They are major organizational variables in higher cognitive
functioning. Going beyond immediate sensory data involves making
inferences on the basis of related categories. Related categories form
a “coding system”, these are hierarchical arrangements of related
categories.

The principles of Bruner launched the notion that people interpret the world mostly
in terms of similarities and differences. This is a valuable contribution to how
individuals construct their own models or view of the world.

Synapse Strengtheners
 1. Read more about discovery learning and how it is used in preschool,
elementary and high school levels.

Application
1. Choose a topic related to your field of specialization
2. Write a simple plan on how to teach this topic using Bruner’s principles.
Topic:
Grade/year Level of Learner:
How will you present the topic on the,
Enactive level?

Iconic Level?

Symbolic Level?

How will you apply the spiral curriculum approach in this topic?

Describe how you can use discovery learning for this topic.

5-Minute Non-stop Writing begins…NOW!

From the module on Bruner’s Constructivist Theory, I learned that…

MODULE 15

AUSUBEL’S MEANINGFUL VERBAL LEARNING SUBSUMPTION THEORY

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et.al

 Take the challange

In this module,challenge yourself to:

 Explain ausubels subsumption theory

 Determine the uses of graphic organizers.
 Use advance graphic organizer for a topic presentation

 Introduction activity
 The figure below is an advance organizer.
 Study it.Read the words found in each box.
 Examine how the lines connect the boxes
AUSUBEL’S

SUBSUMPTION THEORY

FOUR PROCESSES FOR

ADVANCE ORGANIZER
MEANINGFUL LEARNING

MEANINGFUL

RECEPTION

OF INFORMATION
 LEANERS COGNITIVE
STRUCTURES

USE OF ADVANCE
GRAPHICB ORGANIZER

SUBSUMPTION

4.Describe the the Advance Organizer , specifically on the words on how

Related to each other

Analysis;
DEREVATIVE
Why was the advance organizer presented before the discussion of the topic? EXPOSITORY
SUBSUMPTION
How can advance organizer help the students

CORRELATIVE NARRATIVE
Abstraction/Generalization SUBSUMPTION

The main theme of Ausubels Theory is that knowledge hierarchically

Organize ; That the new information isSUPERORDINATE
meaningful to the extent of it SKIMMING
can be related(Attached, Anchored)to what is already
LEARNING known.It is all
about individuals learn large amount of meaningful material from
Verbal/Textual presentation in a school settings .He proposed the use of advance
organizer as a tool for learning. COMBINATIONAL GRAPHIC
LEARNING ORGANIZERS

Focus Of Ausubels Theory

The most important factor influencing learning is that quality of clarity and organize
of the,learner's present knowledge consist of factors , concepts, proposition theories
and raw perceptual data. that the learner's has available to him/her at any point of
the time .This comprises his/her cognitive structure.

2.Meaningful learning takes place when an ideal to be learned is related in some

sensible way to ideas to be learned the learner already possess Ausubels believed
that before new material can be presented effectively, the students cognitive
structure should be strengthened. when this is done, acquisition and tretention of
new information facilitated .the way or strengthen the cognitive structure by using
advance organizer that allow students to already have abids eye view or to see the
big picture of the topic to be learned even before going to the details.
Ausubels belief of the used of advance organizer is anchored on the principles of
subsumption .He thought that the primary way of learning was subsumption a
process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive
structure likewise , Ausubels pointed out ,that what is learned is based on what is
already known also, retention of new knowledge is greater because it is based on
prior concrete concepts.

Meaningful learning can take place through four process:

Derivative Subsumption. This describe the situation in which the new information.
You learn is an example of a concept that you have to already learned .for
example ,let say you have acquired a basic concept such as bird you known that
birds have feathers,a break ,lays eggs.now you learn about a kind of bird that you
never been seen before ,let's say a blue jay ,that conforms to your previous
understanding of bird .you new knowledge of blue Jays is attached to your concepts
of bird .without substantially allerting that concepts in any way.So,an in ausubels
theory ,you had learned about blue Jays through the process of derravative subsumption.

sumption in order to accommodate this new information,you have to change or

expand your concepts of bird to include the posibillity of being big and having long
legs.you have learned this new kind of bird through the process of correlative
subsumption .in a sense you might say that this is more”valuable”learning than that
of derrivative subsumtion,since it enriches the higher-level concept.

Superordinate learning

Imagine that a child was well acquainted with banana,mangod,dalandan,guava etc,.

but the child did not know,until she was thought,that this where all examples of
fruits.in this case,the child already know a lot of example of the concept,but did not
know the concept until it was thought to hear. this is superordinate learning.

Combinatoral learning

This is when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge to inrich the
understanding of both concepts. The first learning processes all included new
information that relates to a

Herarchy at a level that is either below or above previously acquired knowledge

combinatoral of learning different it describe a process by which the new idea is
derived from another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the herarchy but at the
same level(in a different,but related,branch).
Advance organizer

The advance organizer is a major instructional tool proposed by ausubel.the

advance organizer,gives you two benefits (1)you will find it easier to connect new
information with what you already know about the topic and (2)you can redily see
how the concepts in a certain topic are related to each other.as you go about
klearning about the topic and go through the four learning processes.the advance
organizer help you link the new learning to your existing schem.as such,advance
organizer facilitate learning by helping you oraganize and strengthen your cognitive
structure.

ausubels stressed that advance organizers are not the same with over views and
summarise which simply emplasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of
abstraction and generality as the rest of the material organizer act as a subsuming
brigde between new learning material an existing relate ideas.

Types of advance organizers

expository-describes the new content

narrative-presents the new information in for of story of students.

skimming-is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview.

graphic organizers-visuals to set upor outline the new information.this may include
pictographs,descriptive patterns,concepts patterns.

Application of principles

The most general ideas of the subject should be presented first and then
progressively differentiated in terms of details and specificity.he called the
progressive defferentation.according to ausubels,the purpose of progressive
deferentation is to increase the stability and clarify of related topics a,b and c,rather
than teaching all of the topic a and then going to b,etc you would take spiral
approach.this is,in your pass throught the material,,you would be teach the

“big”ideas (i.e.., those highest in the hierarchy ) in all three topics,then on

successve passess you would begin to elaborate the details.along the way you
would point out principles that the three topics had in common,and the things that
deffirentiated them.”

Activity:

1. The use of advance organizers is anchored on the principle of subsumption.he

thought that the primary way of learning was subsumption a process by which new
material is related to relevant ideas in the exixting cognitive
sructure.likewise,ausubels pointed out,that what is learned is based on what is
already known.also,retention of new knowledge is greater because it is based on
prior concrete concepts.

2. Learners cognitive structure,use of advance graphic organizer

subsumtion,derevative subsumtion,expository,colerativeb subsumption,
narrative,superordinate learning,skimming,combinational learning,graphic organizer.

ANALYSIS:

1.Why was the advance organizer presented before the discussion of the topic?

- An advance organizer helps teachers present information so that students will

better understand and remember it. It can be defined as a tool used to introduce
the lesson topic and illustrate the relationship between what the students are about
to learn and the information they have already learned.

2.How can advance organizer help the students?

- An advance organizer helps teachers present information so that students will

better understand and remember it. ... Advance organizers are used to provide a
structure for student thinking, acting as a conceptual bridge between information
they already know and what they are about to learn.is related to relevant ideas in
the exixting cognitive sructure.likewise,ausubels pointed out,that what is learned is
based on what is already known.also,retention of new knowledge is greater because
it is based on prior concrete concepts.

Synapse strengthers

These theories represent points on a dimension from Piaget's particular organismic

world-view to Ausubel's tendency towards a mechanistic orientation. Each theory,
however, adopts a structuralist approach towards theory and explanation assuming
qualitative change in structure over time. Cognitive growth is seen as qualitative
changes in thought systems though the source of change is seen variously to be
either the properties of the internal structural system itself or the organized system
provided by the external environment. Each theory proposes a form of conflict
resolution as a critical mechanism of change in thinking, though the form of such
change-mechanisms varies from Piaget's stages of internal organization to Bruner's
notion of external amplifiers and Ausubel's subsumption process. The unique and
complementary implications these theories have for education are examined. It is
proposed that fundamental similarities in accounting for cognitive growth suggest an
integration of each special contribution is plausible and useful to educationalists. At
the same time, a comparison of the unique and diverse viewpoints of intellectual
development which each theory provides may serve to clarify by contrast the
particular contribution of each to education.

Application

Different types of graphic organizer

Circle map graphic organizer

Spider map graphic organizer

Ideal wheel graphic organizer

Concept graphic organizer

Venn diagram graphic organizer

Organizational graphic organizer

Saquence graphic organizer

Cause and effect graphic organizer

T-chart graphic organizer

I learned in ausbels theory is how Ausubel believed that understanding concepts,

principles, and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning. ... This led Ausubel
to develop an interesting theory of meaningful learning and advance organizers.
Learning Theory. Ausubel's believes that learning of new knowledge relies on what
is already known.

The most important for teaching/learning the more content in short time.
Developing thinking skills in students requires specific instruction and practice rather
than application. They should address analysis, evaluation and synthesis using
advance organizers that encourage students to operate at higher levels of
abstraction. Strengthening cognitive structures helps students retain information
longer, and subsumptions provide students with basic structures on which to build
new concepts. I learned also that the students needs motivation by the cognitive
drive achievement motivation,self improving internal knowledge, understanding and
mastery of knowledge and representation of needs to solve the problem.the virtue
of the ability of students to win the corresponding position or achievements needs in
order to maintained the authority of elders.
 MODULE 16 – GAGNE’S CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process
By: Lucas et.al

 Take the Challenge!

In this Module, challenge yourself to:

 explain Gagne’s conditions of learning.

 make a simple lesson outline (teaching sequence) using Gagne’s
instruction events.
 articulate the benefits of using Gagne’s principles in teaching.

Introduction:
In his theory, Gagne specified several different types or levels of learning. He
stressed that different internal and external conditions are needed for each type of
learning, thus his theory is called conditions of learning. He also provided nine
instruction events that served as basis for the sequencing of instruction.

Activity:
 Before reading the entire module, see if you can arrange the nine steps in
lesson presentation (instructional events) in their proper order. Read and arrange
the steps by numbering them. Form groups of 5 for this activity.

________ 1. Guidance of students’ performance

________ 2. Recall prior learning

________ 3. Enhance retention and transfer

________ 4. Gain attention

________ 5. Provide feedback

________ 6. Assess performance

________ 7. Present stimulus

________ 8. Elicit performance

________ 9. Identify the objective

Analysis:
Each group writes arrangement on the board for comparison and discussion.
Each group explains and justifies arrangement. For discussion, teacher asks the
class: “Which of the arrangement presented on the board is correct? Why?

Abstraction/ Generalization:
Let us see Gagne’s principles.

Gagne’s theory deals with all aspects of learning. However, the focus of the theory
is on intellectual skills. The theory has been utilized to design instruction in all
domains. In the earlier version of the theory, special attention was given to military
training settings. Later, Gagne also looked into the role of instructional technology in
learning.
Gagne’s Principles

1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

Gagne’s theory asserts that there are several different types or levels of
learning. Furthermore, the theory implies that each different type of learning
calls for different types of instruction. Gagne named five categories of
learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor
skills, and attitudes. Distinct internal and external conditions are required for
each type of learning. For instance, for cognitive strategies to be learned,
there must be an opportunity for problem solving; to learn attitudes, the
learner must be exposed to credible role model or arguments that are
convincing and moving. Below are the categories of learning with
corresponding learning outcomes and conditions of learning.

Category of Learning Example of Learning Conditions of Learning

Verbal Information Stating previously learned 1. Draw attention to
materials such as facts, distinctive features
concepts, principles, and by variations in print
 procedures, e.g., listing or speech.
the 14 learner-centered 2. Present information
psychological principles so that it can be
made into chunks.
3. Provide a
meaningful context
for effective
encoding of
information.
4. Provide cues for
effective recall and
generalization of
information.
Intellectual Skills: Discriminations: 1. Call attention to
Discriminations, Concrete Distinguishing objects, distinctive features.
Concepts, Defined features, or symbols, e.g., 2. Stay within the
Concepts, Rules, Higher distinguishing an even limits of working
Order Rules and an odd number memory.
3. Stimulates the recall
Concrete Concepts: of previously
Identifying classes of learned component
skills.
concrete objects,
4. Present verbal cues
features, or events, e.g.,
to the ordering or
picking out all the red
combination of
beads from a bowl of component skills.
beads 5. Schedule occasions
for practice and
Defined Concepts: spaced review.
Classifying new examples 6. Use a variety of
of events or ideas by their contexts to promote
definition, e.g., noting transfer.
“she sells seashells” as
alliteration

Rules: Applying a single

relationship to solve a
class of problems, e.g.,
computing average
monthly income of a
company

Order Rules: Applying a

new combination of rules
to solve a complex
problem, e.g., generating
a balanced budget for a
school organization
Cognitive Strategies Employing personal ways 1. Describe or
to guide learning. demonstrate the
Thinking, acting, and strategy.
 feeling, e.g., constructing 2. Provide a variety of
concept maps of topics occasions for
being studied practice using the
strategy.
3. Provide informative
feedback as to the
creativity or
originality of the
strategy or
outcome.
Attitudes Choosing personal actions 1. Establish an
based on internal states expectancy of
of understanding and success associated
feeling, e.g., deciding to with the desired
avoid soft drinks and attitude.
drinking at least 8 glasses 2. Assure students
of water everyday. identification with
an admired human
model.
3. Arrange for
communication or
demonstration of
choice of personal
action.
4. Give feedback for
successful
performance; or
allow observation of
feedback in the
human model.
Motor Skills Executing performances 1. Present verbal
involving the use of or other
muscles, e.g., doing the guidance to cue
steps of the singkil dance the executive
subroutine.
2. Arrange
repeated
practice.
3. Furnish
immediate
feedback as to
the accuracy of
performance.
4. Encourage the
use of mental
practice.

2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a

sequence of instruction. Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual
skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus
 recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology,
discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving.
The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify the prerequisites that
should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are
identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning
hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the
conditions of learning. These events should satisfy or provide the necessary
conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and
selecting appropriate media. The theory includes nine instructional events
and corresponding cognitive processes:
(1) gaining attention (reception)
(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
(3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
(6) eliciting performance (responding)
(7) providing feedback (reinforcement)
(8) assessing performance (retrieval)
(9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).

Study the two examples of teaching sequences below. They reflect the events of
instruction.

