DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 24 | DIFFRACTION It is matter of common experience that waves bend round obstacles placed in their path. For example, water waves escaping through a small hole spread out in all directions as if they have originated at the hole. Similarly sound, form of wave motion, is found to pass round obstacles of moderate dimensions. The amount of binding, however, depends upon the size of the obstacle and the wavelength of wave. It was argued that light, which is a wave motion, should also bend round obstacles. A minute investigation reveals that light suffers some deviation from its straight path in passing close to the edges of opaque obstacles and narrow slits. The deviation is extremely small when the wavelength of light waves is small in comparison to the dimensions of the obstacle or aperture. But, when the size of the aperture is comparable with the wavelength of light, this deviation becomes much pronounced. For example, when light Screen Straight | Edge S - 4) Geometrical B Shadow Fig. (1) waves diverging from narrow slit S fig. (1) which is illuminated by a monochromatic source O, pass an obstacle AB with straight edge A parallel to the slit, the geometrical shadow on the screen is never sharp. A small portion of light bends around the edge into geometrical shadow, Outside the shadow parallel to its edge several bright and comparatively dark bands are observed. __ Thus, when light falls on obstacles or smalll apertures whose size is comparable rie the wavelength of light, there is a departure from straight lines propagation, the light bends round the corners of the obstacles or apertures and enters in! the Scometrical shadow. This bending of light is called diffraction. \t was found that fraction produces bright and dark fringes known as diffraction bands or fringes. The correct interpretation of diffraction phenomenon was provided by Fresnel. (2.1)2.2 Engineering Physics ‘According to Fresnel, the diffraction phenomenon is due to mutual interferenoe secondary wavelets originating from various point of the wavefront which are ot blocked off by the obstacle. Fresnel, thus, applied Huygen’s principle of secon wavelets in conjunction with the principle of interference and calculated 14, position of fringes. It was observed that the calculated results were in goog agreement with the observed diffraction pattern. It should be remembered that the diffraction effects are observed only when a portion of the wavefront is cut off by some obstacle. 2.2 | TWO KINDS OF DIFFRACTION To observe a diffraction pattem, we require a source of light, screen or telescope (through which the image is viewed) and a diffraction device such as a single sit, double slit, grating, etc. To consider the different kinds of diffraction, we consider the positions of scurce of light and screen or telescope with respect to diffracting device and the nature of incident and diffracted wavefronts. Diffraction phenomenon can be divided into following two general classes: 1. Fraunhofer’s diffraction : In this class of diffraction, source and the screm or telescope (through which the image is viewed) are placed at infinity o effectively at infinity from aperture. In this case the wavefront which is incidest on the aperture or obstacle is plane. Although source and screen are placed at a finite distance with respect diffracting device but effectively they are placed at infinity with the help f convex lenses. This is achieved by placing the source at the principal focal of# convex lens and similarly by placing the screen at the focal plane of another convex lens. Therefore, the incident wavefront is plane. 2. Fresnel’s diffraction : In this class of diffraction, source and screen a placed at finite distances from the aperture or obstacle having sharp edges.# this case no lenses are used for making the rays parallel or convergent. incident wavefront are either spherical or cylindrical. Differences between Fraunhofer diffraction and Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction Fresnel diffraction Source of light and screen are at infinite distance from diffracting device. The source and the screen are at finit distances from the diffracting device. The incident wavefront i either eylnd#™ or spherical. Incident wavefrom is plane wavefront obtained with the help of convex lens. Diffracted light is collected by a convex lens. The centre of diffraction pattern is always bright. No lens is used for observation. ‘The centre of diffraction patter” be dark or bright depending upon the of Fresnel’s zone, # Fresnel’s zone plate is used © Single slit or double slit or grating is used to diffraction pattern, get diffraction pattem.ifiaction of Light me Po orreReNce BETWEEN INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION Following are the differences between interference and diffraction phenomena: 1, In the phenomenon of interference, the interaction takes places between two separate wavefronts originating from the two coherent sources while in the phenomenon of diffraction the interaction takes place between the secondary wavelets originating from different points of the exposed parts of the same wavefront. . In the interference pattern the regions of minimum intensity are usually almost perfectly dark while it is not so in diffraction pattern. 3. The width of the fringes in interference may or may not be equal or uniform while in diffraction pattern fringe width of various fringes are never equal. |. In an interference pattern all the maxima are of same intensity but in diffraction pattern they are of varying intensity. i RESULTANT OF n SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTIONS Let there be n vibrations of same period, same amplitude a and same phase difference d between successive vibrations which act on a particle simultaneously. Our aim is to consider the resultant amplitude of these vibrations. For this purpose, we construct the polygon of amplitudes as shown in fig. (2). The closing side OP and angle @ then give the resultant amplitude R and phase of the resultant vibration respectively. To evaluate R and , we resolve the amplitudes along and perpendicular to OA and write Fig. (2) S Roos 0 = all +cos d +.cos2.d+...+c0s(n—Id] wl) and Rsin9 =a{sind +sin2d+...