Human Behavior and Crisis Management

Human Behavior
 Collection of actions, behaviors and mannerism made by or exhibited by the individual
in response to various or given situation which are influence generally by the physical
environment, culture, emotions, and genetics of an individual.
 Behaviors can be either innate (existing in one from birth) or learned or changed
through the process of learning.
Why do we need to study Human Behavior in connection with our chosen field (Criminology)?
 it helps us to deal with other or different people.
 to understand others, their action/s, behavior/s.
 to determine and understand how and why people behave the way they do.
Two Common SEEN and KNOWN Behaviors Today
1. Normal or Accepted Behavior  behaviors in accordance with the universal law of
good or in conformity with the standards and norms of the society or group.
-and-
2. Abnormal Behavior  behavior that deviates from what is commonly accepted by a
group or society or behavior that is disturbing (socially unacceptable), distressing,
maladaptive (or self-defeating).
3. Criminal Behavior to be particular behaviors in contrary with or against the law and
threatens the right, peace, security and property of an individual, group or society as a
whole.
Common Ways and Means to Control/ Modify Behavior
a. thru the process of learning
b. laws, culture, tradition, values, norms
Major Factors that affect Human Behavior
a. Physical Environment = refers to the conditions and factors that surround and influence
an individual.
b. Learning = the process by which an individual’s behavior changes because of education,
experience or practice.
c. Heredity = passing of traits thru genes from parent to offspring.
Two Basic Types of Behavior
1. Inherited Behavior
 these are innate or inborn behavioral reactions or reflexes exhibited by the
people because of their inherited capabilities.
Ex. survival of species those are dependent on behavior like breathing, digesting food,
mating and defending oneself.
2. Learned Behavior
 these are the behaviors we acquire a as we age, thru the process of learning/
interacting/ communication and we need to cope up with the changes in the
environment and improve one selves and increase the chance of survival.
Ex. job skills/ and learned expertise and specialization that give people more control
over their lives.
 and this set of learned human behavior sets human being apart from other
animals.
Major Classification of Human Behavior
a. Habitual = refers to motorized behavior usually manifested in language and emotion.
b. Instinctive = these are generally unlearned and simply comes out whenever necessary.

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 c. Symbolic = are behaviors that are usually carried out by means of unsaid words and
shown through symbols and body signs.
d. Complex = are those behaviors that combines two or more of the classified ones.
Causes of Human Behavior
a. Sensation = is the feeling or impression created by a given stimulus or cause or Human
Senses that leads to a particular reaction or behavior. *Human Senses: Visual(sight),
Olfactory(smell), Cutaneous(touch), Auditory(hearing), Gustatory(taste).
b. Perception = refers to the person’s knowledge of a given stimulus which largely help to
determine the actual behavioral response in a given situation.
c. Awareness = refers to the physiological activity based on interpretation of fast
experiences with a given stimulus or objects.
Observable Features of Behavior
a. Primarily negative or primarily learned thru process of learning
b. Evoked by external stimuli or internal need
c. Automatic, voluntary, conscious, motorized, intentional
Attributes of Human Behavior according to:
a. Duration = how long in terms of time
b. Extensity = size, distance and location
c. Intensity = magnitude whether mild, strong and disintegrated
d. Quantity = whether normal, abnormal, misleading, unacceptable

Abnormal Behavior
= “A.B.” is a Latin initials which means “away from” , Abnormal behavior then can be defined
as a behavior which is away from or deviating from the normal behavior. Normal Behavior on the other
hand, is one that is within the concept of a person as his own behavior which he or she sees normal, and
that people who behave as they do, are likewise normal and those that do not behave similarly are
abnormal. Abnormal behavior most of the time referred to as “sick” behavior. It is associated to mental
illness. Behavior which are ineffective, self-defeating, self-destructive and which separates the
individuals from those who are important to him, are regarded as abnormal.