Example 1. Lesson: Equilateral Triangles

Objective: For students to create equilateral triangles

Target group: Grade 4 pupils

1. Gain attention- show variety of computer-generated triangles

2. Identify objective- pose question: “What is an equilateral triangle?”
3. Recall prior learning- review definitions of triangles
4. Present stimulus- give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral
6. Elicit performance- ask students to create 5 different examples
7. Provide feedback- check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer- show pictures of objects and ask students to
identify equilaterals

Example 2. Lesson: Powerful Lessons with Powerpoint

Objective: Students to create presentations using Microsoft Powerpoint

Target Group: This lesson is geared for education students (pre-service teachers)
with basic computer skills.
 Event of Lesson Example/Conditions Rationale
Instruction of Learning
1. Gaining Teacher tells learners how she Giving background
Attention has used Powerpoint in the information creates
classroom, shows an example of validity.
a Powerpoint, and asks learners
questions about using The use of multimedia
Powerpoint. grabs the audience’s
attention.

Asking questions in the

beginning creates an
interactive atmosphere.
2. Informing the Teacher says, “Today we are Make learners aware of
Learner of the going to work on using a what to expect so that
Objective multimedia presentation they are aware and
software, Microsoft Powerpoint.” prepared to receive
information.
3. Stimulating For this particular group of When learning
Recall of Prior learners, they have learned something, accessing
Learning previously about Microsoft prior knowledge is a
Windows, particularly Microsoft major factor in the
Word. Teacher associates this process of acquiring new
knowledge with lesson at hand. information.
4. Presenting the Teacher gives students hands- The goal is information
Stimulus on, step-by-step tutorial on acquisition; therefore,
using Microsoft Powerpoint. the stimulus employed is
written content and the
actual software
program.
5. Providing Teacher demonstrates how to Teacher uses “discovery
Learner create a presentation. Teacher learning” because
Guidance moves around and shows learners are adults and it
students how to use the tools to gives them the freedom
type in text, add links, add to explore. Teacher
symbols and clip art, insert facilitates the learning
videos and diagrams, use process by giving hints
sounds, etc. Learners are and cues when needed.
allowed to try the tools Since the audience are
demonstrated in partners on pre-service with some
their computers. basic level of technology
skills and the software
program is easy to
follow and understand,
guidance is minimal.
6. Eliciting Teacher asks students to Requiring the learner to
Performance demonstrate Powerpoint tools. produce based on what
has been taught enables
the learner to confirm
 his/her learning.
7. Giving Teacher gives immediate Regular feedback
Feedback feedback to learners after enhances learning.
eliciting responses.
8. Assessing Assign a practice activity- Create Independent practice
Performance an electronic story book using forces students to use
Microsoft Powerpoint. Teacher what they learned and
checks work. apply it. Assessing such
gives instructors a
means of testing student
learning outcomes.
9. Enhancing Teacher asks learners to create Applying learning in real-
retention and activities using Powerpoint life situations is a step
Transfer presentation for 6th grade pupils. towards Mastery
Teacher also assigns learner to Learning.
teach another learner how to
make Powerpoint presentations.

Synapse and Strengtheners:

1. Discuss how Gagne’s events of learning can help one to be an effective
teacher.
2. Discuss what you perceive as the advantages and disadvantages of using
Gagne’s instructional events in lesson planning.

Name: ________________________________________ Yr. &

Sec.:__________________

Application
Choose a topic with a particular lesson objective in any grade or year level. Make a
teaching sequence applying Gagne’s nine instructional events. Use the table
provided for you.
Topic:_______________________________________________________________
_______

Objective:____________________________________________________________
______

Grade/Year
Level:_______________________________________________________________
_______

Event of Instruction Lesson Example/Conditions of Learning

1. Gaining Attention

2. Informing the Learner

of the Objective
3. Stimulating Recall of
Prior Learning
4. Presenting the
Stimulus
5. Providing Learner
Guidance
6. Eliciting Performance

7. Giving Feedback

8. Assessing Performance

9. Enhancing Retention
and Transfer

5-Minute Non-Stop Writing Begins…. NOW!

From the Module on Gagne’s Conditions of Learning, I learned that…
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Module 17

Unit 3.3 Cognitive Processes

Constructivism: Knowledge Construction/Concept Learning
Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process
By: Lucas et.al

Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:

 Explain the role of constructivism in facilitating learning.

 Describe strategies to promote knowledge construction.
 Describe strategies to facilitate concept learning.

Introduction

This module discusses constructivism which was mentioned in the previous

module of Piaget and Bruner. It is the distillation of most of the principles of
cognitive psychologists.

_________

Activity

Read the question below;

“Teaching is not about filling up the pail,

it is about lighting a fire.”
What concepts/ideas/images came to your mind when you read “Teaching is about
lighting a pail”? Elaborate.

What concepts/ideas/images came to your mind when you read “Teaching is about
lighting a fire”? Elaborate.

Analysis

What do you think the quotation meant? What two kinds of teaching are being
referred to?

Abstraction/Generalization

So far, you have studied about both the behavioristic and cognitive
views of learning. Behaviorism focused in the external, observable behavior.
Learning is explained as a connection between the stimulus and the response.
Reinforcement is the key to learning. Behaviorists saw learning as a change in
behavior brought about by experience with little acknowledgement the mental or
internal aspects of learning. On the other hand, the cognitive view focuses on the
internal processes. Learning is an active process. Learners initiate experiences,
search for information to solve problems, and reorganize what they already know to
come up with new insights.

In the quotation above, “filling up the pail” is more linked to rote learning
and behaviorism. It connotes that teaching is dominated by the teacher and the
learners are passive receivers of knowledge. “Lighting the fire” is related to the
cognitive perspective and constructivism. It signifies that teaching involves giving
opportunities for learners to explore and discover. Learners construct their own
meaning. Learners generate insights are “enlightened”.

More associated with cognitive psychology than behaviorism,

constructivism focuses on knowledge construction. You were introduced to
constructivism in Module 14 on Bruner’s theory. Just as there are different views
within cognitive psychology, constructivism also has different “versions”.

Two Views of Constructivism

Individual Constructivism. This is also called cognitive

constructivism. It emphasizes individual, internal construction of knowledge. It is
largely based on Piaget’s theory. Proponents of this type choose child-centered and
discovery learning. They believe the learners should be allowed to discover
principles through their own exploration rather than direct instruction by the
teacher.

Social Constructivism. This view emphasizes that “knowledge

exists in a social context and is initially shared with others instead of
being represented solely in the mind of the individual”. It is based on
Vygotsky’s theory. Here, construction of knowledge is shared by two or more
people. According to social constructivists, the opportunity to interact and share
among learners helps to shape and refine their ideas. Knowledge construction
becomes social, not individual.

Characteristics of Construction

Whether one takes the individual or social view of constructivism, there

are four characteristics that these two views have. According to Eggen and Kauchak,
these are:
1. Learners construct understanding. As discussed earlier, constructivists
do not view learners as just vessels waiting to be filled up. They see learners
as active thinkers who interpret new information based on what they already
know. They construct knowledge in a way that makes sense to them.
2. New learning depends on current understanding. Background
information is very important. It is through the present views or scheme that
the learner has, that new information will be interpreted.
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction. Constructivists believe in
creating a “community of learners” within classrooms. Learning communities
help learners take responsibility for their own learning. Learners have a lot of
opportunities to cooperate and collaborate to solve problems and discover
things. Teachers play the role of a facilitator rather than an expert who has
all the knowledge.
4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks. An
authentic task is one that involves a learning activity that involves
constructing knowledge and understanding that is so akin to the knowledge
and understanding needed when applied in the real world. Example, a
writing activity where six-year olds prepare a checklist of things they need to
do in school is a more an authentic activity than for them to be working only
on tracing worksheets with dotted lines.

Organizing Knowledge

Concepts. A concept is a way of grouping or categorizing objects or events

in our mind. A concept of teach, includes a group of task such as model, discuss,
illustrate, explain, assist, etc. In your life as a student you would learn thousands of
concepts, some simple ones, others more complicated that may take you to learn
them more gradually. The concepts you learn are also revised as you learn more
and experience more.

Concepts as Features Lists. Learning a concept involves learning specific

features that characterize positive instance of the concept. Included here are
defining features and correlational feature. A defining feature is a characteristic
present in ALL instances,. Example, A triangle has three sides. Having three sides is
a defining feature of a triangle. Because ALL triangles should have three sides. If
one doesn’t, then it is not triangle. A correlational feature is one that is present in
many positive instances but not essential for concept membership. For example, a
mother is loving. Being loving is a feature commonly present in the concept mother.
But a mother may not be loving. So “being loving” is only a correlational feature, not
a defining one.

Concept as Prototypes. A prototype is an idea or a visual image of a

“typical” example. It is usually formed based on the positive instances that learners
encounter most often. Example, close your eyes now and for a moment think of a
cat. Picture in mind what it looks like. You probably thought of an image of the
common cat we see, rather than some rare breed or species. Once learners have
their own concepts prototypes, the new example that they see are checked against
this existing prototype.

Concepts are Exemplars. Exemplars represent a variety of examples. It allows

learners to know that an example under a concept may have variability. Example. A
learner’s concept of vegetable may include a wide variety of different examples like
cauliflower, kangkong, cabbage, string beans, squash, corn, potatoes. When he
encounters a new type of vegetable like “bitsuelas”, he would search from the
exemplars he knows and looks for one that is most similar, like string beans.

Making concept-learning Effective. As a future teacher, you can help

students learn concepts by doing the following:

 Provide a clear definition of the concept

 Make the defining features very concrete and prominent
 Give a variety of positive instances
 Give negative instances
 Cite a “best example” or a prototype
 Provide opportunity for the learners to identify positive and negative
instances.
 Ask learners to think to their own example of the concept
 Point out how concepts can be related to each other

Schemas and scripts. A schema is an organized body of knowledge

about something. It is like a file of information you hold in your mind about
something. Like a schema of what a teacher is. A script is a schema that includes a
series of predictable events about a specific activity. Examples would include
knowing the series of steps done when we visit a doctor, or what transpires at the
beginning of the class when the teacher arrives.
 Your role as a teacher is to bring learners to construct their own knowledge
such that they have a well organized set of concepts. Aim to make clear those
concepts that are still vague for them, and to pave the way for them to overcome
misconceptions. It is important that you acquire skills on how to facilitate concept
formation and development. Constructivism can be an excellent guide for you.

Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning

 Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an in-depth manner,

rather than taking up so many topics superficially.
 Give varied examples.
 Provide opportunities for experimentation.
 Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction.
 Have lots of hands-on activities.
 Relate your topic to real life situations.
 Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.

Synapse Strengtheners
1. Having studied about constructivism and its application in teaching, give at least
five characteristics of a constructivist teacher. You may express your answer by
writing a poem, or a drawing or a clip art/photo essay.

Name:________________________ Yr. &

Sec.___________________

Application

1. Think of a topic related to your field of specialization.

2. Indicate how you can apply constructivism for your students to construct
their own understanding of the topic. The first one is partially done for you.

Topic:____________________ Grade/year level

______________________

Constructivist Implications What I will do to teach the topic

 Have few key ideas I will emphasize the following key ideas

 Give varied examples

 Provide opportunities for
experimentation
 Provides lots of opportunities for
quality interaction
  Have lots of hands-on activities

 Relate your topic to real life

situations

 Do not depend on the explanation

method all the time

5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…..NOW!

From the module on Constructivism. Knowledge Construction/Concept
Learning. I learned that….

_______________________________________________________________________________

Module 18 Transfer of learning

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et.al
√Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:

 Explain how transfer of learning occurs.

 identify the factors that affect transfer of learning.
 apply principles of transfer in facilitating transfer of learning.

Introductionn

Teacher want their students to apply the knowledge and skills they learn in
class to other situations. When one recognizes a situation as something similar in a
way to what he ha experienced before, his tendency is to use the knowledge and
skills he has learned to this new situation. This is what transfer of learning is a
about.

Activity

Discuss this:

 Will a skilled typist find it difficult to use the computer keyboard when s/he
encodes?
Do this:

 Let your teacher/a classmate, whose cellphone feature differ from yours, use
your cellphone. We s/he be able to use your cellphone without your help. Or did
s/he need help?
Reflect on this:

 A thesis writer once remarked;”Buti na lang. We were required to do action

research in the undergraduate. It help me a lot in my thesis,”
Read this;

 A preacher used this analogy of the Dead sea and the Sea of Galilee and life.
The Dead Sea is Dead. Only a few living things can thrive there because of its
high salinity. All the Dead Sea does is receive and receive water. It does not
give way. It is dead. This is likened to a person who is psychologically dead
because all he does is received a never gives away.
In contrast, the Sea of Galilee is full of life. It received water from the River Jordan
and readily gives away. It is generous and teems with life. It is like a person who
receives but gives away and shares what he receives with others.

Analysis

Find out:

 why the skilled typist doesn’t find any difficulty in using the computer keyboard.
 why your teacher/classmate couldn’t use a cellphone different from his/her
without assistance.
 why the thesis writer found thesis writing much easier because the action
research s/he went through.
 how your understanding of a true and happy life was made concrete by the use
of the analogy of the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee.

Abstraction/Generalization

Transfer of learning happens when learning in one context or with one set of
materials affects performance in another context or with the other related materials.
Simply put, it is applying to another situation what was previously learned. For
example, learning to use roller skates later helps a person to learn more quickly to
ice skates.learning to get along with classmate in preschool helps the child adjust
and relate well with classmate in the “big” school, or even playing highly competitive
on-line computer games might might even make one a better strategic thinker in
politics or business. Transfer is a very significant concept in education and learning
theory because most of those concerned in education aim to achieve transfer.

Frequently, the circumstance of learning (classroom, workbook, tests, drills)

differs significantly from the situation when what is learned is to be applied (in the
home, on the job, within complex tasks). as a result, the educational goals are not
met until transfer occurs. This makes transfer a very important aspects of
instruction. It may be true that in most cases the goal to transfer of learning from
classroom to real life situation is not achieved. So it is vital that as a future teacher
you have a clear understanding of how best to teach your learners so that transfer
of learning is facilitated. After all, what good is there in providing your learners with
 tons of knowledge and a multitude of skills if they cannot apply them when they
need to.

Types of Transfer

Positive transfer. Positive transfer occurs when learning in one context

improves performance in some other context. For instance, a speaker of Spanish
would find it easier to learn Mexican language than Japanese.

Negative transfer, Negative transfer occurs when learning in one context

impacts negatively on performance in another. For example, Learners commonly
assimilate a new language’s phonetics to crude approximations in their native
tongue and use word orders carried over from their native tongue, Example, earning
Cebuano as a child, the learner now frequently interchanges the /e/ and /I/ sound
when speaking in English. With experience however, learners correct the effect of
negative transfer.