+sin(n-1)d] we(2) _d Multiplying eq, (1) by 2 sin >, we get, _d 2Rcos@ sin4 =a 9 sin 2 42c0sdsin 2+... #2em(n-Ddsin ] 2 2 2 2 add nafpang +{s sng}. slr s}ewled}]an Engineerin, 24 8 Phos ofotea(e34 -pd 2a sin 4 cos @—* 2 -bd sinndi2 .,, (n=) or Reos0=a sin d/2 2 “+Q) arly, multiplying eq. (2) by 2 sin = and simplifying, we get Similarly, multiplying eq. (2) by 2 sin > 7 i -pd sinn di, (n=Dd Reino =a on ai? 2 @) Squaring eq, (3) and (4) and adding, we get Ricat sin? nd/2 "sin? di2 sinn d/2 iR=a——__ 2 “ “sind ) Dividing eq. (4) by eq. (3), we have tan = tan DE 2 or (n = a An important case arises when n is infinitely large and amplitude a and phat difference d are infinitely small, however, the product n aand nd being finite. re na=A and nd=2a “ting sh a, 7 Now, Regina since © is extremely small sina/n n } q sina _ a -)d and o=@ = ne (since n is very la FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION ATSIi (NORMAL INCIDENCE) noes SET General Description Fig. (3) represents a section AB of tol @ narrow slit of wi \dicular plane of the paper: Leta plane wavefront WW" of mori reat Faeica ‘ wavelens Propagating normally tothe slit be incident on it. Let the heen Bocuse, means of a convex lens on a scree; Foca iffracted light be tor ins n i i Huygens-Fresnel, every point of the ood it the focal plane of the lens. AccordDiffraction of Light 25 secondary spherical wavelets, which spread out to the right in all directions, The Secondary wavelets travelling normally to the slit, ie., along the direction OP, are brought to focus at Py by the lens. Thus, Pp is a bright central image. ‘The secondary wavelets travelling at an angle 9 with the normal are focussed ata point F on the screen. ‘The point P; is of the minimum intensity or maximum intensity depending upon the path difference between the secondary waves originating from the corresponding points of the wavefront. Incident plane Screen wave front | Single slit Diffracted Source of yw light \ DP se AAAI Ay ae General Mathematical Theory In order to find out intensity at P,, draw a perpendicular AC on BR, the path difference between secondary wavelets from A and B in direction @ =BC = AB sin @ =e sin, A= eure and corresponding phase difference . i Whar 2 AR Guo =24 esin 0. af x Let us consider that the width of the slit is divided into equal parts and the amplitude of the wave from each partis a (because width of each part is same). The phase difference between any two consecutive waves from these parts would be 1 crotat phase) =~ (= esin o)- d (say) n n\n i Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes as discussed in the previous article, the resultant amplitude R is given by ag inna 4 sin (me sin 0/2) sin d/2 sin (ne sin @/n) SBS where af sin OM a. Kis very small nku 2.6 le een Engineering Pig, nage a a a ‘Thus, the resultant amplitude is given by R SS he Cad sina A , R=A allt t when n —» 20, a0, but product na =A (remains finite). Now, the intensity is given by ; per? = a?( 8 a a ee Tel, (22) (where Ip = 42). INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION IN SINGLE SLIT (POSITIONS OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA) Principal Maximum ‘The expression for resultant amplitude R can be written in ascending powers ofa 5 gq? 3 4{ ae ceee ee 2 [Eq.(1)§2.5] «(0 oo a 3! OS! 7! 2 =A ! -2. | 31 If the negative terms vanish the, value of R will be maximum, i.e, & =0, ne sind . a =2ESRE 0 or sind =0 a ‘8=0 wl) or Now, maximum value of R is A amHpfensity is proportional to A. The condi @ =0 means that this maximum is formed by those secondary wavelets which (8 normally to the slit. The maximum is known as principal maximum. Minimum Intensity Positions ‘The intensity will be minimum when sin o. =0. The values of a which satisfy this equation are a=tnt2nt3nt4an. ot nesin@ x or esinO=+nd where n=1,2,3, A) In general, [esin®, = £m]Diffraction of Light 27 Inthis way we obtain the points of minimum intensity on either side of the principal maximum. The value of m =0 is not admissible, because for this value, @ =0 and this corresponds to principal maximum, Secondary Maxima In addition to principal maximum at a =0, there are weak secondary maxima between equally spaced minima. The positions can be obtained with the rule of finding maxima and minima of a given function in calculus. Differentiating the expresssion of / with respect to a and equating to zero, we have aa |42(sina} |g da da a or either sina =0 or (q cosa ‘ThE equation a = -xcept 0) for which the intensity is zero on the screen. Hence, the positions of maxima are given by the roots of the equation acosa-sina=0 or a=tana (4) ‘The values of a satisfying the above equation are obtained graphically by plotting the curves y=a and y=tana. on the same graph. ‘The points of intersection of two curves give the values of «. which satisfy eq. (4). The plots of y =o. and y = tan. are shown in fig. (4). Fig. (4) The points of intersections are Re 3n 5m oO ©f mroe exactly to a. =0, stave £2,462 1, £3.471 n, etc. The first value a. =0 gives principal maximum. The remaining values of a give Secondary maxima. The values are 3n a=t 6)pone ed er tr A Engineering Phy. 2.8 Dts. ‘The direction of secondary maxima are approximately given by the relation me NTT 5 Fig where n =1,2,3,... In general, “0 saa Eos Intensity consideration ‘We know that pak eH gi ae 1-a3(s88) (2 } a a | ” Substituting, approximate value of a in above equation we get | (i For principal maximum, (a =0) | T=Iy (8) (ii) The intensity of first secondary maxima a, (0. = +3n/2) ae [ssom2) 44 Gnd) eae =) on 22 «22 Therefore, the intensity of first secondary maximum is about (1/22) of the intensiy of central maximum. The ratio of intensity of first secondary maxima to adjacent central maximums 0 Therefore, I, is 4.5% of Ip. (ii) Intensity of second secondary maxim a = (5/2) : 2 Inthiscase, I, -# Seca 4a? AB Ty Al G2) | 25m? 62 62 ‘The ratio of intensity of second secondary maxima to central maximum is veel mu) y 252 “Hy 61% Therefore, I> is 1.61% of I, It is clear from the above discuss int principal maximum. The intra re at most of the light is concentrated Mj very rapidly. Secondary maxima goes on ADiffraction of Light 2.9 intensity Distribution Graph ‘A graph showing the variation of intensity with a is shown in fig. (5). The diffraction pattern consists of a central principal maximum occurring in the direction of incident rays. There are subsidiary maxima of decreasing intensity on either sides of it at positions 3n/2, +5n/2 and so on. Between subsidiary maxima, there are minimaat positionsa. = + 1, +2 7, +3 m....... Itshould be noted that subsidiary maxima do not fall exactly mid-way between two minima, but they are displaced towards the centre of the pattern, of course, the displacement decreases as the order of maximum increases. in Central maximum ! Secondary maxima =Sx-2n-n Ox ax Sr co Fig. (5) Ea WIDTH OF CENTRAL MAXIMA The direction of first minima is given by esin@=42 or sno-+(*) e or @=+sin"'(/e) Thus, the central maximum extends between 0 = sin~'(/e) and @ = sin“'(-2 /e). So, 8 is the angular half width of the central maximum, Let the lens is very near to the slit and the screen is very far away from the lens. The central maximum is shown in fig. (6). First Lens inimum \ Tr | Principal e maximum a | minimum Fig. (6) * From fig. (6), sino=+2=4+2 Q) DTT Where f = focal length of the lens and y = linear half width of central maximum.2.10 Engineering Physics, / From eqs. (i) and (ii), we get \f +3) Results 1. The width of central maximum is directly proportional to the wavelength of light used. We know that the wavelength of red light is more than violet ligh. Therefore, the width of central maximum is more for red light than for violet light. 