What Is Psychopathology?
How do we currently define psychopathology? In short, this discipline can be understood as an in-
depth study of problems related to mental health. Just like pathology is the study of the nature of
disease (including causes, development, and outcomes), psychopathology is the study of the same
concepts within the realm of mental health (or illness).
This study of mental illness can include a long list of elements: symptoms, behaviors, causes
(genetics, biology, social, psychological), course, development, categorization, treatments, strategies,
and more.

In this way, psychopathology is all about exploring problems related to mental health: how to
understand them, how to classify them, and how to fix them. Because of this, the topic of
psychopathology extends from research to treatment and covers every step in between. The better we
can understand why a mental disorder develops, the easier it will be to find effective treatments.

Guidelines for judging abnormal behavior

1. Appropriateness (includes assessment of not only the behavior itself but also the situation in which
it is happening).
2. Flexibility (Normal behavior tends to be flexible as a sign of healthy behavior).
3. Impulsivity (Normal behavior is more likely to be a result of a consideration of its consequences,
with important decisions being given careful thought before implementation) Abnormal behavior,
being uncontrolled or partially controlled needs and drives, tends to be impulsive.
A. Causes of Human Behavior :

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 1. Sensation – feeing or impression of stimulus (Visual, olfactory, cutaneous, auditory,
gustatory )
2. Perception – knowledge of the stimulus
3. Awareness – refers to psychological activity based on interpretation and experience of the
object or stimulus.

How people interact:

People interact by three psychological positions or behavioral patterns called ego states:
Parent-ego state – protective, idealistic, evaluative, righteous, refer to laws, rules and standard.
Adult-ego states – more upon reason, factual, flexible, views other as co-equal, and reasonable.
Child-ego states – dependent, rebellion, selfish, demanding, impatient and emotional.

How people transact:

Complimentary – if the stimulus and response pattern from one ego state to another are
parallel.
Non-complimentary – If stimulus and response pattern from one ego state to another are not
parallel.
I. The Biological Background of Behavior
The human being is the product of heredity, environment, and education (training). At birth, man is
consider black except for reflexes which are necessary for his survival. Some of these reflexes are the
following, sucking, swallowing, crying and others.

Man’s eight (8) stages of growth:

1. Pre-natal stage – which is composed of:
a. Ovum period – first two weeks
b. Embryo period – second week to second month
c. Fetus period – second month to birth
2. Infancy stage – first two weeks after birth
3. Babyhood – second week to two years old
4. Childhood – which is divided into: (Early childhood, 2- 6 yrs old and late childhood, 7 to eleven
yrs)
5. Puberty – end of childhood and beginning of adolescence
Adolescence – which is divided into: (early adolescence, puberty to 17 yrs. and late
adolescence, 17 to 21 yrs)
1. Adulthood – 21 to forty yrs old.
2. Middle age – forty to sixty yrs. Old
3. Old age – sixty and above
Developmental Tasks
Every stage of life has its accompanying developmental tasks. They are tasks imposed on the
individual by maturation and culture that prepare him for the next stage of life.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
. Connectionism Theory – by Thorndike states that practice strengthens the association
between stimuli an response by using the law of exercise. That this connection between the stimulus
and response can be strengthens further by means of reward or satisfaction but can be weakened by
punishment or dissatisfaction, through the use of the3 law of effect. This theory in learning assumed
that if a thing is to be learned, there should be frequent repetitions of stimulus and response.
. Classical or Respondent Conditioning – by Pavlov which states that the association between a
conditioned stimulus and response is strengthened by repeated presentation with the unconditional
stimulus.
. Instrumental or Operant Conditioning – wherein the learning or stimulus- response
relationship is strengthened by immediately making a follow-up of the thing learned.
. FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING;
1. Motivation – arouses interest, provides an objective and direct towards a goal, thus it facilitates
learning.
2. Reinforcement - can be made through the use of audio-visual aid, reviews, drills, and other
means.