Far transfer. Far transfer refers to transfer between contexts that, on

appearance, seem remote and alien to one another, This is also called general
transfer. For example Stephen Covey applied the lesson of the Aesop’s fable of
“the Goose That Lays the Golden Eggs” to managing corporations. He sad we should
take care of goose rather than kill it. To be successful in business we should take
care of our workers not burden them.

Conditions and Principle of Transfer

These principles are based on the factors that affect transfer of learning. These
factors are similar to what Perkins termed as “conditions of transfer”. Below you will
find the factors with the consequent principles and educational implications.

Conditions/Factors affecting Principle of transfer Implication

transfer of learning
Similarly between two learning The more similar the two Involve student in learning
situation situation are, the greater the situation and tasks that are
chances that learning from one similar as possible to the
situation will be transferred to situation were they would
the other situation. apply the tasks.

Degree of meaningfulness/ Meaningful learning leads to Remember to provide

relevance of learning greater transfer than role opportunities for learners to
learning link new materials to what
they learned in the past.
Length of instructional time Tho longer the time spent in To ensure transfer, teach
instruction, the greater the few topics in depth rather
probability of transfer than many topics tackled in
a shallow manner

Conditions/factors affecting Principle of learning Implication

transfer of learning

Variety of learning experiences Exposure to many and varied Illustrate new concept and
examples and opportunities for principles with a variety of
practice to encourage transfer examples. Plan activities
that allow your learners to
practice their newly learned
skills.
Context for learner’s experiences Transfer of learning is most likely Relate topic in one subject
to happen when learners discover to topics in other subjects
that what they learned is or disciplines. Relate it also
applicable to various context. to real life situations.
Focus on principles rather than Principles transfer easier than Zero in on principles related
tasks facts. to each topic together with
strategies based on those
principles
Emphasis on Metacognition Student reflection improves Encourage students to take
transfer of learning responsibility for their own
learning, and to reflect on
what they learned.

Synapse Strengtheners

1. Read more about “mile-wild-inc-deep”curriculum. What are some

advantages and disadvantages of this ?
2. One multidisciplinary approach is Content-Based Instruction
(CBI). Another is the thematic approach. Read about this and see
how they can help the transfer of learning more effective. ( You
may wish to refer to Corpuz, B, and Salandanan,G,(2007).
Principle of teaching 2).
Name: Yr. & Sec.____________

Application

1. Choose a topic related to field of specialization.

2. Extend the table above by thinking of specific learning activities that would
apply the principle of transfer
TOPIC ______________________

Implication Specific Learning Activity/Strategy

Involve students in learning situation
and task that are similar at possible to
the situations where would apply the
tasks.
Remember to provide opportunities for
learners to link new material to what
they learned in the past.
In ensure transfer, teach a few topics in
depth rather than many topics tackled in
shallow manner.

Illustrate new concepts and principles

with a variety of examples. Plan activities
that allow your learners to practice their
newly learned skills.
Relate topic in one subject to topics and
other subjects or disciplines. Relate it
also to real life situation.
Zero in on principles related to each
topic together with strategies based on
those principles
Encourage students to take responsibility
for their own learning and to reflect on
what they learned.
 5-Minute Non-Stop Writing Begins….NOW!
From the Module on Transfer of learning, I learned that….

Module 19 Facilitating Learning and Bloom’s Taxonomy of objectives

 Adapted from : Facilitating learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et. al

Take the challenge:

In this module, challenge yourself to:

 Differentiate the different levels of Bloom’s taxonomy.

 Formulate objectives reflecting the levels of the taxonomy.

 Write high level questions reflective of Bloom’s taxonomy.

Introduction

How would you feel if you enter a classroom without specific lesson objectives?
How would you proceed without clear and specific targets? Identifying and
articulating learning objectives facilitates learning . With specific and clear learning
objectives, we don’t have to grope in the dark on what is accomplish.

Activity

1. Get a copy of a story , an article or a book chapter about a topic that you find
interesting or find related to your field of specialization.

2. Read the whole material.

3. Let’s say you are going to teach this material to a class. Prepare 10 questions you
will use in teaching the material.

Analysis

Examine the questions you made. Identify to which level in Bloom’s taxonomy each
of your questions would fall and justify why. Refer to the Task-oriented Questions
Construction. Which based on Bloom’s taxonomy given below. By using the
verbs/activities given in the Task-oriented question construction wheel, convert the
questions to the learning objectives.

Questions Bloom’s Taxonomy Level Objectives

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.
Abstraction / generalization

Bloom’s taxonomy of objectives in the cognitive domain comes in different levels

from knowledge or recall to evaluation. To facilitate learning, we begin teaching with
facts, stating memorize rules, principles or definitions (knowledge)which must lead
to formulating and understanding concepts, rules and principles(comprehension). A
proof of the comprehension of concepts and principles is the application of these
learned concepts, rules, and principles in real life situations. For an in depth
understanding and mastery of these applied concepts, rules, and principles, these
are broken into parts of which are subjected to a keen process of analysis. After the
parts have to be put together (synthesis) for us to have a holistic, complete, and an
integrated view of that thing being learned. With each part of the thing being
learned thoroughly analysed and put together afterwards (synthesis), we are able to
see the connectedness or the relationship of each part. With a full grasp of the
entire thing being learned, we are in a position to pass judgement (evaluation) on
the thing being learned against a set of standards.

To facilitate learning in the higher cognitive level such as application,

analysis, synthesis, an evaluation, recall and comprehension are a must. We cannot
apply that which we learned if we cannot recall and cannot even understand what
we learned in the first place.

There are two other domains of learning, namely psychomotor and affective.
Learning in these domains come also in different levels. You will have a more
detailed discussion on these in the principles of teaching 1 (refer to unit 3, chapter 1
of principles of teaching 1 written by B. Corpuz and G. Salandanan ).

The levels of thinking required in the cognitive domain of objectives also

apply to the level of questions that we ask in class. Remember, you were made to
identify the level of your questions based on Bloom’s taxonomy in activity 1. We
facilitate learning when we ask questions that go beyond the levels of recall and
comprehension. However, Boom (1956) laments:

As teachers we tend to ask questions in the “knowledge” category

80% to 90% of the time. These questions are not bad, but using them all the time
is. Try to utilize higher order level of questions. These questions require much more
“brain power” and a more extensive and elaborate answer.
 Below are the six- questions categories as defined by Bloom and samples of
questions for each level.

Knowledge

 Remembering

 Memorizing

 Recognizing

 Recalling identification and

 Recall of information

 Who, what, when, where, how….?

 Describe

Comprehension

 Interpreting

 Translating from one medium to another;

 Describing in one’s own words ;

 Organization and selection of facts and ideas

 Retell ………

Application

 Problem solving

 Applying information to produce some result ;

 Use of facts, rules and principles

 How is …. an example of…?

 How is…related to …?

 Why is ….. significant?

Analysis

 Subdividing something to show how it is put together;

 Finding the underlying structure of a communication;

 Identifying motives;

 Separation of a whole into component parts

 What are the parts of features of….?

 Classify….according to…

 Outline/diagram….

 How does …. Compare/ contrast with….?

 What evidence can you list for…..?

Synthesis

 Creating a unique, original product that may be in verbal form or may be

a physical object;

 Combination of ideas to form a new whole

 what would you predict/ infer from …..?

 what ideas can you add to….?

 How would you create/design a new ……?

 What might happen if you combined…..?

 What solutions would you suggest for….?

Evaluation

 Making value decisions about issues ;

 Resolving controversies or differences of opinion;

  Development of opinions, judgements or decisions

 Do you agree….?

 What do you think about ….?

 What is the most important ….?

 Place the following in order of priority ….

 How would you decide about….?

 What criteria would you use to assess….?

How can we develop the habit of asking higher-order questions?

1. Because faculty tend to “teach the way they were taught, “literal-level
questions are typically overused. Therefore, even when assessing student
learning, instructors should avoid literal-level questions in favour of those
requiring higher-order thinking.

 Student responses to critical thinking questions reveal the

extent of their literal understanding of the facts .

 In addition, a student’s ability to apply and transfer that

knowledge in different contexts can be assessed.

2. By using questions requiring higher-order thinking , teacher questioning

moves beyond an assessment tool and becomes a valuable instructional
tool as well.

 Student interest and motivation are enhanced by questions

that help students relate what they are learning to their own
background knowledge, experience, and values.

 Higher-order questions are also important for modelling

different ways student can interpret, apply, evaluate, and
reflect on what they are learning.
 3. To make sure they are emphasizing higher-order questions, teachers
should classify their questions according to the kinds of thinking required
for students to respond.

 An effective way for teachers to replace literal

questions with critical thinking questions involves the
use of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Thinking .

 Since the first two levels in the taxonomy reflect

literal- level thinking, questions classified as knowledge
or comprehension should be avoided.

 Instead, teachers should make sure their questions

can be classified as APPLICATION, ANALYSIS,
SYNTHESIS, and /or EVALUATION.

4. One of the keys to formulating questions designed to develop critical

thinking is to use verbs associated with higher-order thinking tanks.

 VERBS REPRESENTING COGNITIVE TASKS IN BLOOM’S

TAXONOMY are useful in the formulation of questions and
learning objectives in demonstrating what they have learned.

5. Also important for consideration are the learning products associated

with higher-order thinking tasks.

 A TASK- ORIENTED QUESTION CONSTRUCTION WHEEL found

on page 56 can be used to consider both the verbs and tasks
associated with the higher-order level of thinking in BLOOM’S
taxonomy.

Effective Questioning Techniques

Our questioning techniques can either facilitate or obstruct learning.

The effectiveness of questioning in teacher- student interactions can be

significantly enhanced by a few basic techniques:
1. Pose the question first, before asking a student to respond.

 When you call on a student before posing the question, the

rest of the class is less likely to listen to the question, much
less formulate a response.

 Posing the question before identifying someone to responds

lets students know they will be held accountable and should be
prepared to answer every question.

2. Allow plenty of” think time” by waiting at least 7-10 seconds before
expecting students to respond.

 Ask student to refrain from responding until you ask for a

volunteer or identify someone.

 Since most teachers wait only 1-3 seconds before expecting a

response, the increased wait time can seem like an eternity
and feel very uncomfortable at first.

 To help student adjust to an extended wait time use the time

to repeat and rephrase the question; also suggest that
students use the time to write down the responses they
compose.

3. Make sure you give all students the opportunity to respond rather than
relying on volunteers.

 Create a system to help you keep track of who you call on, so
you can ensure that all students have equal opportunities to
contribute.

 If you call on a student who is not ready to respond or does not

know the answer , allow the student to “pass” and then give
her/ him another opportunity later.

4. Hold students accountable by expecting, requiring, and facilitating their

participation and contributions.
  Never answer your own questions! If the students know you
will give them the answers after a few seconds of silence
anyway, what is their incentive?

 Do not accept “I don’t know” for an answer.

 Allow additional think time, if necessary, by moving on and

then coming back to the student for a response later.

 Offers hints or suggestions to guide students in formulating

quality response.

 If a student is unable or unwilling to formulate a response,

then offer two or more options and let the students choose
one.

5. Establish a safe atmosphere for risk taking by guiding students in the

process of learning from their mistakes.

 Always “dignify” incorrect responses by saying something

positive about students ‘efforts, public embarrassment
only confirms apprehensions about class participation.

 When students make mistakes, build their confidence

and trust by asking follow-up questions designed to help
them self-correct and achieve success.

 Admit your own mistakes and ”think loud” examples of a

reflection process that demonstrates increased
awareness , new insights, concept clarification, etc.

Synapse Strenghteners

1. Get a learning partner. One of you writes a lesson objective, the

other writes the question that corresponds to the level of the lesson
objective. Do this for all the five levels from knowledge to evaluation.
 You may switch roles so that each of you will experience writing a
lesson objective and a question. Critic each other’s work.

2. Surf the INTERNET for a graphic presentation of the learning

objectives in the psychomotor and affective domains.

Application

Group yourselselves by six (6) according to course and specialization. Secure

a copy of the Philippine Elementary Learning Competencies (PELS) and the
Philippine Secondary Learning Competencies (PSLC). The future elementary
teachers will refer to the PELC while the would –be high school teachers refers to
the PSLC. For each working group, pick out learning objectives the represent the
different levels of Bloom’s cognitive domain of objectives in your field of
specialization/interest.

Formulate question/s that correspond to each learning objectives.

5-Minute: Non-stop writing begins… NOW!

From the module on facilitating learning and Bloom’s taxonomy of objectives.

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_______________________--
MODULE 20 Problem Solving and Creativity

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et.al

Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:
 Explain the four criteria of creativity by Torrance.
 Practice creative thinking
 Apply problem-solving skills.

Introduction
Problem solving and creativity go hand in hand. You need to be creative in
order to solve a problem. It is unfortunate, that these seem not adequately taught
in the classroom.
Activity
1. Answer this match puzzle.

Remove 8 matches to leave just to squares, which should not touch (retrieved from
(http://www.mycoted.com/Matches _Puzzle_1)
2. What would happen if humans had one more eye at the back of their head?
Write as many answers then indicate why.

Your Answers Why

Analysis
Group yourselves by five (5) then share your answers to the following questions:
1. How did you find the activities?
2. What did you do to be able to solve the puzzle?
3. What kind of question were you given in Activity #2?
4. Was this type of question necessary for you to be able to come up with more
than one
answer? Could you have come up with more than one answer if the question asked
was ”Who is the incumbent President of the Philippines?”
Abstraction/Generalization
What you went through is an exercise on creative thinking and problem
solving. What are the aspects of creative thinking and problem solving? The notes
below will provide more details.

Torrance Framework for Creative Thinking

A common framework for creative thinking processes is described by
Torrance (1979). Each aspect is defined below, along with ways to facilitate the
respective aspect by using key words and application activities.

Fluency
Definition
Fluency refers to the production of a great number of ideas or alternate solutions to
a problem. Fluency implies understanding, not just remembering information that is
learned.
Key words
Compare, convert, count, define, describe, explain, identify, label, list, match, name,
outline, paraphrase, predict, summarize.
Application activities
Trace a picture and label the parts.
Outline an article you find on your topic.
How many uses can you think of for a clothes hanger?
List 15 things that are commonly red or contain red.
Example: Apple, blood, brick, caboose, cherry, Christmas stocking, exit sign, fire
alarm, flag, heart, red nose reindeer, rose, tomatoe, wagon.