2. The width of central maximum is inversely proportional to the width of slit (¢). ‘This shows that the width of central maximum will be greater for narrow slits. ™ NUMERICAL EXAMPLES BASED ON DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT Q EXAMPLE 1 Light of wavelength 6x10~ cm falls on a screen at a distance of 100m from a narrow slit. Find the width of the slit if the first minima lie 1 mm on either side of the central maximum. Solution Here, n=l, 4=6x10% cm. Distance of screen from slit =100cm. Distance of I* minimum from the central maxima 0.lem, ecg of first minima from *) central maxima. Ee) Distance of the screen from the slit od 0, ool sin®, = (sin @, = 0, as 0 is small) Weknow that e sind, =nh or esinO,=1xA or e6,=2 Gn) 2 _6x10° ®, 1000 = 0.06 em EXAMPLE 2 Light of wavelength 5500 A falls normally on a slit of width 22.0%10"* cm. Calculate the angular position of first two minima on either sidé central maximum. Solution In case of a single slit-diffraction pattern, the angular positions of mini are given by e= esin®, =tnd or sin®, =(nA/e) where m = 1, 23)" oleigraction of Light piffraction of Ligh 211 For first order minima, n =1, therefore, jog —&_ 5500x10*% sine, =% = 5500x107 em _4 4 € 22.0x10% cm + 0, =sin"(0.25) = 1429 For second order minimum, n =2, therefore, 2a sin@, =~ =2x(0.25)=0.5 e in=!(0.5) = 30° 8, So, the first two minima will occur at an angle of 14°29’ and 30° on either side of central maximum. Q EXAMPLE 3 Calculate the angular separation beween the first order minima on either side of central maximum when the slit is 6x10 cm width and light illuminating it has a wavelength 6000 A. Solution We know that esin®, =n2 where @is the angular separation of the n order minimum from the central maximum, e=width of slit and 4 = wavelength of light. When n=1 esin0, =2 08 eee =0.1 @ 6x10 or 6, =sin”' 0.1) or 6, =5°44 ‘The angular separation of the first order minima on either side of the central maximum is 20, = 11°28 O EXAMPLE 4 Calculate the angles at which the first dark band and the next bright band are formed in the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of slit 0.3 mm wide = 5890 A). Solution ‘The directions @ for the minima are given by esin®, =" n=1,2,3.. 2. _ 5890x10™* em sin® == 003em = 0.001906 Now, 6, = sin“! (0.00196) =0,112°212 Engineering Phyy., | The angle of diffraction 6" corresponding to the first bright band on either s. de the central maximum is approximately given by eaeesx esin®,' == ates on sin," =32 =) x0.00196 = 0.00294 6," =sin“! (0.00294) = 0.168° Q EXAMPLES A single slit of width 0.14mm is illuminated normally by ¢ monochromatic light and diffraction bands are observed on a screen 2 m away, tf the centre of second dark band is 1.6 cm from the middle of the central bright band, deduce the wavelength of light. Solution For single slit diffraction pattern, esind, a or sin®,, =(nA/e) When @ is small sin 6, =0, o, «8h e or Gee Al) e LetD be the distance of screen from the slit. If y is the distance of second dark band from the middle of the central bright band [fig, (7), then siit or a int, 0.) From eqs. (1) and (2), we pet ein Ba #92 2a iy e-D or rede 0 ; oliffraction of Light ee Substituting the given values, we get 2x2 =5.6x10"7 m=5600A Q EXAMPLE 6 A single slitis illuminated by light composed of two wavelengths, and)... One observes that due to Fraunhofer diffraction, the first minima observed fork, coincides with the diffraction minima of}. What is the relation between and)? Solution In Fraunhofer diffraction due to a single slit esin0, =tnh For wavelength 4, the direction of first minima (n =1) is given by esin®, =A; (1) Similarly, for wavelength 2 2, the direction of second minima(n =2)is given by esin®@, =22) +(2) Given that the direction of first minima (@,) due to 2, and direction of second minima 8) due to wavelength 2. coincides, i.e, 6, =O, =6 (say) Now, we have,e sin@=2, and esin@=22> 2 Ay =2A2 or hy =Ay/2. Q EXAMPLE 7 A light of wavelength 6000 A falls normally on a straight slit of width0.10 mm. Calculate the total angular width of the central maximum and also the linear width as observed on a screen placed at |m away. Solution The angular half width of central maximum is given by sing =X e _6x1075 em = =(6x10"3) 0.01em As sin 0 is very small, we may write sin ® =O a 0=(x10) Now the total angular width of central maximum [See fig. (6)] is 20=2%(6x10-*) = 12x 107? radians Let y be the linear half width and D is the distance of the sereen from the slit. We have 2 or y=0D D Here, D=100cm and @=12x10"* radians y =(6x107*) x 100 =0.6cmEngineering Phy, i 2.14 : So, the linear width of the central maximum on the screen is ; 2y=2x0.6cm =1.2em is 4Oem forms a Fraunhofer difracy LE 8 A lens whose focal length is 4 Q Fae gi slit 0.3 mm width. Calculate the distances of the. ee ae band andy the next bright band from the axis (wavelength of light used is $890 A). Solution The angular position of n minima in the Fraunhofer diffraction Pate due to a slit is given by esind, =nd where n =1,2,3,,, A For first minima, 5890x 10% a 0.03 = 0.00196 As 0 is very small, 6 = sin @ = 0.00196 radian. If y be the linear distance of the first dark band from the axis, O=y/f or y=Fe where f is the focal length of the lens, we have ¥=40% 0.00196 ) = 0.0785 em in ale of diffraction comesponding to fist bi ither side of cent anion eta 8 to first bright band on either side of ce esing =34 sing’ =3% _ s 2e 7 * 0.00196 =0.00294 8 =sing Now, linear distance. O EXAMPLE 9 Allens of focat i Of a single slit of width Ose eis 'm forms F; | wavelengths i. and min its focal p raunhofer diffraction patte™ da Iti lane. The incident li, ains Bel eater rina etimum. Calculate, andy, * 4" at the same pointg,s cm from the cenit! Solution The an, sana : Bular posit nice. | WA Single slit is given by 7" minima in Fraunhofer dittraction pater &# sas €sin@ =m) avelength,.,, the SMBUlar Position, of fourth mini is givenby For wavelength i», the ang net 4 oe ee 2) the angular Position 8, of fifth mini, v esing, =5 ‘minima (m=) s given oiffraction of Light Diffrac 2.15 According to the given Problem a, =6 (say). From eqs. (1) and (2), we get esin@=42, =52, G3) ty be the linear di i a feo 2 linear distance of fourth minima for A, or fifth minima for 2. y=f® or oF (when 0 is small) ...