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 3. Extinction – means to let something die out or be forgotten by disuse if it will not facilitate
learning.
4.Association – meaning the more connection are made with a subject, the better it will be learned
and retained.
5.Interest – in a lesson will facilitate learning and serve as its own motivation, aside from having the
one teaching making the topic interesting.
6.Rewards or punishments – should be immediate for it to be effective and make learning easy.
7.Regency – means that learning should be made recent in the minds of learners for them not forget
what they have learned.

MOTIVATION
Motivation – is defined as behavior instigated by needs within the individual and directed
towards a goal that can satisfy the needs. Motivation may also be regarded as explanation for action
which influences behavior in many ways. All definitions of motivation have certain things in common
such as; it comes from within; it is directed towards a goal; and it arouses interest in the activity.
Motivation is important because it controls and directs behavior. Behavior must be controlled
for the good of the individual and society. For human happiness, it is necessary to control behavior.
Motivation is also important in all aspects of man’s life.
. Classification of Motives:
1. Biological drives – includes physiological, basic and primarily unlearned motives e.g. water,
food and other survival motives.
2. Psychological or social drives – they are secondary, acquired, learned, and derived. e.g.
motives to be rich, popular, balanced and other acquisition of achievements.
3. Unconscious motives – includes mostly general drives such as curiosity, maternal instinct and
just being nice as a natural drive.

PERSONALITY
Personality is defined as a pattern of habits, attitudes and trials that defines an individual’s
characteristics, behavior and qualities.
= A stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine the similarities and differences in
the psychological behavior, such as thoughts, feelings, and actions, of people. It can be introvert,
extrovert or ambivert. An introvert is one characterized by direction of interest toward oneself and
one’s inner world of experiences; the extrovert, characterized by interest directed toward the external
environment of people and things rather than toward inner experiences and oneself; the ambivert is a
mixture of between an extrovert and introvert.
Personality is defined as a pattern of habits, attitudes and traits that defines an individual’s
characteristics, behaviors and qualities. Personality is more than charm, poise, or physical appearance,
this includes the following;
(a) Habits – reactions so often repeated that becomes a person’s fixed characteristic or tendency.
(b) Attitudes - may either be positive or negative, favorable or unfavorable, learned or acquired.
(c) Physical traits – this includes facial appearance, height, weight, physical defects, complexion,
strength and health.
(d) Mental traits – includes our ability to control the mind.
. Mental abilities:
1. problem solving ability
2. memory and learning ability
3. perceptual ability
4. constructive imagination
5. special imagination
6. soundness of judgment
7. general adaptability
(e) Emotional traits – gives an individual the capacity to face different situations in life and still maintain
composure.
(f) Social traits – the individual’s ability to get along fine with others.
(g) Moral and religious traits – the standards
of a person’s actions and behaviors.

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 Social Learning Theories
This theory advocate that personality traits are the result of learning as one interacts with people.
Personality is mainly composed of habits and learned responses to stimuli in the environment.
Maslov’s self-actualization theory
Maslov maintains that man is naturally good and that self-actualization is his goal. And, blocking this
goal makes man frustrated and neurotic. Aggression and destruction are not natural, but they are the
result of an environment that prevents the attainment of goals. This theory makes human needs comes
first, followed by safety needs, then belongingness, self-esteem and self-actualization comes last.
Human needs – arises out of a person’s biological and psychological make up. They are the following;
1. Biogenic needs – refers to the needs of the body existing primarily for the maintenance of health
and protection of the body against physical injuries. E.g. need for food, air, rest, sex and avoidance of
pain.
2. Psychogenic or sociogenic needs – includes the need for love, affection, security, growth and
achievement, and recognition from others.

According to A.H. Maslow, who introduced the hierarchy of needs, which ascends from the basic
biological needs present at birth to the more complex psychological needs which becomes important
only after the more basic needs have been satisfied.
Frustration occurs when a person is blocked in the satisfaction of a need. Man becomes anxious and
restless and tries to seek means of relieving these anxieties. So, he tries to engage in various forms of
activities intended to satisfy his needs and reduces his tensions.