Flexibility
Definition
Flexibility refers to the production of ideas that show a variety of possibilities of
realms of thought. It involves the ability to see things from different points of view,
to use many different approaches or strategies.
Key Words
Change, demonstrate, distinguish, employ, extrapolate, interpolate, interpret,
predict.
Application ideas
What would happen if … there were no automobiles?
How would a … dog look to a flea?
How is ___________ like __________?
How would you feel if … you were invisible for a day?
How would you group the ideas about “red” into categories?
Example: Fruit, safety, features, vehicles.

Once categories are identified, fluency may be further demonstrated by generating

more ideas about the idea red within categories. Even a modest attempt could result
in the following lists, recognizing that the creative thinking process may shift the
mind in a spiral way between all four aspects of creativity.

Red Fruit Red safety features Red Vehicles

Apple Exit sign Caboose
Cherry Fire alarm Fire truck
Raspberry Stop sign Tricycle
tomatoe Tail lights Wagon

Elaboration

Definition
Elaboration is the process of enhancing ideas by providing more details. Additional
detail and clarity improves interest in, understanding of, the topic.
Key Words
Appraise, critique, determine, evaluate, grade, judge, measure, select, test.
Application Ideas
Tell your neighbor about your last family trip using as many details as possible.
What can you add to _________ to improve its quality or performance?
Describe all the possible characteristics of the red quality in a wagon.
Example: Shade, finish, texture, uniformity.

Originality

Definition
Originality involves the production of ideas that are unique or unusual. It involves
synthesis or putting information about a topic back together in a new way.
Key Words
Compose, create, design, generate, integrate, modify, rearrange, reconstruct,
reorganize, revise.
Application ideas
Find an original use for ________.
What would be the strangest way to get out of bed?
Design a new __________ that is better than the one you have.
Write an unusual title for the ideas about red.
Example: Revolutionary “Red” Representation.

An overview of the four aspects of creativity appears in a PowerPoint presentation

that may be downloaded from the following link: Creativity.ppt
An adaptation of the creativity aspects to the construct “jumping” appears in a Word
document that may be downloaded from the following link: Jumping.doc

Torrance, P. (1979). The Search for Satori and Creativity.

Steven A. Henkel, 12/02
RETRIEVED FROM
(http://www.bethel.edu/ꟷshenkel/PhysicalActivities/CreativeMovement/CreativeThinking/
Torrance.html

Creative Problem Solving - CPS

Osbom’s Checklist the origin of Classical Brainstorming is the root of creative
problem solving (CPS). There are a variety of general structures; ‘define problem,
generate possible solutions, select and implement the best’ which can be found
extensively, in several different academic traditions.

In its most extended and formalized form it has the six stages shown below, each
with a divergent and a convergent phase. However, more recent publications seem
more interested in focusing on procedure and technique issues, with less weight on
the full elaboration of this structure.
The following, based on Van Gundy (1988’s) description, is a very brief skeleton of a
very rich process, showing it in its full ‘6 x 2 stages’ form;
1. Stage 1: Mess finding: Sensitise yourself (scan, search) for issues (concerns,
challenges, opportunities, etc.) that need to be tackled.
 Divergent techniques include ‘Wouldn’t It Be Nice If…’ (WIBNI) and ‘Wouldn’t
It Be Awful If…’ (WIBAI) ꟷbrainstorming to identify desirable outcomes, and
obstacles to be overcome.
 Convergent techniques include the identification of hotspots (Highlighting),
expressed as a list; of IWWMs (‘In What Ways Might. . .’), and selection in
terms of ownership criteria (e.g. problem-owner’s motivation and ability to
influence it) and outlook criteria (e.g. urgency, familiarity, stability).
2. Stage 2: Data finding: Gather information about the problem.
 Divergent techniques include Five Ws and H (Who, Why, What, When,
Where and How) and listing of wants, sources and data: List all your
information “wants” as a series of question, for each, list possible sources of
answers, then follow these up and for each source, list what you found.
 Convergent techniques again include: identifying hotspots (Highlighting);
Mind-mapping to sort and classify the information gathered; and also
restating the problem in the light of your richer understanding of it.
3. Stage 3: Problem finding: convert a fuzzy statement of the problem into a broad
statement more suitable for idea finding.
 Divergent techniques including asking ‘Why?’ etc. ꟷ the repeatable questions
and Five W’s and H.
 Convergent techniques include Highlighting again, reformulation of problem-
statements to meet the criteria that they contain only one problem and no
criteria, and selection of the most promising statement (but NB that the
mental ‘stretching’ that the activity gives to the participants can be as
important as the actual statement chosen).
4. Stage 4: Idea Finding: generate as many ideas as possible
 Divergence using any of a very wide range of idea-generating techniques.
The general rules of Classic Brainstorming (such as deferring judgment) are
likely to under-pin all of these.
 Convergence can again involve hotspots or mind-mapping, the combining of
different idea, and the short-listing of the most promising handful, perhaps
 with some thought for the more obvious evaluation criteria, but not over-
restrictively.
5. Stage 5: Solution finding: Generate and select obvious evaluation criteria
(using an expansion/contraction cycle) and develop (which may include
combining) the short-listed ideas from Idea Finding as much as you can in the
light of these criteria. Then opt for the best of these improved ideas (e.g. using
Comparison tables).
6. Stage 6: Acceptance finding: How can the suggestion you have just selected
be made up to standard and put into practice? Shun negativity, and continue to
apply deferred judgment ꟷ problems are exposed to be solved, not to
dishearten progress. Action plans are better developed in small groups of 2 ꟷ3
rather than in a large group (unless you particularly want commitment by the
whole group). Particularly for ‘people’ problems it is often worth developing
several alternative action plans. Possible techniques include ꟷ Five W’s and H,
Implementation Checklists, Consensus Mapping, Potential-Problem Analysis
(PPA)
Retrieved from “http://www.mycoted.com/Creative_Problem_Solving_-CPS”

Other Model for Problem Solving

Bransford’s IDEAL Model
1. Identify the problem
2. Define the problem through thinking about it and sorting out the relevant
information
3. Explore solutions through looking at alternatives, brainstorming, and checking out
different points of view
4. Act on the strategies
5. Look back and evaluate the effects of your activity.

Synapse Strengtheners
1. Make a collection of puzzles, riddles and other materials that promote
creativity and problem solving. (http://www.mycoted.com) is one good source.
Enhance your skills by trying to answer or solve them.
2. Read more on convergent and divergent thinking by Guilford.
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Application

1. Choose a topic from your field of specialization. Think of an activity to introduce

the topic which will provide an opportunity for your learners to practice creative
thinking and problem solving skills.
 Formulate questions under the four aspects of creative thinking ꟷ fluency,
flexibility, elaboration and originality.
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 Do creative problem solving by applying Van Gundy’s ‘6 x 2 stages’ form or

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5 Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…. NOW!

From the module on Creativity and Problem Solving, I learned that …

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Unit 4.1 Motivation

Module 21 Meaning and Types of Motivation

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et.al

Take the Challenge!

In this module, challenge yourself to:

 Make an outline of this module and give a lecturette on motivation by

following your outline.
 Justify the role of extrinsic motivation

Introduction
Studying is hard task. However, it ceases to be a task if you have the right
kind and right amount of motivation.

Activity
How motivated are you? Here is a test. Score yourself by checking the appropriate
column.
Legend:

1- Never
2- Seldom
3- Sometimes
4- Often
5- Always

Behavior 1 2 3 4 5
1. I study even there is no quiz/test.
2. I enjoy working on homework.
3. I look forward to school days.
4. I read for learning, not only for grades.
5. In every school task I do, I always do my best.
6. I give, do more than what is required.
7. I listen intently to my teacher’s lecture and
instructions.
8. I participate actively in class.
9. I like homework.
10. When somebody is not clear, I ask questions to
clarify.
11. I do not allow myself to be discouraged by my
classmates’ unfavorable remarks.
12. My teacher’s unfavorable remarks do not turn
me off, rather they challenge me to do my
best.
13. I believe that success can be reached by
anyone who works hard.
14. I always feel excited about learning.
15. I submit course requirements not only for the
sake of compliance.
16. I study not only for grades but more for
learnings.
17. I believe that nothing is difficult if we spend
hours learning it.
18. I believe that how much I learn from class
depends ultimately on me.
19. I believe I can cope with my teacher’s
expectations.
20. I am always eager to learn new things.
21. I am very much interested to improve myself.
22. I read outside my assignments and lessons
because it helps me improve myself.
23. I love to be in the company of people who
inspire me to keep on growing.
24. I avoid people who have no desire to improve
themselves.
 25. I see the relevance of my lessons to the
realizations of my dreams.
26. I am willing to give up the satisfaction of an
immediate goal for the sake of a more
important remote goal. E.g. give up watching
TV in order to study.
Total per column:
Grand TOTAL:

Analysis
Interpret your score:

 One hundred thirty (130) is the perfect score. If you got 65, that means
you are midway but not highly or very motivated. The closer you are to
the 130, the better motivated you are.
 Share with your small group your discovery about yourself. Do you agree
with your score? In what items did your score comparatively lower? What
message do you get from those items where you scored low?
 When can you say that a student is highly motivated to learn? What are
the indicators of a student’s level of motivation?
 When a person is intrinsically motivated, his motivation comes from
within him/her or from the activity or task itself. When a person is
extrinsically motivated he/she motivated by something someone
outside herself/himself.

Identify examples of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation based on

the items of the questionnaire checklist.

 Which type of motivation is more beneficial? Why?

 Should we do away with extrinsic motivation? Or necessary? Justify.

Abstraction/ Generalization
Meaning of Motivation

Motivation is an inner drive that causes you to do something and persevere

at something. Motivation is an inner drive that energizes you to do something. It is
the strength of the drive of the drive toward an action. While ability refers to what
children can do motivation refers to what these children will do. Motivation refers to
the initiation, direction intensity and persistence of behavior. When we get
motivated to do something, it is not enough that we start working at that thing and
we get attracted toward that thing. Our attraction toward that thing becomes so
intense so that we persist working on that same thing through thick and thin.

Indicators of a High Level of Motivation

Your student’s level of motivation is shown in his/her choice of action,
intensity and persistence of effort. If you have a highly motivated student you have
a student who is excited about learning and accomplishing things. S/he take the
initiatives to undertake learning tasks, assignments and projects without being
pushed by his/her teachers and parents. S/he has goals to accomplish and dreams
to realize. S/he is convinced that accomplishing the things s/he is asked to
accomplish in class helps him/her realize the goals s/he has set for herself/himself
and his/her their dreams in life. S/he is willing to give up the satisfaction immediate
goals for the sake of more important remote goals. An example is he/she is willing
to give up joining his/her barkada to watch a movie in order to prepare thoroughly
for final examinations.

A student who is highly motivated to learn enjoys learning and learns much
more than one who is not as motivated. S/he persist and perseveres in his/her
studies even when things turn cut to be difficult. S/he does not give up easily. As a
result, his/her performance will be satisfactory. In contrast, a student who is not
motivated to learn does not enjoy learning, does not study unless “pushed”. When
s/he feels the difficulty of study, s/he readily gives up. S/he lacks perseverance.

Types of Motivation
Motivation is classified either intrinsic or extrinsic. It is intrinsic when the
source of motivation is from within the person himself/herself or the activity itself.
An example is when a student reads pocket books because s/he herself/himself
wants to read pocket books or because reading pocket books in itself is enjoyable.
Motivation extrinsic when that which motivates a person is someone or something
outside him/her. When a student studies because s/he was told by his/her teacher
or because s/he is afraid to fail and his/her parents make him/her stop schooling,
we can say that s/he is extrinsically motivated.

Type of Motivation which is More Beneficial

Obviously, extrinsic motivation is necessary to develop the love for learning
among poorly motivated student. If good grades, reward, praise or words of
encouragement or fear of failing grade can motivate unmotivated students to study,
why not? For as long as students are hardly motivated, external motivation in the
form of rewards, incentives or punishments plays significant role in the development
of motivated students. It is expected, however, that these extrinsic motivational
factors be gradually replaced by the internal motivation. I the concrete, this means
that after motivating the students to study by the way reward, praise,
encouragement, punishment, hopefully develop the genuine love for learning and
becomes intrinsically motivated in the process. In short, we may begin employing
extrinsic motivation at the start but this should fade away as the students get
intrinsically motivated themselves.

Application
 Go over the 25 items of the questionnaire checklist. Convert them into
indicators of poor/low motivation for contrast.
 Add to the list of 25 indicators of high motivation.
 Reflect on your learning experiences. Can you recall some examples of
extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in your life as a student?
 In what instances is extrinsic motivation necessary.

Test Yourself
 1. Define motivation. What behaviors are indicative of high motivation?
2. Distinguish between the two types of motivation. Give examples for each.
3. Why is intrinsic motivation more advantageous then extrinsic motivation?
4. When is the use of extrinsic motivation necessary?
5. Explain the ideal relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in the
development of students’ motivation.

Synapse Strengtheners
1. According to the psychologist Carol Dweck “motivation is often more important
than initial ability in determining our success”. Do you agree? Why?
2. To what do you compare motivation to make its facilitating function in
learning concrete? Come up with metaphors. (An example of a metaphor is
“teaching is lightning a torch…) Show this by completing this. Motivation is
……
3. Surf the internet on telic and Para telic motivational modes of Michael Apter.
How do these relate to extrinsic and intrinsic motivation?
4. Read on biographies of great men and women. Report on one biography in
class. Narrate that part of the biography that you like most.
5. “Potential performance is a product of ability and motivation”. What does this
mean? Do you agree? Explain your answer.

5 Minute Non-Stop Writing begins…. NOW!

From the module on Meaning and Types of Mo, I learned that …

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Module 22 Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et.al

Take the Challenge

In this module, challenge yourself to:

 Explain to a learning partner the following theories on the sources of intrinsic

motivation
- Attribution theory
- Self-efficacy theory
- Self-determination and self-regulation theory
- Goal theory
- Choice theory
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
 Together with a learning partner, cite the implication of these theories to the
facilitation of learning.

Introduction

In module 21, you learned that intrinsic motivation is far better than extrinsic
motivation. By all means then, lets our help develop intrinsic motivation in our
student.

What are the source of intrinsic motivation?

 Activity
Here are some questions. Read and explain each of them. Do you agree or
disagree?

“Quality does not come by accident. It is a product of intension.”

“Success only comes only to people who work for it.”
“Happy are those who dream dreams and are willing to pay the price for their
dreams to come true.”
“Success is that old ABC---ability, breaks and courage.”
Charles Luckman
“Sweats plus sacrifice equal success.”
Activity 2 Charles O. Finley
Here are comments from students regarding their school performances.