(4) where f = focal length of the lens, Substituting the given values, in eq. (4), we get = 23 <0: Fog 70.005 radians From eq.(1),esind=42, or 2, =£508 68 4 0. ty = SBROOES = 510° cm = 5000 A as From eq. (3), LF sow = 4x10 cm = 40004 O EXAMPLE 10 In obtaining the diffraction of a single slit, the focal length of the lens used is 50 cm, wavelength of light used is 4500 A and width of the slit10-' cm. Find the width of central maximum. Solution ‘The width of the central maximum, 2 y =24* e Given that, f = 50cm, 2=4500A =4500x10- cm and ¢=10"'cm Substituting these values, we get 8 2x 50%(4500%10"*) _ 9.945 em 10 OQ EXAMPLE 11. Diffraction pattern of a single slit of width 0.5 em is formed by a lens of focal length 40 cm. Calculate the distance between frst dark and next bright fringe from the axis, Given d = 4890 A. Solution See fig. (8). The direction of first minimum is given by 2y Arad esin@, =A or sin® == First bright-fring first dark fringeEngineering Physcy. 2.16 i a! From fig. (8), sin, = "5 eye ee 7 ef e Substituting the values, we get (4890107) «-4) _3.9)210°% m ” 5x10"? For secondary maxima e sin, = (ene) og 3h or sin0 == From fig. (8), sinO = Fi 3h _Yn def Substituting the given values, we get _3x(4890x 107!) x 0.4) “2x (5x1073) aS 3 or y.= 2e 2 =5,868x10"* m ‘The distance between first dark and next bright fringe is Yq — yy =5.868x 10" * - 3.91210" > = 1.956 1075 m FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION BY A DOUBLE SLIT (NORMAL INCIDENCE) Let ABand CD be two parallel slits [fig. (9)] of equal wi dth e and separated bY x Fig. (9) opaque distance d. The distance between the corr inte ; evo slits is(e + d). Let a parallel beam of monochromatic Hehe middle point il normally upon the two slits. The light diffracted from these sls avolenet erates the screen XY placed in the focal plane of lens. ‘The diffraction at two slits Se | combination of diffraction as well as interference. fraction at two on i the diffraction pattern due to a single slit on which’ a = the pattern on the ss is superposed. yystem of interferenceDiffraction of Light 217 Explanation When a plane wavefront is incident normally on both slits, all points within the slits become the sources of secondary wavelets which travels in all directions. The secondary waves travelling in the direction of incident light come to a focus Py while the secondary wavelets travelling in a direction making an angle 6 with the incident direction come to a focus P,. General Theory According to the theory of diffraction at a single slit, the resultant amplitude R due to all wavelets diffracted from each slit in a direction @ is given by Re Asina a where A is a constant being equal to the amplitude due to a single slit when @ =0 and a. =(ne sin OA). Thus, for simplicity we can consider the two slits as equivalent to two coherent sources S, and $2 arranged at mid-points of the slits, and each source sending a wavelet of amplitude (A sin ot /:) in a direction 9. Therefore, the resultant amplitude at apoint P, on the screen will be a result of interference between two waves of amplitude (Asina/a) and having a phase difference 6 (say). To calculate 3, we draw a perpendicular S, K on SK. The path difference between the wavelets from S, and Sy in the direction @ . =5,K =(e+d)sin® Phase difference 6 = 2s x (path difference) or =he+a) sind a) The resultant amplitude R at P, can be obtained with the help of triangle of fig. (10). Fig. (10) From figure (OH)? =(0G)? +(GH)? +2(OG) (GH) cos R -(4 ey (4 se +2{ Aste) Aste a a a a| a8 Engineering Physics) 2 on ) (1+1+2cos8] 2 or } [2 +2 cos3] 2 or ) 2[1+cos8] or 28 2 or 2 sin? 2g A Site oo5? [Ete sin | a y or © cos? B where BZ e+d sin@ -(2) ‘Therefore, the resultant intensity at Py is given by aes ) 1=R? =4A_ sin eos? 47g cos* =) INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION IN DOUBLE SLIT Itis obvious from eq. (3) that the intensit; following two factors: (@) (4? sin? a/a?) which is the same as derived for a single Fraunhofer diffraction. Thus, this gives the intensity distribution in the diffraction pattern due to any individual slit. (ii)_ cos B which gives the interference pattem due parallel slits. The resultant intensity at any point on the screen is given by the Product of these two factors. Let us now examine each factor separately : y in the resultant pattern depends upon the to waves starting from two (The diffraction term sin? a./a.? gives the central maximum in the direction 6 =O having alternate maxima and secon dary maxima of decreasing intensitY on either side as shown in fig. (1 1a). The maxima are obtained in the direction given by sina =0 but a #0 or a=stmn, m=1,2, Resin _ singiffaction of Light w 2.19 6x -Sn —4n -Sn -2n -0 xn 2x Sn rer a me) i— Intensity » Fig. (1) or esin@=+md eal) or sino=2(*) where m=1,2,3,... e ‘The positions of secondary maxima approaches to 3n ,5a 7% a =t38 4272 2) oe The interference term cos” B gives a set of equidistant dark and bright fringes as shown in fig, (11). The maxima are obtained in the direction given by cos? B=1 or Botan or Fee+dsind=tn8 or (e+d)sinO=tnd (2) where n =0, 1,2, 3, When, n =0,0 Thus, the central maximum of interference pattern lies along the direction of incident light. This is called the principal maximum of zero order. ‘The central maximum of diffraction pattem also lies along this direction (@=0). Hence, the intensity of central maximum is maximum.Engineering Physics eT The intensity will be minimum when cos*B=0, ie, P=+t(2Qn+l)w2 n(e +d) sin 0 ® me =t(Qn+)= or : ¢ ee : a or (e+d)sind=£0.n+) 3) Eq. (3) shows that for interference minima, the path difference between the parallel diffracted rays originating from any pair of corresponding point within the two slits be odd multiple of 4/2. (iii) Fig. (11a) represents the intensity distribution due to diffraction tem A’ sin? a/a? and fig. (11b) due to interference term cos? B. fig. (Ile) represents the resultant curve of fig. (1a) and fig. (11). Thus fig. (1c) shows | the intensity distribution curve due to double slit. It is important to mention here that the entire Pattern due to a double slit may be tegarded as consisting of interference fringes due to light from both slits while their intensities being governed by diffraction occurring at the individual slits. Important Results (a) Effect of increasing the slit width e When the slit width e is increased, the envelope of fringe pattern changes. Lo central peak becomes sharper while fringe spacing remains unaffected (depends on which is fixed here). Therefore, the number of interference maxima falling within the central diffraction maximum decreases. (b) Effect of increasing the distance d between the slits On increasing the separation d between two slits and keeping the slit width ¢ constant, the fringe spacing decreases, The frin, envelope of pattern remains unchans the central envelope. (©) Effect of increasing the wavelength i When the wavelength of monochromatic light falling on the slit increases, envelope becomes broader. As a result, the fringes move farther apart. MISSING ORDERS IN DOUBLE SLIT DIFFRACTION PATTERN If the width e of the slit is kept constant and the opaque distance b between the e is varied, then itis observed that the spacing between two consecutive maxima chan A carefully study of diffraction pattern shows that certain interference maxi® missing depending upon the relative values of e and d. ‘The directions of interference maxima are given by w (€+d)sin@=tna n=01,2,3... 