Personality Traits that affect Human Behavior

 The factors are:
 Extraversion (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved)
 Introversion (solitary/reserved vs. outgoing/energetic)
 Ambiversion (combination of Introversion and Extraversion)
 Neuroticism (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident)

Frustration in Relation with Human Behavior

Frustration
- sense or state of insecurity and dissatisfaction arising from unresolved problems or unfulfilled needs.
- is a common emotional  response to opposition.
- related to anger and disappointment, it arises from the perceived resistance to the
fulfillment of individual will.
- the greater the obstruction, and the greater the will, the more the frustration is likely to
be.
Causes of frustration may be internal or external
1. Internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals and desires,
instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack
of confidence or fear of social situations. Conflict can also be an internal source of frustration;
when one has competing goals that interfere with one another
2. External frustration involves conditions outside an individual, such as a blocked road or a
difficult task.
Frustration Symptoms
 violent reaction, fatigue or depression, irritability, anxiety
*Coping Mechanism generally refers to the way of people in handling in adaptive or
constructive way the frustration they experience.
*Frustration Tolerance the ability to withstand or cope up with frustration without developing
unstable modes of response such as being emotionally depressed or irritated, becoming
neurotic or aggressive.

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*The Two Main Response and Reaction to Frustration … the "Fight or Flight response" by
American physiologist Walter Cannon … it is our body's primitive, automatic, inborn response
that prepares the body to "fight" or "flee" from perceived attack, harm or threat to our survival.
 Fight – can be manifested by fighting-handling the problem or frustration in a positive,
constructive means or approach.
 Flight – can be manifested by retreating or quitting, giving up, becoming unstable and
indifferent.
Other Types of Reactions to Frustration
- The reactions to frustration are also known as  Defense Mechanisms. These defense
mechanisms are so called as they try to defend individuals from the psychological effects of a
blocked goal.

Various Types of Reactions to Frustration:

 Aggression: acting in a threatening manner.

 Direct Approach: positive and objective way of handling problems.
 Withdrawal or Retreat: behaviors such as asking for a transfer or quitting a job.
 Physical Disorder: physical ailments such as fever, upset stomach, vomiting, etc.
 Apathy: becoming irresponsive and disinterested in the job and his co-workers.
 Fixation: an employee blames others and superiors for his problems, without knowing
complete facts.
 Regression: behaving in an immature and childish manner and may self-pity
 Use of Defense Mechanism: the most tolerated way of handling frustration and
considered as man’s last resort in attempt to overcome the fear or threatening effect
from an anticipated situation.
Defense Mechanism are psychological strategies brought into play by the unconscious mind to
manipulate, deny, or distort reality that serves as safety valve that provides relief from
frustration or conflict.

Common Defense Mechanisms

 Denial: claiming/believing that what is true to be actually false.
 Displacement: redirecting emotions to a substitute target.
 Intellectualization: taking an objective viewpoint.
 Projection: attributing uncomfortable feelings to others.
 Rationalization: creating false but credible justifications.
 Reaction Formation: is the converting of unwanted or dangerous thoughts, feelings or
impulses into their opposites.
 Regression: going back to acting as a child.
 Repression: pushing uncomfortable thoughts into the subconscious.
 Sublimation: redirecting 'wrong' urges into socially acceptable actions.
 Compensation: is a process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weaknesses
by emphasizing strength in other arenas.
 Undoing: is the attempt to take back an unconscious behavior or thought that is
unacceptable or hurtful.

PERSONAL CONFLICT
Three Basic Forms of Personal Conflict
 Approach-Approach Conflict: a choice must be made between two attractive goals.
The problem is that you can choose just one of the two goals

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  Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: a choice must be made between two unattractive
goals. ("caught between a rock and a hard place")
 Approach-Avoidance Conflict: a choice must be made about whether to pursue a
single goal that has both attractive and unattractive aspects.