Find out the factors to which these students attribute their performance.

 “How can I ever perform? I have a very low IQ. All my brothers and sisters
are as dumb as I am. ”
 “I dropped out of my class because of my failing grades. Kasi nabarkada
ako. ”
 “Johann is lucky. His parents are very supportive. He has no problem with
money. Plus he is very intelligent because his parents are also intelligent. ”
 “How can you be encouraged to study? Our teachers are of the terror type.
They demand so much yet they do not teach well. We don’t understand
what they are teaching. Worse, there are no books.”
 “How can I be motivated to study when my parents want to be is not what I
wanted to be.”
 “I have to perform in the class. My parents and teachers expect me to
perform. All my brothers and sisters are performing. Nakakahiya naman
kung ‘di ako magperform. ”

Analysis

Discuss your answers to the following:

For Activity 1
  To which are equality, success and happiness attributed?
 Do you agree? Why or why not?
 Based on the quotations, are success and quality traced to factors within
or outside a person’s control.
 What is the effect of one’s motivation if success or quality is attributed to
something within or outside a person’s control? To something outside a
person’s control?
 Does a goal or dream have something to do with a person’s motivation?
Explain your answer.

For activity 2

Go over the comments one by one to be able to do the following.

 Based on the comments, to which is poor / good performance

attributed? What are the factors within or without the control of the
student?
 What is the effect on one’s motivation if success or quality is
attributed to something within a person’s control? To something
outside a person’s control?
 Do you agree with the comments? Explain you answer.
 Is there an instance where performance is traced to feelings of self-
competence? Point it out.

Action/Generalization

The currently no unified theory to explain the origin or the elements of

intrinsic motivation. Most explanation combine elements Bernard Weiner’s
attribution theory. Bandura’s work on self-efficacy, Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs, ----Glasser’s choice theory, and other studies relating to goal
orientations.

Attribution Theory

What is attribution theory? This theory explains that we that attribute

our successes, failures, or other events to several factors. For instance, you
attribute your popularity to your popular parents or to your own sterling
academic performances. Or you attribute the poor economic you are in to
 the ----. Reform of the Philippine government (your land is subjected to land
reform) or to the vices of your father. This attribution differs from one
another in three ways—locus, stability and controllability (Ormsrod, 2004).

1. Locus (“place”): internal versus external. If your student traces a good

grade to his ability and to his work, he attributes his good grade to
internal factors. If you students, however, claim, that his good grade is
due to the effective teaching of his teacher on the adequate library
facilities, he attributes his good grades to factors external to himself.
2. Stability: stable versus unstable. If you attribute your poor eyesight to
what you have inherited to your parents, then you attributing the cause
of your sickness to something stable, something that cannot change
because it is in your genes. If you attribute it to excessive watching of
TV, you are claiming that your poor eyesight is caused by an unstable
factor, something that can change (You can prolong or shorten your
period of watching TV).
3. Controllability: Controllable versus uncontrollable. If your student claims
his poor academic is due to his teacher’s ineffective teaching strategy, he
attribute his performance to a factor beyond his control. If, however,
your students admits that his poor class performances is due to his study
habits and low motivation, he attributes the event to factors which are
very much within his control.

How does attribution affect motivation?

If your students attribute his/her success or failure to something within

his/her and therefore is within his/her control or to something unstable and,
therefore, can be change s/he is more likely motivated. If, however, your student
traces his/her success to something outside him/her and therefore beyond his/her
control s/he is likely to be less motivated.

This is something interesting. “People tend to attribute their success to internal

causes (e.g. High ability, hard work) and their failures external causes (e.g. luck,
behaviors, of others. Why so?)”

Self – efficacy Theory

 A sense of high self-efficacy means high sense of competency. Self-efficacy
is the belief that one has necessary capabilities to perform a task, fulfill role
expectations, or meet a challenging situation success. When your students believe
that they have the ability to perform learning activities successfully, they are more
likely intrinsically motivated to do the learning activities. The secret, therefore, to
enhancing intrinsic motivation enhancing our student’s sense of self-efficacy. Social
cognitive theories identify several self-efficacies —enhancing strategies:

 Make sure student master the basic skills. Mastery the basic skills like
reading, writing, ‘rithmetic will enable the class to tackle higher level
activities. Imagine how miserable it is for student who has not mastered the
basic skills! Unable to perform higher-level learning tasks that require display
and use of basic skills, our student will feel he is a failure in his school life.
 Help them make noticeable progress on difficult task. You like to give up
climbing a mountain when you feel that it seems you are not making
progress at all. When you have spent hours on a difficult task and you seem
not to be progressing, you are made to think that your efforts are leading
you nowhere and you want to give up. That’s why, it is good that you are
helped to see progressed while you are working on your difficult task. The
knowledge that you are progressing inspires you to keep on.
 Communicate confidence in student’s abilities through both words and
actions. Express confidence that your student with all their abilities, can
easily tackle the learning task. Words like, “If you were able to do a more
difficult task yesterday, what you are asked to do today is much easier than
that of yesterday.” Neediness to say that your body language and your
words expressing your belief in their abilities must match.
 Expose them to successful peers. Being with successful peers, your student
will inhale success and get energized to succeed as well. Success is infectious
in the same way that failure is also contagious. (Ormrod, 2004)

Other recommendation from motivation theorist are;

 Provide competence-promoting feedback. Communicate to your student

that they can do the job. They have the ability to succeed.
 Promote mastery on challenging tasks. Don’t give your students
extremely difficult nor extremely easy task. If the task you give is
 extremely easy, they do not get challenge and you do not draw the best
from them, if it is extremely difficult, they get frustrated. Then it is best
to strike the golden mean between the two extreme. A challenging task
is one that encourages student to stretch themselves to their limits.
 Promote self-comparison rather than comparison with others.
Desiderates says; If you compare yourself with others, you will become
vain and bitter. For always there will be greater and lesser persons that
yourself.”

After encouraging your students to set their personal goal, ask them
to evaluate their progress against their own goals.

 Be sure errors occur within an overall context of success. (Ormrod, 2004)

There will always be errors or mistakes as we learn, as we go through
life. But they cease to be mistake once we learn from them. But if it is all
errors that come one after another without a taste of success, chances
are your students will feel so down that they are --- of the courage to
proceed. “The learning process requires the challenge of new and
different experiences, the trying of the unknown, and therefore,
necessarily must involve the making of mistakes. In order for people to
learn, they need the opportunity to explore new situations and ideas
without making penalized or punished for mistakes which are integral to
the activity of learning.” (Ortigas, 19---)

Self-determination and Self-Regulation Theories

Student are more likely intrinsically motivated when they have a

sense of self-determination—when they believe that they have some choice
and control regarding the things they do and the direction their lives take.
Here are some suggestions from motivation theorist to enhance students’
sense of self-determination about school activities and assignments.

 Present rules and instruction in an informational manner rather than

controlling manner. Here are examples on how to present rules in an
informational manner.
 “We can make sure everyone has an equal chance to speak and can
be heard if we listen without interrupting and if we raise our hands when
we want to contribute to the discussion.”
“I am giving you a particular format to follow when you do your math
homework. If you use this format, it is easier for me to find your answers
and figure out how I can you improve.”
 Provide opportunities for student to make choices. Several times a
particular lesson objective can be reached by the use varied strategies.
Students will be more likely to be intrinsically motivated to attain the
objective when they are given the freedom to choose how to attain it, of
course, within the set of parameters. An example is, when we allow our
students to choose their manner of group work presentation to the class
after the group activity.
 Evaluate student’s performance in a non-controlling fashion.
Communicate evaluation results to inform your students of their progress
without passing judgment of some sort but to make them see that they
are strong in some points but not so in other terms. The practice of self-
evaluation especially with the --- of scoring rubrics will be of great help,
says renowned author, consultant and speaker Alfred “rewards for
learning undermines intrinsic motivation.” Koh punished by rewards: “the
trouble with gold stars” incentives praise and other bribes. Boston
Houghton Mifflin. 1993, p. 100 Jensen, another noted author and
educational consultant in the brain-based learning state:
If the learner is doing the task to get the reward, in understood on
some level that the task is in undesirable. Forget the use of rewards
… make meaningful, relevant and fun. Then you want have students.
(Erick Jensen Brain-based learning and teaching Mar, CA: Turning
Point Publishing, p. 242)

Helps students keep externally imposed constraints in preparative. Let’s

reminds our students that to study for intrinsic good grades, medal, and
scholarship is not bad but it is better and study for the inherent value and for
a joy of learning itself.
 A student’s sense of determination is demonstrated in his self-regulation.
Self-regulation refers to a person’s ability to master himself. He is the “I am
the captain of my soul” type of a person. He is no a victim of circumstances.
He is capable directing himself.
What are indicators of self- regulation? There are abilities to:
 Set standards of oneself
 Monitor and evaluate one’s owns behavior against such standards.
 Impose consequences on oneself for one successes or failures.
(Ormrod, 2004)

How does self-regulation relate to motivation?

A student who is capable of self-regulation is more likely to be more

intrinsically motivated because he sets his goals and standards, he monitors his
progress, and evaluate his own performance.

A student who is capable of self-regulation is not only capable of regulating

behavior, he is also capable of regulating his own learning. (Ormrod, 2004) cite the
following processes in self-regulated learning:

 Goal-setting, self-regulated learners know what they want to

accomplish when they read or study.
 Planning, self-regulated learners determine ahead of time how best
to use the time they have available for learning.
 Attention control, self-regulated learner try to focus their attention on
the subject matter at hand and clear their minds of potentially
distracting thoughts and emotions.

Application of learning strategies, self-regulated learners choose different learning

strategies depending on the specific goal they hope to accomplish.

 Self-monitoring. Self-regulated learners continually monitor their progress

toward their goals and they change their learning strategies or modify their
goals, if necessary.
 Self-evaluation. Self-regulated learners determine whether what they have
learned is sufficient for the goals they have set.

A student who has self-determination and self-regulation is more likely to be

intrinsically motivated and so is more capable of self-regulated learning.
Choice theory
Bob Sullo (2007) writes:

The choice theory is a biological theory that suggests we are born with specific
needs that we are genetically instructed to satisfy. All of our behavior represents our best
attempt at any moment to satisfy our basic needs or genetic instructions. In addition to the
physical need for survival, we have four basic psychological needs that must be satisfied to
be emotionally healthy:

 Belonging or connecting
 Power or competence
 Freedom
 Fun

The need of belonging or connecting motivates us to develop relationships cooperate with

others. Without the need for belonging and cooperating, we would only strive to be
independent.

The need of power is more than just a drive to dominate. Power is gained through
competence, achievement, and mastery. Our genetic instruction is to achieve, master new
skills and to be recognized for our accomplishments….

As humans, we are also motivated to be free, to choose. Having choices is a part of what it
means to be human and is one reason our species has been able to evolve, adapt and
thrive….

Each time we learn something new, we are having fun, another universal human motivator.
It is our playfulness and our sense of discovery that allows us to learn as much as we do.

What do these imply to our task to facilitate learning? We have to come up with a
need-satisfying environment. To motivate our students for learning, we should
satisfy their need to have power by being competent, the need to have a free
choice, and the need to enjoy learning and have fun.

How can these be done? If we create a sense of community in the classroom and
make every student feel s/he belongs to that classroom community. s/he will more
likely love to go to school. If we make use of cooperative learning structures, we
strengthen the spirit of cooperation and collaboration and reduce, if not eliminate,
the spirit of cut throat competition. (for examples of cooperative learning structures,
please refer to Principles of Teaching 1 written by Brenda B. Corpuz and Gloria G.
Salandanan.) In a non-threatening atmosphere, students are more likely to perform.

To satisfy our students’ need for power, let us help them acquire it by
making them achieve, by making them master their lessons and end up very
competent. As a result of their competence and excellent achievement, they get
recognized and experience genuine power.

Let us teach our students for learning, let us give them ample freedom to
choose within parameters that are safe and responsible, developmentally
appropriate, and supportive of learning for that is the ultimate purpose of freedom,
to help our students learn and grow into the responsible persons they are called to
be. When our students are made to feel they have a lot of free hand, when our
students perceive themselves to be suffocated by our impositions and limits, they
are most likely to behave in ways, even irresponsible ways, to get them the freedom
they believe is not satisfied.

Fun is a universal human motivator. if our students’ need for fun is satisfied,
they are most likely to learn much, Glasser (1990) claims “fun is the genetic payoff
for learning.” A joyless classroom does not motivate students to perform. Let’s have
fun while we teach. Without our knowing, our students are learning and mastering
what we are teaching while we are having fun.

“What happens outside of us has a lot to do with what we choose to do but

the outside event does not cause our behavior. What we get, and all we ever get
from the outside is information; how we choose to act on that information is up to
us. (William Glasser, 1990quoted by Bob Sullo, p.6)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A student’s lower-order needs must first be met before s/he works for the
satisfaction of his/her higher-order needs. The lower-orders needs include first-level
needs and second-level needs. The first-level needs are basic survival and
physiological needs for food, air, water, and sleep. The second-level needs are
bodily safety and economic security.

There are three (3) levels in the higher-order needs. The first (which is now
the third level in Maslow’s need hierarchy) is the need for love and belonging. The
needs at the fourth level include those for esteem and status, including one’s
feelings of self-worth and of competence. The fifth level need is self-actualization,
which means becoming all that one is capable of becoming, using one’s skills to the
fullest, and stretching talents to the maximum.

Based on Maslow’s theory, a satisfied need is not - strong motivator but an

unsatisfied need is. Research proves that “unless the two lower-order needs
(physiology and security) are basically satisfied, employees (in our teaching-learning
context) will not be greatly concerned with higher-order needs. (Newstrom, 1997)

For us teachers, this means that we cannot teach students with hungry
stomachs. We cannot teach students when they feel afraid insecure. While it is not
our obligation to feed them, working with parents, the school nurse and others who
can help address the problem of students’ hunger, lack of sleep and the like will be
of great help.

Our students’ need for love and belonging is satisfied in a class where they
feel they belong and are accepted regardless of their academic standing in class,
economic status, and ethnic background. Their need for self-esteem is satisfied
when we help them succeed, recognize their effort and contribution no matter how
insignificant and praise their achievement. Doing so actually propels them to self-
actualization.

Goal theory
 Learning goals versus performance goals. The goals we set for ourselves
affect our level of motivation. There are several types of goals. In relation to
learning we can speak to learning goal and performance goal. How do they differ?