00 °° The directions of diffraction minima due to each single slit are esinO=+m2 Assume that the values of e and d are satisfied simultaneously for the same value ges come closer together. However ged. Hence, more interference maxima fall wil Ps Oo m=1,2,3,.. ys such that the both equations (1 and De of 6 In this situation, certain interfe! 4pipfraction of | ‘Light 2.21 1a will overlap the diffraction minimum and consequently will be absent, ie, imé sie To obtain the condition for absent order, we divide eq. (1) by €4- (2) e+d_nh @ mn or ste +) We consider the following cases : Case (i) Ife =d, then de_n em or 2-2 m or n=2m Ifm=1,2,3..., then 2 =2,4,6,... Thus, 2", 4% ,6", ... etc, order interference maxima will be absent (missing) in the diffraction pattern. When m =|, then n =2. So, £2)in the central diffraction maximt both sides. So, there will be only three interference order) within the diffraction maximum. Case (ii) If 2e =4, then there must be five interference maxima (n =1,+1and um. But the second order maxima are missing from maxima (zero order and two first e+2e_n 3 m or sel em or n=3m If m=1,2,3,.., then n =3,6,9,--- This shows that 3", 6%,9%, ... order interference maxima shall coincide with 1,2" 39 order diffraction minima. In other words, 3", 6, 9" order interference Maxima will be absent from diffraction pattern. 4, ie, there should be seven interference maxima (n=0,4h When m=1,n=3, +2,43) in central diffraction maximum. But the third order interference maxima is only five interference maxima within the missing from both the sides. So, there will be central diffraction maximum. Case (iii) If d =3e, then or‘ Engineering Phy, a 2.2% icy thenn=4m 2,3,... then n = 4,8,12,... : ae In this case, 4,8", 12", ... order maxima coincide with 1,2", 3 diffraction minima. Now, the central diffraction maximum contains maxima, >. Ofte Seven interference From the above discussion, we conclude that as the slit separation d increases, the number of interference maxima in the region of diffraction maximum increases, ™ SOLVED EXAMPLES ON DIFFRACTION DUE TO DOUBLE SLIT Q EXAMPLE 12 Deri of interference in case Solution The path diffe slit width, d is separation Ifthe path difference i then the direction of nth slits is given by ive the directions of minima and maxima due to phenomenon Of two slits diffraction pattern, tence in case of two slits diffraction is(e +d) sin Q, Hereeis between two slits and @ is angle of diffraction. iple of half wavelength of incident light, ictive interference of Wavelets from two (e+d)sino, =@neyd : Qnsyr or sing, =C2+DA = 1 era (where n =0, 1, 2,3, ...)...(1) "=, corresponds to first minimum, Tf the path difference is equal to inte, i i gral multiple of wavelength or ultiple of half the wavelength, then the direction of nth maxi eeeenee otwinceant nae ofnth maximum due to, Constructive interference (e+d)sino, 2n(8) 2 i _ nn sin®, i -(2) or © EXAMPLE 13 Calculate the an er f ular separatig 7 uitima in case of two slits dffractien Pattern due to ieee two consecutive lution The directions of nth mini Fit tara} ma due to destructive interference is given by sing, -2n4Da Sol sing, =_34_ipraction of Light tty 2.23 ‘The angular separation between the first interference is given by sin®, -sing,=>*___3A__(_a 2e+d) 2e+d) \e+d and second secondary minima due to ‘The angular separation for any other pair of consecutive minima will be found to be the same. GQ EXAMPLE 14 Derive an expression for width of interference fringes in double slit diffraction pattern, Solution For small 0, let y,, be the distance of n'™ order interference maxima from centre and D be the distance of screen from slits, then sin@, =tan@=22 a) D We know that in case of double slit diffraction (e+d)sin®, =n2 2) From eqs. (1) and (2), we get » +d)*h anh fe a> nD (e+) or Yn For(n +1)" bright interference fringe (n+DAD (4) Yast (+4) Now, fringe width B is given by B=Ynsi Yn (nt DAD _mhD. Er) C40 ale 5) e+d This expression is independent of n. So, for small values of @, the maxima and minima are equally spaced. diffraction pattern, the screen is Qe double slit Fraunhofer diffraction ee a ae ‘fom the slits. The width of the slits is 0.08 anand hey are 0.4mm ape: eae me wavelength of igh ifthe fringe width is 0.25 cm. find the missing order. . Solution (i) The fringe width B is given by RD gt gg, SETS Becta Dae 2.24 Engineering Physicg_, Given e =0.08 mm =0.008 cm, d=04mm=0.04em, B=0.25 cm ang D=170cm 0.25 x (0.008 +0.04) 170 or 2 =7059 A (ii) The condition of missing order is given by em = 7.059 10-Scm e+d_ af. 0.008 +0.04 _ 0.008 m . n=6,12,18,.. Hence, 6,12 and 18", .. orders will be missing. Is ss or n=6m where m =1, 2,3... O EXAMPLE 16 What requirements must be met for the central maximum of the diffraction envelope of the double slit pattern to contain exactly nine interference Sringes ? Solution Here, the requirement is that there must be ten minima under the central maximum. This is equal to2(e + d)/e, where (e + d) is the distance between the twoslis and e, the width of the slit. Ae+d 1p e (e+d) e or d=4e This is the required condition. Q EXAMPLE 17 = Inadouble slit arrangement, each slit has awidth of 0.02 mm a the distance between the slit is 0.10 mm. Mercury blue light of wavelength 4358 ie obtained using a filter, is incident normally on the double slit. Calculate (a) Sringe spacing and(b) the linear distance from the central maxima to first minim if the pattern is formed on the screen 60cm away from the slits, Solution (a) Angular fringe width =2/(e +d) . Linear fringe spacing Ay at a distance D =2.Di(e +d) '4358x 10-9 m) (0.6 m) O.1x1 or Ay= =2.6x 10% m (b) The angular position 0 of the first minimum is given by 4358x107! m 0.0210"? mpifraction of Light os 0.022 radian Linear separation Ay’ = 6 D =0,022x0.6m = 0.013 m Now, Ay __ 0.013 _ Ay 26x10% So, there are about 10 fringes in the central maximum of the diffraction envelope. PLANE DIFFRACTION GRATING (NORMAL INCIDENCE) Construction An arrangement consisting of large number of parallel slits of the same width and separated by equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating. Fraunhofer