A learning goal is a “desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new

skills” while a performance goal is a “desire to look good and receive favorable
judgements from others or else look back and receive unfavorable judgements.”
(Ormrod, 2004) Between these two goals, with which type of goal is the intrinsically-
motivated student occupied? Obviously, the ideal student is the student with a
learning goal.

What about the extrinsically-motivated student? With which goal is he

identified?

Self-determined goals. Personally relevant goals and self-determined goals

enhance a student’s motivation. When lesson objectives are relevant to the life of
students, then students turn out to be more motivated to learn. When the lesson
objectives are owned by the students because they find them relevant to their life,
most likely students become highly motivated for learning. This departs from de-
contextualized teaching that happens when all we do is deposit information into the
minds of our students, students memorize, and we withdraw that we taught every
periodic examination.

Goal setting. As a motivational tool, goal setting is effective when the

following major elements are present: 1) goal acceptance, 2) specificity, 3)
challenges, 4) performance monitoring, and 5) performance feedback. Thus it is
necessary that our students accept and own our lesson objectives (See self-
determined goals in the foregoing paragraph) and that our lesson objectives must
be SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, result-oriented and time-bound) and
challenging. It is equally important that we monitor our student’s learning. However,
simply monitoring results is not enough. We have to give our students feedback
about their performance.
Test Your Mastery

1. Go back to Activity 1 and Activity 2. Point out illustrations of attribution

theory, self-efficacy theory, self-regulation and self-determination theory,
goal theory, choice theory.
2. Give a graphic presentation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Synapse Strengtheners

1. Construct a True-False type of test to evaluate the first objective of this

Module then exchange tests with your learning partner for you to
answer. Discuss your answers and scores with your learning partner.
2. Between learning goal and performance goal, with which type do you
identify yourself? Explain your answer.
3. To what factors do great men and women attribute their success? Is it to
personal factors like ability and effort or to situational factors such as
difficulty of the task and impact of luck?
 4. “Success has many fathers; failure or defeat is an orphan.” How does this
general behavior relate to self-esteem?
5. Do attributions always reflect the true state of affairs? Or can we have
something like false attributions? Explain your answer.
6. How does Maslow’s need theory compare with Glasser’s choice theory
and that Adlerfer’s E-R-G need theory. Do research on these.
7. Authors warn us to avoid simple attributions, meaning not to attribute
success or failure just to one factor only. Why so?
8. Why do people tend to attribute their successes to internal causes and
their failures to external causes?
9. Surf the Internet on the expectancy model of motivation. Find out how
this relates to the other theories on motivation such as self-efficacy
theory.
Application

 Interview your learning partner on factors that affect his/her performance.

Together, analyze if these factors are within or outside his/her control.
Analyze also the effects of these factors on your learning partner’s
motivation.
 Reflect on your own performance and the factors to which you attribute the
quality of your performance. How do these factors influence your motivation
for learning?

5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins……NOW!

From the modules on theories on factors Affecting Motivation, I learned that……

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 UNIT 4.1 Motivation

Module 23 STUDENTS’ DIVERSITY IN MOTIVATION

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process
By: Lucas et.al

TAKE THE CHALLENGE!

In this module, challenge yourself to:
 Reflect on your own experiences as you read through situations given in this
module.
 Present the social and cultural influences on the cognitive and motivational
processes of learning by means of a graphic organizer.
 State and explain two principles on the social and cultural influences on
motivation.

INTRODUCTION
Students, who by themselves are already as diverse, also differ in
motivation. This diversity in motivation may be traced to differences in age,
developmental stage, and gender, socio-economic and cultural background. How
these factors influence students motivation is the concern of this module.

ACTIVITY
Read the following research findings then reflect on your very own experiences.
A.
 Young children often want to gain teachers approval to be motivated while
the older ones are typically more interested in gaining the approval of peers.
(Juvonen and Weiner, 1993 quoted by Ormrod, 2004)
 Students often become less intrinsically motivated as they progress through
the school years.(Harter. 1992 quoted by Ormrod, p. 507) Learning goals
may go by the wayside as performance goals become more prevalent and as
a result, students will begin to exhibit preference for easy rather than
challenging tasks.(Harter, 1992; Igoe and Sullivan,1991 quoted by Ormrod,
2004)
 Increasingly, students will value activities that will have usefulness for them
in their personal and professional lives and subjects that are not directly
applicable will decrease in popularity. (Wigfield,1994 quoted by
Ormrod,2004)

B.
 Elementary students tend to attribute their successes to effort and hard
work.
 By adolescence, however, students attribute success and failure more to an
ability that is fairly stable and uncontrollable. Effort becomes a sign of low
ability. (Nicolls,1990; Paris & Cunningham,1996 quoted by Ormrod, 2004)
C.
 There are different motivational patterns for students belonging to ethnic
communities. Students from Asian-American families may feel more
pressured to perform well in school.
 Students’ cultural background can influence their attributions. For instance,
students of Asian background are more likely to attribute academic
achievement to unstable factors like effort and attribute appropriate or
inappropriate behaviours to temporary situational factors than students
brought up in mainstream Western culture.(Lillard,1997; Peak, 1993 quoted
by Ormrod, 2004)
D.
 Females are more likely than males to have a high need for affiliation.
(Block,1983 quoted by Ormrod, p. 508)
 Females are also more concerned about doing well in school. They work
harder on assignments, earn higher grades and more likely to graduate from
high school. (Halpern, 1992; McCall, 1994 quoted by Ormrod, 2004)
 We typically find more boys than girls among our “underachieving” students.
E.
 Students from low- income families are among those most likely to at risk for
failing and dropping out of school. A pattern of failure may start quite early
for many lower- income students especially if they have not had the early
experiences upon which the school learning often builds.
F.
  Students with special educational needs show the greatest diversity in
motivation. Some students who are gifted may have high intrinsic motivation
to learn classroom subject matter, yet they may become easily bored if class
activities don’t challenge their abilities.(Friedel,1993;Turnbull et. Al,1999
quoted by Ormrod, 2004)
 Students with specific or general academic difficulties (e.g. those with
learning disabilities, those with mental retardation) may show signs of
learned helplessness with regard to classroom tasks, especially if their past
efforts have been repeatedly met with failure.(Deshler &Schumaker,1988;
Jacobsen,Lowery & DuCette,1986;Seligman,1975)
 Students who have difficulty getting along with their classmates (e.g. those
with emotional and behavioural disorders) may inappropriately attribute their
social failures to factors beyond their control. (Hewrad,1996 quoted by
Ormrod, 2004)

ANALYSIS
 Do your experiences and observations support or contradict the research
findings? Share your answers with your small group.
 What are the implications of these research findings to facilitating learning?
To be sure that no research finding is missed, do this with the help of a table
like the one given below. Feel free to add more rows.
RESEARCH FINDING LEARNING IMPLICATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

ABSTRACTION/GENERALIZATION
Our students’ motivation may vary on account of age, gender, cultural,
socioeconomic background and special education needs. Our class is a conglomerate
of students with varying ages and gender and most especially cultural background
and socioeconomic status. Our students’ motivational drives reflect the elements of
the culture in which they grow up- their family, their friends, school, church and
books. To motivate all of them for learning, it is best to employ differentiated
approaches. “Different folks, different strokes”. What is medicine for one may be
poison for another.
Two Principles to consider regarding social and cultural influences
on motivation
1. Students are more likely to model the behaviours they believe are relevant to
their situation.
2. Students develop greater efficacy for a task when they see others like
themselves performing the task successfully.(Ormrod,2004)

What conclusion can be derived from the two principles?

Students need models who are similar to themselves in terms of race,
cultural background, socioeconomic status, gender, and (if applicable) disability.
(Ormrod,2004)
Then it must be good to expose our students to models of their age and to
models who come from similar cultural, socioeconomic backgrounds.
Do we have to limit ourselves to live models? Not necessarily. We can make
our students read biographies and autobiographies of successful individuals who
were in situations similar to them.

TEST YOURSELF
In your own words:
 Describe the social and cultural influences on motivational processes
of learning.
 State and explain the two principles on the social and cultural
influences on motivation.

SYNAPSE STRENGTHENERS
1. From the Survival Kit prepared by the Guidance Office of St. Louis University,
success or achievement depends not only on ability and hard work but also
on effective methods of the study… Very roughly, the differences between
individuals in their capacity for work and study are determined by:

Factor A- Intelligence and Special Abilities……………………….50-60%

Factor B- Industry, Effort, and Effective Study Methods……30-40%
 Factor C- Chance and Environmental Factors……………………10-15%

Later in college,… the proportions may change as such:

Factor A- Intelligence and Special Abilities……………………….30-40%

Factor B- Industry, Effort, and Effective Study Methods……50-60%
Factor C- Chance and Environmental Factors……………………10-15%

Compare this with the research findings in Activity B above. Do they

jibe or do they contradict each other? What is your stand?

Name: ________________________________ Yr. & Sec. ________________

APPLICATION
Differentiate and describe your motivational strategy between/ among:
- Students of different ages
- Boys and girls
- The economically disadvantaged and the affluent
- Students belonging to indigenous peoples’ (IP) groups and those not
belonging
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5-MINUTE NON-STOP WRITING BEGINS…NOW!
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MODULE 24
“HUMAN ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING
MOTIVATION”
Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process
By: Lucas et. al

TAKE THE CHALLENGE!

In this module, challenge yourself to:
 Compose a poem/song describing teachers’ behavioural traits that are
facilitative of learning.
 Dramatize the de- motivating function of bullying in schools
 Mimic the behavioural traits of parents who are supportive of learning.

INTRODUCTION
If environment is defined as the sum total of one’s surroundings then
environmental factors that affect students’ motivation include human as well as the
non- human factors. The immediate human factors that surround the learner are the
teachers, the other students and his/her parents.
(For more notes on managing the learning environment, refer to the
textbook on Principles of Teaching I by Brenda B. Corpuz and Gloria G. Salandanan)

ACTIVITY 1
Read this student letter to a middle school science teacher with four years of
teaching experience. Feel the words. Right after reading it, proceed to Analysis for
Activity 1.
I just wanted to write you a little thank you for everything that you have
done for me over the past two years. I have learned a lot and had a whole lotta fun
doing it. I loved the labs and basically everything we did in your class because you
made it fun. You made it so we learned without even realizing that we were
learning anything but when it came time to show what we knew it, we were like,
“Whoa! I guess I really did learn something!” Not only did you teach us about
science, you put us in real case scenarios and helped prepare us for high school and
even college. But even further than that, you were like a friend to me. That might
scare you a little, but you really remind me of myself, and I hope I grow up to be at
least a little like you. I feel like you genuinely care about your students and
sincerely enjoy your job… Thank you for being such a great teacher and friend. You
have sincerely contributed to the “awesomeness” of these years. Thanks 1000 times
(Stronge,2002)

ACTIVITY 2
 Recall an experience where because of a classmate/s you were:
- Motivated or encouraged to come to class
- Turned off afraid to come to class.
 Share your experiences with your small group.

ACTIVITY 3
The class will be divided into small discussion groups. Some groups will be
asked to jot down behavioural traits of parents whom are supportive of their
children’s studies. The other groups will be asked to list down behavioural traits of
parents who are not very supportive.
Those groups who worked on supportive parents come together to make a
tally of the behavioural traits and compare. Collate the output then present it to the
whole class. The same thing is expected of those groups who worked on
unsupportive parents.

ANALYSIS
For Activity 1
1. The student considers her teacher great. List down the teacher’s behavioural
traits that made learning fun.
2. In a survey that was conducted in 1996, almost 1000 students between the
ages of 13 and 17 were asked to identify characteristics of best and worst
teachers. The students responded that the number one characteristic of
good teachers is there sense of humor. The others are “ make the class
interesting, have knowledge of their subjects, explain things clearly and
spend time helping students.” The number one characteristic of their worst
teachers was that they are “dull and boring”. The next four are other top
four are: do not explain things clearly, show favouritism toward students,
have a poor attitude and expect too much from students” (National
 Association of Secondary School Principals,1997. Students Say: What Makes
a Good Teacher? Publication Information. NASSP Bulliten. May/June 1997,
15-17)

Do you find any similarities with your list in #1?

For Activity 2
1. Is there any experience on bullying that was shared? If yes, what are various
forms of bullying?
2. How does bullying affect the students’ needs to belong to a learning
community?
3. Is calling a classmate promdi and barriotic a form of bullying?

For Activity 3
1. In your tally of behavioural traits, which traits (both positive and negative)
are on top? Study your top positive and negative behavioural traits. Are the
results consistent?
2. As a teacher and as a future parent, what message can you read from your
list of behavioural traits?

ABSTRACTION/GENERALIZATION
Teacher’s Affective Traits
Studies suggest that management and instructional processes are key to
facilitating learning but many interview responses, like the letter at the beginning of
this module, emphasize the teacher’s affective characteristics or social and
emotional behaviors, more than pedagogical practice. Researches cite the following
affective characteristics of effective teachers. (James H. Stronge, 2002)
 Caring – specific attributes that show caring are:
- Sympathetic listening to students not only about life inside the
classroom but more about students’ lives in general.
- Understanding of students’ questions and concerns.
- Knowing students individually; their likes and dislikes, and personal
situations affecting behaviour and performance.
 Fairness and Respect- these are shown in specific behaviours like:
- Treating students as people.
 - Avoiding the use of ridicule and preventing situations in which students
lose respect in front of their peers.
- Practice gender, racial and ethnic fairness.
- Providing students with opportunities for students to participate and to
succeed.
 Social Interactions with Students- the specific behaviour of a facilitative
social interaction are:
- Consistently behaving in a friendly personal manner while maintaining
professional distance with students.
- Working with students not for the students.
- Interacting productively by giving students responsibility and respect
- Allowing students to participate in decision- making.
- Willing to participate and demonstrating a sense of fun
- Have a sense of humor and is willing to share jokes.
 Enthusiasm and Motivation for Learning shown in:
- Encouraging students to be responsible for their own learning
- Maintaining all organized classroom environment
- Setting high standards
- Assigning appropriate challenges
- Providing reinforcement and encouragements during tasks
 Attitude toward the Teaching Profession
- Dual commitment to personal learning and to students’ learning
anchored on the belief that all students can learn.
- Helping students succeed by using differentiated instruction
- Working collaboratively with colleagues and other staff
- Serving as an example of a lifelong learner to his/her students and
colleagues
 Reflective Practice
- Reviewing and thinking on his/her teaching process
- Eliciting feedback from others in the interest of teaching and learning

Bullying and the Need to Belong

Students form part of the human environment of the learner. In fact, they
far outnumber the teachers in the learning environment.
 The need to belong is a basic human need. Students who are accepted by
teachers and classmates feel they belong to the class. Students who feel are part of
the class look forward to attending class and participating in class. The sense of
belongingness enhances their learning and performance. The prevalence of bullying,
however, obstructs the creation of a learning community where everyone feels she
belongs. With bullying in schools, the learning environment cannot be safe. Then by
all means, bullying should be eliminated in schools. Bullying takes on several forms.
It can be mild, it can be intense or deeply- seated and highly violent. Today safety
in schools is being raised all over the world especially with that tragic shooting
incident that happened recently in Virginia, USA acclaimed to be the worst school
tragedy in American schools. In that tragedy, more than thirty students were killed.

Parents as Part of the Learners’ Human Learning Environment

The learner spends at least six hours in school. The rest, he/she spends at
home. Parents, therefore, are supposed to have more opportunity to be with their
children than teachers. How many of our parents use this opportunity to support
their children in their studies?
What parents’ behavioural traits are supportive of their children’s learning?
Parents who are supportive of their children’s learning are observed to do the
following:
 Follow up status of their children’s performance
 Supervise their children in their homework project
 Check their children’s notebooks
 Review their children’s corrected seat works and test papers
 Attend conferences for Parents, Teachers, and Community Association
(PTCA)
 Are willing to spend on children’s projects and involvement in school
activities
 Participate actively in school- community projects
 Confer with children’s teachers when necessary
 Are aware of their children’s activities in school
 Meet the friends of their children
 Invite their children’s friends at home.
Unsupportive parent behaviors are the opposite of all those listed above.
 The interaction between the learner and the teacher, among the learners, and
among g the learner, teacher and parents give rise to the learning climate in the
classroom. Whether the climate that comes as a by- product of the interactions
nurtures or obstructs learning depends on the quality of these interactions.

SYNAPSE STRENGTHENERS
1. Rev. Father Joseph V. Landy, SJ in his book “Letter to a Young Teacher: The
Art of Being Interesting”, cites 5 elements that are especially useful for
gaining attention in the classroom, to wit: 1.) Activity, 2.) reality, 3.)The
Vital, 4.)Humor, 5.) Novelty. Are these elements found in the affective traits
of facilitating teacher given by Stronge in this module?
2. “The quality of teacher- student relationships is the key to all other aspect of
classroom management,” says recognized expert in classroom management,
Robert Marzano. Do the teacher’s affective traits have something to do with
that quality teacher- student relationship? Explain your answer.
3. By the means of a graphic organizer, list down behavioural traits of parents
who are supportive of children’s studies.
4. Make clippings of articles on school bullying. React to one article of your
choice.

Name:__________________________________ Yr. &

Sec._________________________
APPLICATION
For Activity 1
Compose a song or a poem about highly motivating teacher. Present your
output in class.
For Activity 2
 Dramatized some forms of bullying in schools.
 Ask those who took part in the dramatization- How did you feel? Were you
happy about it? Any action to take from here?
 Ask those who watched the dramatization- How did you feel while the
dramatization was going on? In real life, would you do as the bully did? Why
or Why not?
 Compose a song that is anti- bullying. Highlight the basic human need to
belong.
For Activity 3
 Some students will be asked to pantomime learning- supportive and
learning- unsupportive behaviour of parents. The rest of the class will be
asked to identify the behaviour that was pantomimed.
 Discuss the effects of these behaviors on children’s motivation to study and
achieve.
 Share lessons learned.

TEST YOURSELF
1. Describe the kind of teacher, classmates and parents who can motivate
children to learn and perform.

5- MINUTE NON- STOP WRITING BEGINS…. NOW!

From the module on Human Environmental Factors, I learned that…
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Module 25 The Classroom Climate
Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process
By: Lucas et.al

Module 25 The Classroom Climate

 Take the challenge!
In this module, challenge yourself for:
 describe the classroom climate that is conductive for learning
by the use of simile or metaphor.
 Simulate the first day of class where you act as teacher
giving class policies and rules.

Introduction
The classroom climates more a product of the interaction between and among
teacher and students than that of the physical condition of the classroom. The
physical condition of the classroom may exert an influence on the social interaction
among the personalities in class but it may not contributes as much as the
classroom social interaction does.
What is a classroom climate than facilitates learning? It is something busines—like
and yet non-threatening. What take place in a classroom where a business-like and
a non-threatening atmosphere prevail? This is the concern of this Module.

Activity

Read this poem:

Bring your papers, pencils and books,

Unless you want my dirty looks,
Class will start—I Know I'm pushy—
When in your seat, I see your "tushy".

You need to know that it's expected

That you respect and feel respected.
Watch your words and be polite,
Avoid aggression, please dont bite.

Sometimes you'll sit, sometimes you'll walk,

Sometimes you'll listen, sometimes you'll talk,
Please do each of these an cue,
Listen to me, I'll listen to you.

These rules exist so we can learn,

Obey them and rewards you'll earn,
I also feel compelled to mention,
Breaking rules will mean detention.

If these rules seem strict and terse,

Please make suggestions but only in verse

Source : Robert J. Marzano et al. (2003), p, 19.

Analysis
 Do you like the poem? Why or why not?
 When do you think was this poem introduced by the teacher? Beginning
middle or end of the school year?
 In your opinion, what was the purpose of the poem? Will it make a
difference if the teacher simply announced her class rules? Why did the
teacher make use of a poem as a strategy?
 Based on the poem, what kind of classroom atmosphere does the teacher
want to establish?
 What conditions must be present in order to establish such atmosphere?
 What class rules did the teacher want to introduce?

Abstraction/Generalization

The classroom climate that is conducive for learning is one that is non-threatening
yet business like.

It is a classroom where:
 specific classroom rules and procedures are clear
 these classroom rules and procedure are discussed on the first days of class.
 students are involved in the design of rules and procedures.
 Techniques to acknowledge and reinforce acceptable behavior and provide
negative consequences are employed.
 clear limits for unacceptable behavior are established
 there is a healthy balance between dominance and cooperation
 teacher is aware of the needs of different types of students
 teacher is fully aware of the happenings in class
 student's responsibility for their own behavior is enhanced.
(Marzano, et al, 2003)

(For additional notes, you may refer to principles of Teaching/written by Corpuz,

Brenda and Gloria G. Salandaran.)

Name: ______________________________________ Yr.&Sec: _____________

Application

Simulate a classroom setting. Let 2 students introduce their classroom rules in a

creative way in class. Evaluate the process or a group.

 Test Your Mastery

1. Give adjectives that describe the classroom climate that is conducive for learning.
Write the antonym for each adjective.
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2. In your own words, give the conditions that give rise to a classroom climate that
is conducive for learning.
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Synapse Strengtheners

1. Describe a classroom atmosphere by means of simile or metaphor.

5- MINUTE NON- STOP WRITING BEGINS…. NOW!
From the module on The Classroom Climate, I learned that…
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 MODULE 26 The Physical Learning Environment

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et. al

TAKE THE CHALLENGE

At the end of this module, challenge yourself to design a favorable physical

learning environment.

INTRODUCTION

We do not get affected only by the psychological climate in the classroom.

We are also affected by the physical condition of the learning place. The learner is
put at a disadvantages when the classroom is overcrowded, dark and damp. We
hear of teachers saying “its gets into my nerve” when students are necessarily noisy
and unruly in a classroom that is topsy turvy. The physical learning environment
matters, too, in facilitating learning.

ACTIVITY

Observe 2 classes with focus on the physical arrangement of the room. Find
out how the physical arrangement affects traffic flow, distraction, and teacher
student and/or student-student instruction. Rate the following aspects of physical
arrangement by the use of this checklist.

ASPECT YES NO REMARKS

1. Are the chairs arrange in such a way that teacher-
student interaction is facilitated.
2. Can every student view and read what is written on
the board?
3. Can the teacher can see all the student while
presenting?
4. Are the chairs arrange in such way that student can
easily move without unnecessary disruption?
5. Is there a picture or any other fixture that distract
 student attention for learning?
6. Is the classroom, safe, clean and orderly?
7. Is the classroom well-ventilated
8. Does the classroom have adequate lighting?
9. Is the classroom wide enough to allow student
movement and activities?
10. Does every student have chair/desk?
11. If there is noise, is it academic noise that indicate
student engagement in learning?
12. Is the classroom attractive to enhance learning?
13. Is the seat arrangement flexible?

ANALYSIS

1. Review your checklist. Which items were you answered NO? YES?
2. Are the items answered NO within the capacity of teacher to remedy? How?
3. Are items answered YES, truly YES? Is still room for improvement? Explain
your answer.
4. What is academic noise? Is that something you must frown upon?
5. Between the 2 classrooms, which is better? Why?

ABSTRACTION/ GENERALIZATION

The physical learning environment has something to do with the condition with the
classroom, the immediate environment of the learner; A conducive physical learning
environment is one that:

 Allows maximum interaction between teacher and students and

among students
 Allows student movement without unnecessary distraction
 Allows teacher to survey the whole class
 Is safe, clean , orderly
 Is well-ventilated, spacious and adequately lighted and
 Makes possible re-arrangement of chairs as the need arises
Let us not forget the fact that while the physical condition of the classroom and the
person that the student interact with constitute their immediate environment, our
student are also influenced by factors outside their immediate environment. Our
student bring to the classroom many attitude as a result of their being conditioned
by their families, their ethnic groups, their communities. These attitudes influence
their class performance

Name___________________________________ Yr.& Sec._________________

APPLICATION

Design a classroom that is conducive for learning. Indicate color of paint,

arrangement of desk, teacher’s table and other fixtures.

TEST YOURSELF

1. List down adjective that describe a conducive physical learning environment.

SYNAPSE STHRENGTENERS
 1. One of you should be assigned to secure copy of minimum standards of
physical facilities to open a school from the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED). Present them in class. Why are these minimum standards on size of
classroom, library books, etc. set?
2. Is a quite classroom necessarily a quite one?
3. What wall colors is/are most conducive of learning considering varied
developmental stages of learners.

5 Minute Non-stop Writing begins…NOW!

From the module on Physical Learning Environment, I learned that

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Module 27 Assessment for Learning

 Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process
By: Lucas et. al
Take the Challenge!

In this module , challenge yourself to:

 identify the purposes of assessment,

 explain the research-based principles of assessment for learning,

 demonstrate appreciation of assessment as a process to both evaluate and

facilitate learning.

Introduction

A crucial part of the whole teaching-learning process is to find out whether

both the learner and the teacher were successful in the process. What have my
students learned so far? Was I effective in facilitating learning? Did my students
acquire the targeted knowledge, skills and values? These and so many other
questions which you may have are answered by assessment!
Other than the end of the lesson, assessment can also be done at the
beginning of a lesson to determine entry knowledge and skills of our students in
relation to our lesson for the day. It can also be conducted in the process of
teaching to determine if our students can follow the lesson.

Activity

Do this True-False Pretest on the professional teacher based on the Code of Ethics
for Professional Teachers. If you are not sure of your answer, DON'T WORRY! You
may guess. What is important is that you give an answer.

Direction. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is wrong. You may
write your answer on the blank provided before the number.
In the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers:

__________1. The professional teacher may be licensed or not licensed.

__________2. pre-school teachers are excluded in the term teacher.

__________3. only those who teach in the elementary and secondary schools are
referred to as teachers.

__________4. the teachers in the private schools are not part of the term "teacher"

__________5. the college instructor professor is not classified as teacher

__________6. the principal is included in the word "teacher"

__________7. the word "teacher" also includes the District Supervisor and the
School Superintendent.

__________8. "teacher" refers also to industrial art or vocational teachers

__________9. only the public school teachers in all levels, including tertiary, are
classified as teachers.
__________10. a professional teacher is required only of technical and pro9fessional
competence.

__________11. "teacher" refers only to full-time teachers.

NOW , CHECK YOUR OWN ANSWER. FOR THE ANSWER KEY, PLEASE
REFER TO PAGE 218.

What is your score? If you got 6 and above, you are on or above the
midpoint. If you got a score below 6, don't despair! The next time you will take this
test, you will get perfect.

Find out why you did not get some items correctly. Read this excerpt from
the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers. Then make your own list of those who
are included in the word "teacher". Take note, too of who teachers are, according to
be Preamble.

Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers

PREAMBLE
Teachers are duly licensed professionals who possess dignity and reputation
with high moral values as well as technical and professional competence. In the
practice of their noble profession, they strictly adhere to, observe and practice this
set of ethical and moral principles, standard, and values.
ARTICLE 1
Scope and Limitations
Section 2 . This code covers all public and private school teachers in all educational
institutions at the preschool, primary, elementary and secondary levels whether
academic, vocational, special, technical or non-formal. The term "teacher" shall
include industrial art or vocational teachers an all other persons performing
supervisory and/or administrative function in all school at the aforesaid levels,
whether on full-time or part-time basis.
AFTER READING THE EXCERPT OF THE CODE DOTHE POST TEST.

Direction. This is Post test. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is
wrong. You may write you answer on the blank provided before the number.

In the Code Ethics for Professional Teachers:

__________1. The teachers in the private schools are not part if the term "teacher".

__________2. Pre-school teachers are excluded in the term teacher.

__________3. Only those who teach in the elementary and secondary schools are
referred to as teachers.

__________4. " Teacher" refers also to industrial art or vocational teachers.

__________5. The instructor/professor is not classified as teacher.

__________6. A professional teacher is required only of technical and professional
competence.

__________7. Teacher refers only to full-time teachers.

__________8. The professional teacher may be licensed or not licensed.

__________9. Only the public school teachers in all levels, including tertiary, are
classified as teachers.

__________10. The principal is included in the word "teacher".

__________11. The word “teacher" also includes the District Supervisor and the
School Superintendent.

What is your score? Did you improve? Perhaps considerably! That's good!
Congratulations! Now, let’s analyze you just went through

Analysis

Discussion Questions:

 How do you compare your scores in the pretest and i the posttest?

 What may have contributed to the improved score?

 Did the exercise on the pretest and posttest help you improve your scores?
How?

 Did you like the idea of checking your own answers? Why?

 Did checking your own paper help you improve your score? How?

 Did your errors help you improve your score? How?

Abstraction/Generalization

From the activity, you have seen that assessment does not take place only at
the end of a lesson. The pretest, a form of assessment at the beginning of a lesson,
helped you determine how much you knew and didn't know about the professional
teacher. With the pretest results, your learning became more focused (particularly
on the items you did not get). You learned to the point of mastery, thus your scores
improved considerably.