used the fist grating consisted of a large number of parallel wires placed very closely side by side at regular intervals. The diameters of the wires were of the order of 0.05 mm and their spacing, varied from 0.0533 mm to 0.687 mm. Now, gratings are constructed by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a transparent material such as glass with a fine diamond point. The ruled lines are opaque to light while the space between any two lines is transparent to light and acts as slit. This is known as plane transmission grating. On the other hand, ifthe lines are drawn on a silvered surface (plane or concave) then light is reflected from the positions of mirrors in between any (Wo Tines and it forms a plane or concave reflection grating. When the spacing between the lines is of the order of the wavelength of light, then an appreciable deviation of the light is produced. Theory Fig. (12) represents the sectio Perpendicular to the plane of the paper: a of a plane transmission grating placed Lete be the width of each slit and d the width of = | yyyyy 1 Vt Es Fig. (12) ment, XY is the screen placed beam of monochromatic light rinciple, each of the ach opaque part. Then (e +4) is known as grating ele Perpendicular to the plane of a paper. Suppose parallel ; Of wavelength a. be incident normally onthe rating, By Huygen'sPee Engineering Phys. ' slit sends secondary wavelets in all directions. The secondary wavelets travelling in same direction of incident light will come to a focus at a Point Fy of the screen 3 the screen is placed at the focal plane of the convex lens, The Point Fy will be 8 centr maximum. Now, consider the secondary waves travelling in a direction inclined aan angle @ with the direction of the incident light. These waves reach point Fon passig through the convex lens in different phases. As a result dark and bright bands n both Sides of central maximum are obtained. The intensity at point P, may be considered by applying diffraction at a single slit. The wavelets Proceeding from all direction 8 are equivalent to a single wave of amplitude (Asi middle point of the slit, where a = (me sin 0/2). If there are N slits, then we have N diffracted ‘waves, points of the slits. The Path difference between two conse the theory of Fraunhoe, Points in a slit along the o/c) starting from the | one each from the middle cutive slits is (e + ) sin 8, es asinonrp Now, by the method of Vector addition of amplitudes, the direction of 8 will be pe Asina sin B a sing The factor ( ae a the factor (sin? jy all the slits, INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION IN GRATING Principal Maxima In the present case q = A sin a “MEN and daa pDiffraction of Light 2.27 But at the same time sin NB=0, so th: : : = fat the factor (sin NV B/sin ) becomes indeterminate. It may be evaluated by applying the usual method of differentiating the numerator and the denominator, i.e., by applying the Hospital’s rule. Thus, di sinNB_ i — (sin NB) lim ap sine sinp poine d 46 aon® = tim N©SNB_ay Boinx cosB (aya Hence, tim {S2NBY 2 ye potne\ sinB Asina The resultant intensity w( ye. ‘The maxima are most intense and are called as principal maxima ‘The maxima are obtained for B=inn 1 Fe+d)sinO@=tnn a or (e+d)sin® nh where n =0,1,2,3...... --(3) n=0 corresponds to zero order maximum. For n=1,2,3..2tc., we obtain first, second, third, etc., principal maxima respectively. The + sign shows that there are two principal maxima of the same order lying on either side of zero order maximum. Minima A series of minima occur, when sin NB=0 but sinB #0 For minima sin NB=0 NB=tmn NZ(e+asind=tmn a ‘nN, because for these values sin B ...(N =, Hence, there Where m has all integral values except, Ns 2, becomes zero and we get principal maxima. Thus, 1,2,3.... ate adjacent principal maxima.YY Engineeriy 2.28 eerie Pi Secondary maxima As there are (N - I) minima between two adjacent principal maxima there must (NV ~2) other maxima between two principal maxima. To find out the position ofthe secondary maxima, we differentiate equation (2) with respect to B and then equate ty, zero. Thus, a sme) rant) ap \ a sinB jones zeNpesh] o sin? B or N cos NB sin B ~ sin NB cosB =O NtanB =tan NB (5) ‘The roots of this equation other than those for which B = + n =(which correspondto Principal maxima) give the positions of secondary maxima. To find out the value of (sin? N B/sin? B) from equation N tan B= tan N B, we make use of the triangle shown in fig. (13). cotp Fig. (13) From fig. (13). sinN B) sin? N | sin? BW? +c0t? Bx sin? B n? N? sin? B +.cos? B = eo Ne 1+(N? ~1) sin? B Intensity of secondary maxima Intensity of principal maxima a LO) 1+(N? 1) sin? B AAs N increases, the intensity of secondary maxima relative to principal maxi” decreases and becomes negligible whern N becomes large.” PSP igDiffraction of Light 2.29 Fig. (14 a and b) show the iat is io at Nea : graphs of variation of intensity due to the factors Tespectively. The resultant is shown in fig. (14c). | Resultant Intensity Fig. (14) Bai ANGULAR HALF WIDTH OR WIDTH OF PRINCIPAL MAXIMUM The angular width of principal maximum of any order is the angular separation between the first two minima lying on its either side. Let @, +d0,) and (0, —4,) be the directions of first outer and inner sided minima adjacent to the n order principal maximum as shown in fig. (15). Now d0, will give the angular half width of n® principal maximum. As obvious from the figure, 249, will be angular width of n™ order principal maximum. (Wart minimum (Nn~ 1) rninimum AVY Plane wavefront qi230 Engineering Physic ‘The principal maximum of wavelength 2 in the direction of 8, in case ofa plang transmission grating is given by (e+d)sin®, =" or N(e+d)sin®, =Nnd Al where N is the total number of slits in the grating. . h Consider the first minimum adjacent to the ”" direction of 0. Let its direction be (6, + 40,,) where 40, th maximum in the increasing is the angular half width of the n™ maximum. ‘The direction of minima are given by N(e+d) sind =mh, «Q) where mcan take all values except 0, NV, 2N...nN. Thus, for the first minima of then principal maxima m =N n +1. Ne+d)sin@, +d0,)=(AN+D2 3) or Ne +d)[sin®, cos 48, +cos®, sin d0, J=(n N+1)% Since, d0, is very small, thus, d0,, -> Land sin d0,, > d0, Ne +d){sin®, +cos®, d0,]=(nN +I) A or Ne+d)sin®, +N(e+d)cos0, dO, or Nnd+N(e+d)cos0, 40, [e Usingea. (1) or Ne +d)cos®, dO, =A a os lf) Nee +d) cos0, Eq. (4) gives an expression for the half angular width of principal maximum. The width of n" principal maximum is 2a 2d0,=__2%__ 3) N(@+b)cos0, 3 Important points 1. Effect ole ee temp ane If (e+ d) is made smaller, then d0, will 2 Effectof vd of hens Pae28 maxima become larger in ‘ rface: Ifthe widt ays increased, then the width of principal aaa pra purtiee Ny, (e+dpiffraction of Light 2.31 3. Width of higher order princi; u rincipal maxima: For hi der ipal maxim, the vali of mis higher. Therefore, the at width ot higher order principal maxima is less than those of lower order principal maxima. 