That's the reason why the little of this Module is “Assessment for Learning"
instead of Assessment of Learning". We close the latter because it emphasizes the
role that assessment plays in facilitating learning. It is not just done at the end of
the teaching-learning process. Instead, it is an integral part of the teaching-learning
process, such that assessment not just evaluates the learning but becomes a tool to
facilitate and enhance learning.

The practice of checking your own answers in both pretest and posttest
helped you learned better, too. It challenged you to compete with yourself. Is there
a proof of learning better than improved scores?
 Assessment is something that students frown upon. With self-assessment,
the process becomes non-threatening. With self-assessment, you also get to know
results at once. It is no wonder why authorities on assessment encourage the use of
self-assessment in schools.

Let us use what experts say on assessment.

What assessment is?

Assessment is basically the processes of gathering information

about the students' learning; then analyzing and interpreting them for the
purpose of making decisions. Assessment may involve, among others, activities
such as administering different kinds of written tests, observation of behavior or
performance, examination of work samples, use of checklists, and interview.

Assessment for learning is more in line with Authentic Assessment.

Sometimes referred to as alternative assessment, authentic assessment seeks to
directly assess student performance through real-life tasks or products. It
encourages students to use higher order thinking skills and to be more active in
constructing their own understandings. Examples of authentic assessment include
original works of students and other performance-based outputs. You will surely
learn more about authentic assessment in your six units of assessment subjects.

Purposes of Assessment

As earlier mentioned, assessment is done for the purpose of making

decisions. These may be concerned with decisions related with:

1. Diagnosis. Assessment is used to determine any special learning need that a

learner may have.

2. Placement. Based on the results of assessment, the learner can be placed in the
best learning environment where he can better learn and develop.

3. Effectiveness of the Program. Assessment can also provide data about how a
particular curriculum or program is effective in meeting its goals.

4. Student Feedback. One important purpose of assessment is to have objective

information that can be used to communicate to the learner his current level of
performance, specifically his strong and weak points.

5. Research. Assessment results can also be used as a source of very useful data in
a wide range topic in the field of educational research.

Research-Based Principles of Assessment for learning

The Assessment Reform Group proposed 10 principles. Assessment for

learning:

1. Is part of effective planning. Assessment for learning should be part

of effective planning and learning. When the teacher plans lessons, there
should be an opportunity for both the learner and the teacher to use the
assessment of progress in looking at the learning goals. It is also good if
learners are aware of the goals they are working on and the criteria that will
be used in evaluating their learning.

2. Focuses on how student learn. Assessment for learning should focus

on how students learn. The teacher should understand the nature of
learning. Students should become aware of how they learn and not just what
they learn.

3. Is central to classroom practice. Assessment of learning should be

considered central to classroom practice. Upon closer examination, teachers
would come to realize that a lot of what they do inside the classroom can be
seen as a form of assessment. For example, learning activities and questions
asked already, shoe the students knowledge, understanding and skills. The
learners' responses are then observed and interpreted, and the teacher
makes choices and decisions on how to make learning even more effective.
Therefore, assessment processes are an important part of each class day.
They engage both students and the teacher to reflect, dialogue and make
decisions about the learning process.

4. Is a key professional skill. Assessment of learning should be

considered as a key professional skill for teachers. It is vital that teachers
acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and values about the entire
assessment process. Skills in observing learning, analyzing and interpreting
evidence, giving feedback to learner and supporting students in self-
assessment are some of the most important ones that teachers should be
competent in. This is why in the teacher education curriculum; we have
several subjects dealing with assessment.

5. Is sensitive and constructive. Assessment of learning must be

sensitive and constructive because assessment has an emotional impact. As
a future teacher, bear in mind that your comments, marks and grades, as
well as the manner you communicate them to students can affect their self-
confidence. Assessment should be constructive as much as possible. Judging
students harshly to the point that they feel belittled or insulted will "kill" their
spirit, and may lead them to have a negative view both of themselves and
the subject.

6. Fosters motivation. Assessment of learning should consider the

importance of learner motivation. In order to utilize assessment as a
motivating tool, assessment should focus on progress and achievement
rather than failure. Never compare a student to those who have already
achieved what he is still struggling to accomplish. Furthermore, assessment
methods that allow learners to be more independent and have choices
increase their motivation. They become more self-directed and depends less
on the "what-will-teacher-say-about-my-work" reference.

7. Promotes understanding of goals and criteria. Assessment of

learning should promote commitment to learning goals and a shared
understanding of the criteria by which they are assessed, Learners should
always understand what goals they are set out to do or accomplish. At the
same time they should have a clear idea on how they are going to be
 assessed. As a future teacher you should be able to tell them in a clear and
simple way the criteria (success indicators) you will use to evaluate them.
Giving an example of how these criteria are met will make the criteria really
clear for them.

8. Helps learners know how to improve. Assessment of learning should

include constructive guidance on how learners can improve . An effective
teacher would give students guidance as to the steps or strategies they can
use to improve their learning and consequent performance. Learners need to
know their strengths and how they can continually develop them. They also
need to know their weaknesses and how best to work on them.

9. Develops the capacity for self-assessment. Assessment of learning

develops learner’s skills on self-assessment. Assessment should allow
learners to apply metacognitive skills. You learned about metacognition in
Module 1, remember?) When learners are given the opportunity to evaluate
their own performance, they bring to mind the personal task and strategy
variables applicable to them. They reflect on their personal characteristics
that affect their learning; the tasks they need to work on; and the strategies
that can help them. In this way, assessment empowers the student to take a
more active role in his own learning process.

10. Recognizes all educational achievement. Assessment of learning

should recognize the full range of achievements of all learners. Assessment
should be able to integrate the totality of the learner's achievement. It
should be holistic and not just pick on an isolated skill. It should aid the
learner to maximize his performance and acknowledge his efforts.

ANSWER KEY

Pre-test Post test

1. False 1. False

2. False 2. False

3. False 3. False

4. False 4. True

5. True 5. True

6. True 6. False

7. True 7. False

8. True 8. False

9. False 9. False

10. False 10. True

11. False 11. True

Name: ______________________________ Yr. & Sec.______________________

Application

Select a lesson from the Philippine Elementary Learning

Competencies/Philippine Secondary Learning Competencies where you can make
use of the K-W-L Chart shown below.

K-W-L Chart shown

K W W

(What I know) (What I want to learn) (What I learned)

Ask your students to accomplish the blank K-W-L. Chart as you introduce and end a
lesson.

Questions to Answer:

 With your use of the K-W-L Chart, is there assessment at the beginning and
at the end of the lesson?

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____________________________________

 Is this a form of self-assessment?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
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 Synapse Strengtheners

Research on various assessment techniques that evaluate and facilitate

learning

Submit research output to your teacher.

5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins, ... NOW!

From the module on Assessment for Learning, I learned that …..

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Module 28 Revisiting the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

Adapted from: Facilitating Learning and Cognitive Process

By: Lucas et.al

Take the Challenge!

 In this module, challenge yourself to:
 Describe how the 14 principles are connected to each of the
modules that you have studied.
 Align your learnings/insights gained to the 14 principles.
 Demonstrate appreciation of the 14 principles as a sound
framework for effective facilitating of learning.

Introduction

Congratulations! You’ve come to the last module. This last module is

intended for you to summarize and integrate your most valuable learnings and
insights gained in this subject.

Activity

1. Examine the clip art below.

Teach
Analysis
1. What two words do you see?
_________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
______
2. What relationships does the clip art show about these two words?
___________
___________________________________________________________
______
3. What message do you get from this clip art? Relate it to your own role as
a future teacher?
________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
__
___________________________________________________________
__
___________________________________________________________
__
___________________________________________________________
__
___________________________________________________________
__

Abstraction/Generalization
Facilitating learning should be firmly anchored on the 14
learner centered psychological principles. The 14 principles
espouse that everyone in the learning community is a learner,
not just the student. The clip art above expresses this view that
to teach allows you to learn and that when you have learned
well, you can teach well. There is mutuality in learning. Students
learn from teachers. Students learn from one another. And more
important for you to remember, teachers learn from students.

Learner-Centered Instruction
Applying 14 principles, Eggen and Chauchak give us three
characteristics of learner-centered instruction:

1. Learners are at the center of the learning process. The criticisms of

direct instruction have led educators to put more emphasis on the
role of the student in the learning process. Many opted for a more
student-centered environment as opposed to the traditional teacher-
centered set-up. Learners are given more choices. Learning activities
are designed with the needs, interests and developmental levels of
the learners in foremost consideration.
 2. Teacher guides students’ construction of understanding. The 14
principles were put together because of the growing implications of
research in cognitive psychology. Teachers in learner-centered
classrooms provide a lot of opportunity for the learners to actively
think, figure out things and learn on their own. The teachers serves
more as a facilitator, a “guide on the side” rather than a “sage on
stage”.
3. Teachers teach for understanding. Students are placed at the center
of the learning process. The teachers help them to take responsibility
for their learning. As a result, students, through their own active
search and experimentation, experience a movement from confusion
to searching for answers, to discovery, and finally to understanding.

Application
1. Re-read the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles found on
Module 2 (p.15). Recall the main points of the principles. As you are
reading, exert effort to link each of the 14 principles to something you
learned from Modules 1-26. You may do this by also going back to
what you wrote in the 5-minute non-stop writing portion at the
end of each module.
2. Fill out the matrix below to summarize and synthesize your learnings
and insights. Column 1 contains the 14 principles clustered together.
Column 2 indicate the modules and topics that are related to each
cluster. In column 3, write your learnings/insights, especially on how
you plan to apply what you have learned when you teach.

Topics/specific My
concepts from learnings/insights
The 14 Principles modules 1-26 on how I will apply
what I learned

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process. The

learning of complex subject matter is
 most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from
information and experience.
2. Goals of the learning process.
The successful learner, over time and
with support and instructional guidance,
can create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge.
The successful learner can link new
information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
4. Strategic thinking.
The successful learner can create and use
a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning
goals.
5. Thinking about thinking.
Higher order strategies for selecting and
monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of learning.
Learning is influenced by environmental
factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.
Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on

learning.
What and how much is learned is
influenced by the learner’s motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced
by the individual’s emotional states,
beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of
thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn.
The learner’s creativity, higher order
thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic
motivation is stimulated by tasks of
optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
personal interests, and providing for
personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort.
Acquisition of complex knowledge and
skills requires extended learners’ effort
and guided practice. Without learners’
motivation to learn, the willingness to
exert this effort is unlikely without
coercion.
Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning. As

individuals develop, there are different
opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when
differential development within and
across physical, intellectual, emotional,
and social domains is taken into account.
11. Social influences on learning. Learning is
influenced by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.
Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning.

Learners have different strategies,
approaches, and capabilities for learning
that are a function of prior experience
and heredity.
13. Learning and diversity
 Learning is most effective when
differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural,
and social backgrounds are taken into
account.
14. Standards and assessments.
Setting appropriately high and
challenging standards and assessing the
learner as well as learning progress –
including diagnostic, process, and
outcome assessment – are integral parts
of the learning process.

Synapse strengtheners
Observe a class (can be elementary, high school or college level). Note
whether or not the three characteristics of the learner-centered classrooms are
implemented.

Characteristic Yes No Description of what you observed

1. Learners are at the center of

the learning process.
2. Teacher guides the students

3. Teacher teaches for

understanding

REFERENCES
REFERENCES

Print Resources

APA Work Group of the Board of Educational Affairs (1997), November). Learner-

centered psychological principles: Guidelines for school reform and

redesign. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Bloom, Benjamin S. (1956) Taxonomy of Education Objectives: Cognitive Domain.
New York: David McKay and Company.
Bruning, Roger H. et al. (2004) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
 USA: Merill Prentice-Hall.

E. Labinowcz. (1980). The Piaget Primer: Thinking, learning teaching. Menlo Park,

CA: Addison-Wesley

Eggen, Paul and Don Kauchak (2001) Educational Psychology :

Windows on the Classroom. USA : Prentice Hall.

Guidance Staff, St. Louis University. (1987) Survival Kit.

Marzano, Robert J. (2003) Classroom Management That Works:

Research-Based Strategies for Every Teacher. Alexandria, Virginia:

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

McCombs, Barbara L. (2001) “ What do we knoe about Learners and Learning? The

Learner-Centered Framework: Bringing the Educational System into

Balance”
Newstorm, John W. And Keith Davis. (1997) Organizational Behavior at Work, 10 th

ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.

Ormrod, Jeanne E. (2004) Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 4 th ed.

New Jersey: Prentice-Hall inc.

Ortigas, Carmela D. Group Process and the Inductive Method, Quezon City: Ateneo

de Manila University Press, (1990)

Seng, Tan Oon, Ricahrd D. Porras, Stephanie L. Hinson, Deborah

Sardo-Brown (2003) Educational Psychology: A Practitioner Researcher

Approach. USA: Thomson Asia Pub. Ltd.

St. Edward’s University Center for Teaching Excellence. (2004) Task Oriented

Question Construction Wheel Based on Bloom’s Taxoonomy.

Stronge, James H. (2002) Qualities of Efffective Teachers. Alexandria, VA:

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Sullo, Bob. (2007) Activating the Desire to Learn. Alexandria, Virginia: Association

for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Zwaan, Koechlin and Sandi (1997) Teaching Tools for Information Age, USA:
Pembroke Pub. Ltd.

ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

Websites/URL’s

Conditions of learning (R. Gagne). [On-line]. Available: http://www.gwu.edu /-

 tip/gagne.html

Connectionism (E. Thorndike) [On-line] Available.

http://www.gwu.edu/-tip/thorndike.html

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http://www.gwu.edu/-tip/bruner.html

Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (200). Concept and

Definitions.
Boston: Harvard Medical School. [On-line]. Available:
http://www.hmcnet.harvard.edu/pmr/rehabdef.html

Grymes, Joanna M. Observation Activities on Piaget, Behaviourism and

Metacognition [On-line]. Available: http://www.clt.astate.edu/ grymesj

Huitt, W. (1997). Metacognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA:

Valdosta State University, Retrieved [date], from

http://chiron.valdosta.eduwhuitt/col/cogsys/metacognition.html

Information Processing Theory (G.A. Miller) [On-line]. Available:

http://www.gwu.edu/-tip/miller.html

Kohlberg’s Dilemmas. [On-line]. Available:

http://www.haveford.edu/psych/ddavis/p109g/kohlberg.dilemmas.html

Operant Conditioning (B.F Skinner) [On-line]. Available: http://www.gwu.edu/-

tip/skinner.html

Sign Theory (E. Tolman) [On-line]. Available:

https//www.gwu.edu/-tip/tolman.html

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shenkel/PhysicalActivities/CreativeMovement/CreativeThinking/Torrance.html)