4, Effect of wavelength: Higher is the wavelength, more is the value of 8, This explains as to why the spectral li pectral lines are more sh ; of the spectrum than towards the red end. ipiowarde be xl co fl FORMATION OF MULTIPLE SPECTRA WITH GRATING We have seen that the principal maxima in a grating are formed in direction 8 given by (e+d)sinO=tnh, where (e + d) is the grating element, n the-order of the maxima and? the wavelength of the incident light. From the expression we conclude, that 1. Fora particular wavelength, the angle of diffraction is different for principal maxima of different orders. When the number of lines in the grating is large, as usually the case is, the maxima appear sharp, bright lines parallel to the rulings of the grating and are termed as spectral lines. . For white light (several wavelengths) and for a particular order n, the light of different wavelengths will be diffracted in different directions fig. (16). The XN R vy 1 i a ‘ 1 First ; ero Order Order Order Fig. (16) the angle of diffraction. So, in each order, we longer the wavelength, greater !S lines as Te te etal? ran gies emai ofall waves © here different wavelengths coincide 10 form the cental image oft sae colour as that the light source. The principal maxima of @ ae corresponding to n=1 will form the first order spectrum, sii ne principal maxima of all wavelengths corresponding to 7 ing i ost jolet colour being in the innerm trum and so On. The viol jn the inner moat ait acolo in the outermost position. Most of the met e sess zero eer aia rest in distributed among other orders. Thus, the spe T fainter as we go to the wavelengths in the light source. higher ordersYy Engineeri) aa ngineering Physi. 5 Chief Characteristics of Grating Soectra : 1, Spectra of different orders are situated symmetrically on both sides Of 2a order image. / 2. Spectral lines are almost straight and quite sharp. 3. Spectral colours are in the order from violet to red. ' 4. The spectral lines are more and more dispersed as we go to higher orders, 5. Most of the incident intensity goes to zero order and rest is distributed among the other orders. 3 MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ORDERS AVAILABLE WITH A GRATING ‘The principal maxima in a grating satisfy the condition (e+d)sinO=nd net dsind a where the symbols have their usual meanings. The maximum angle of deflection is 90°, hence the maximum possible orders given by or pay = EEA)8iN 90" _(e +) x x ple of a grating having grating element whichis ident light. In this case, (e+d)<20 Now, we shall consider the examy less than twice the wavelength of inci 2 na < theo 4e., only the first order is possible. ABSENT SPECTRA WITH A DIFFRACTION GRATING Sometimes it happens that the fi So t st order spectrum i i poe ee site wat the firs ‘pectrum is clearly visible, secon and third order is again visible, i.e., the second pa is absent, and 80% ee lor a given angle of diffraction 6, the path difference betwee? 2 . & g & Also, the minima in ; wD C886 of a single slit are obtained in the directions give® Y | €sinO=ma, m=1,2,3Be jection of Light 2.33 yf both the conditions [(1) and (2)] are satisfied simultaneously, @ particular maximum of order n will be missing in the grating spectrum. Dividing eq. (1) by (2) (€+d)sin@_n sind m “let _n 3 *O.% ..B) which is the condition of absent spectra. If second order is to be suppressed, then n =2 =2 m because m =I, ..- e+d_2m =2 or e+d=2e e m or e=d ‘Thus, if the width of the ruling is equal to the width of the slit, the second order spectrum will be missed. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH iH Theory ‘The diffraction grating is often used in the laboratories for measuring wavelength of light. In a diffraction grating, the principal maxima are obtained in the directions given by (e+d)sinO=nh ol) Where (e + d) is the grating element, n is the order of maximum and 0 is the angle of diffraction corresponding to a particular wavelength. The number of lines N ruled on the grating (per inch) are written over it by the manufacturers. Hence, N(e +d) =1" =2.54 e +d =(2.54/N)em __ Thus, the determination of wavelength involves the measurement of angle of diffraction 9, for a given wavelength in a particular order n. In the laboratory, the grating Rectrum of a given source of light (monochromatic or polychromatic) is obtained by Sing a spectrometer. Adjustments Before performing the experiment, the following adjustments are made: 1. The spectrometer is adjusted for parallel rays by Schuster’s method. fe The grating is adjusted for normal incidence. ; NoF "this purpose the slit ofthe collimator is illuminated by the given source of light. acusu¢ Position ofthe telescope is adjusted in such a way that the image of the slit is the cat On the vertical cross-wire inthe field of view of the telescope. In this postion n ae and the telescope are in the same line. The position of the telescope is Rating te circular scale. It is now turned to 90° and clamped. The given transmission ni mounted at the centre of the prism table such that the grating surface is Sit reneiar to the prism table, The prism table is now rotated so that the image of the Pasig te from the grating surface lis atthe intersection of the cross-wies. In this |] Brough sO erating is at 45° to the incident light. The prism table is suitably rotated Prom table ean. dh way that the grating is exactly normal to the incident light. The amped. | “ee or+ Engineering Physic, 2.34 Measurement of 0 oa f different wavelengths, then the jight emits radiations o} f the constit ee marist ntng anal in)eacit orden: rial first order ae Scents chtered Te telscope snow tuned 0 gi is to be determpea Trea aie Weijiael ca tele Ean wavelength is , ‘The ee eee 7 a shown by dotted lines in Fig. (17). The readings gp Red). The posit the two verniers are recorded. \" First Order Vi Central Image Mi Telescope Collimator Gratin’ Vo Dh Re Second T * Order Fig. (17) 1g is defined as the rate of variation of angle diffraction with wavelength. 19, and, are the angle: ® of ditfaction in a partiul order for wavelengths i. andi, rarectively, then (@; ~8, (A, Ap) or, in the De when 1 ~2z is very small, dO/dh is called en diffraction of the nt equation (e+d)sind=ny, ment and Q is the angle of ‘spect toA, we get (€+d)cos0 do =n dh where (e + d) is the grating ele diffraction, Differentiating it With re A) which is the expresion for dispersive Power,piffaction of Light 2.35 Equation (1) shows that: 1, The dispersive power is directly pr ie niches ihe neal = ees to the order n, i.e., higher is the 2. The. deporte Power is inversely proportional to the grating element, i.e. smal er 1e grating element, more widely spread is the spectrum omit 3: as disvenive Power is inversely proportional to cos, i.e., larger the value of ), smaller is the value of cos @, and higher is the dispersive power. 28 | RESOLVING POWERS (OR LIMIT OF RESOLUTION) When the two objects are very near to each other or they are at very large distance from our eye, the eye may not be able to see them as separate. If we want to see them separate, optical instruments such as telescope, microscope, etc. for close objects and prism and grating, etc. for spectral lines are employed. Even if we assume that the instruments employed are completely free from all optical defects, the image of a point object or line is not simply a point or line but it is a diffraction pattern with a bright central maximum and other secondary maxima having minima in between of rapidly decreasing intensity. Thus, an optical instrument is said to be able to resolve two point objects if the corresponding diffraction patterns are distinguishable from each other. The ability of the instrument to produce their separate patterns is known as resolving power. The limit of resolution of an optical instrument is defined as the smallest angle subtended at its objective by two point objects which can just be distinguished as separate, The reciprocal of the limit of resolution is called the resolving power. PAY RAYLEIGH’S CRITERION OF RESOLUTION According to Rayleigh criterion, "vo sources are resolvable by an optical instrument when the central mazirnusn tn the diffraction PARC of one falls over the first minimum in the diffraction of the other and vice versa. Similarly, in case of spectral Tinecnrtradifferent wavelengths, the Hines will be resolved when the central maximum. due to one-wavelength falls over the first ‘minimum due to other andl vice-versa, Principal Principal Maximum Maximum DIP, Resultant Intensity Curve Resultant IntensitySS 2.36 Engineering Physics. 1 In order to illustrate the criterion let us consider the resolution of two wavelen, 2, and A. by a grating. fig. (18a) shows the intensity curves of the diffraction pat of two wavelengths. The difference in wavelengths is such that their principal maxing are separately visible. There is a distinct point of zero intensity in between the two, Hence, the two wavelengths are resolved. Now, consider the case when the difference in wavelengths is smaller and such that the central maximum of wavelengths coincides with the first minimum of the other as shown in fig. (18b). The resultant intensity curve is shown by thick curve. The cune shows a distinct dip in the middle of two central maxima, i.e., there is a noticeable decrease in intensity between the two central maxima indicating the presence of two different wavelengths. Thus, the two wavelengths can be distinguished from one another and according to Rayleigh they are said to just resolved. Again consider the case when the difference in wavelengths is so small that the central maxima corresponding to two wavelengths come still closer as shown in fig. (18c). The resultant intensity curve in this case is quite smooth without any dip this giving the impression as if there is only one wavelength source although some what bigger and stronger. Hence, the two wavelengths are not resolved. ‘Thus, the two spectral lines can be resolved only upto a certain limit expressed by Rayleigh criterion. Bg RESOLVING POWER OF A GRATING One of the important properties of a diffraction grating is its ability to separate spectral lines which have nearly the same wavelength. The resolving power of # diffraction grating is defined as the capacity to form separate diffraction maxima of v0 wavelengths which are very close to each other. This is measured byA/dh, where dhis the smallest difference in two wavelengths which are just resolvable by grating and the wavelength of either of them or mean wavelength. Expression for Resolving power Let AB [fig. (19)] represent the surface of a grating element (e +d) and N total number of slit Plane transmission grating havin its. Let a beam of light having Fig. (19) jg ingths 4 and 2 + dh is normally incident on the grating. In fig. (19), XY i8 4 we view of the telescope, P, is n™ primary maximum of a spectral liné field of dgiraction Of ‘Light o 2.37 wavelength A at an angle of diffraction @, and P, is the n savelength @ +42) at diffracting angle @, + 40, ). Accord igh criteri watwo wavelengths will be resolved if the tie an Terapia ie tel ini of P,, i. the two lines will be resolved ifthe principal maximum ofa o) . es anion finn” order] in a direction (©, + d0,,) falls over the first minimum of 2 in the same direction (0, + 48,,)- Now, we shall consider the first mini rae @, +d0,)in the following way: \¢ first minimum of 2. in the direction th ni F primary maximum of ‘The principal maximum of 2 in the direction 8, is given by (e+d)sin®, =nd (1) ‘The equation of minima is Ne +d) sin® =m, where m has all integral values except 0, N, 2 N,..., 1 N, because for these values of m, the condition for. maxima is satisfied and we obtain different maxima. Thus, first ‘principal maximum in the direction (@, +40,,) can be minimum adjacent to n first minimum in the obtained by substituting the value of m as (n N +1. Therefore, direction (8, + 0,,) is given by Ne +d)sin@, +40,)=@N +DA (2) The principal maximum of (. +d) in direction, +49.) is given by (c+) sin@, +49,)="@ +40) -Q) Multiplying eq. (3) by N, we have N(e +d) sin @, +40,)="N@ +4) +4) From eqs. (2) and (4), we get (nN + DA =n NO + ad) nNR += NA+AN ae Ndh This is the required expression. ortional to (i) the order of the spectrum Thus, the resolving power is directly PrP rie and (ii) the total aie of lines on the grating surface, From eq. (1), or in On A aoe a Nex) sings ) a. of a Grating: ‘ 4 Resolving Power of a Grating’ Dit ispersive Power an ane resolving Hog derence etree Piste irene beveen SSPE mower and ‘ces are as follows: tion between Power of a grating. The differen : S 1, The dlgperive povrer of rallng BV? iden of angus era two lines proaiaed by grating ‘while resolving power resolution of two closer objects limit of just2.38 Engineering Physics -[ 2. Dispersive power is measured by d@/d) (dO being the angular separation between the two lines). Its value is given by ae a dk (e+d)cos® power is measured by 1./dA and is given by A/dk =n N. 3. When N (number of lines on grating surface) is increased, the dispersive powet remains unchanged while resolving power is increased. . The resolving 4. If (e+ d) [the grating element] is decreased, the dispersive power is increased while resolving power remains unchanged,