*POOR OR LOW FRUSTRATION TOLERANCE leads to unhealthy and UNSTABLE BEHAVIORAL

PATTERNS or to worst to MENTAL DISORDERS …
Two General Types of Mental Disorders
1. Organic disorder – commonly refers to brain sickness or disorder and wherein the cause
can be identified to known disease or cause. Ex. senility/ head injury/ parkinson and
alzheimer’s disease.
2. Functional Disease – a mental disorder which is characterized by strange behavior that
cannot be traced to any known organic disease. Ex. those persons who see things those
others do not see.
a. Neurosis - is a class of  functional  mental disorders involving  distress  but
neither delusions nor hallucinations, whereby behavior is not outside socially
acceptable norms. Thus those suffering from it are said to be neurotic.
- common type of mental disorder used to explain criminal behavior.
The Common Types of Neurosis
 Anxiety - feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness.
 Obsession - repetitive and irresistible thoughts or urge.
 Depression - extreme feeling of low morale, sadness, self-pity, despair,
rejection.
 Phobia - excessive and unexplainable fear of something; generally
exaggerated fear of things that normal people do not fear with the same
degree.
 Impulse Disorder - excessive or unreasonable desire to do or have
something. Ex. kleptomania-pyromania-dipsomania
b. Psychosis - a most serious type of mental disorder which can be organic or
functional and people suffering from psychosis are described as psychotic.
- a state in which a person's mental capacity to recognize reality,
communicate, and relate to others is impaired, thus interfering with the
capacity to deal with life demands.
The Common Types of Psychosis
 Schizophrenia - is a mental disorder characterized by a
breakdown of thought processes and by poor emotional
responsiveness.
 Paranoia - is a thought process believed to be heavily influenced
by anxiety or fear, often to the point of irrationality and delusion,
characterized by delusions or hallucination.
o Hallucination – false perception
o Delusion – false belief
c. . psychopath or sociopath with an antisocial personality – a mental disorder where one, instead
of compromising with reality, withdraw into his shell. The person may go to the other extremes
and may become very aggressive and cruel in his behavior towards others. And, when his antisocial
behavior comes in conflict with the law, he becomes a criminal.
d. Psychoneurotic person – are those in the twilight zone between normality and abnormality. They
are not insane, but neither are they normal. The neurotic is always tense, restless and anxious.
Frequently, they have obsession, compulsion. phobia, and in some cases, amnesia. Anxiety is the
dominant characteristic.

Unhealthy Reactions to Frustration

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 Some individuals are incapable of making effective adjustments to their frustration. They have not
learned healthy and effective adjustment habits; hence, they are not emotionally ready to cope with
difficult problems confronting them. As a result, they may react to frustration in a random, impulsive and
inadequate manner that, does not relieve them o tension, but in fact increases the maladjustment.
Among these behavior pattern considered as unhealthy reactions to frustration are the following;
1. Anxiety - manifested through apprehension, tension, and uneasiness from anticipation of  danger
the source of which is largely unknown or unrecognized.
2. Phobia - an irrational fear which is fixed, intense, uncontrollable, and most of the time has no
reasonable foundation.
3. Obsession – is an idea that persistently recurs in a person’s mind sometimes against his wish, though it
may have no basis at all.
4. Compulsion – is an irresistible impulse to perform certain acts that are repetitive and ritualistic.
e.g. pyromania – the irresistible urge to set fire,
dipsomania – compulsive desire to take alcoholic drinks,
kleptomania – the urge to steal
5. Regression - a behavior pattern wherein a person returns to state of former adjustment and attempts to
experience them again in memory.
6. Memory disorder or amnesia - caused by painful memories associated with some shocking experiences which
are repressed and cannot be recalled.
7. Delusion – a false belief firmly held despite incontrovertible proof of evidence to the contrary
8. Hallucination – a sensory perception in the absence of an actual external stimulus.
9. Schizophrenia or dementia praecox – is characterized by disturb thinking.

Sexual Deviancy
The gain of sexual stimulation or pleasure by objects/ideas/practices that are not considered
a social norm. Often, things considered "deviant" are either banned, or scorned socially.
Types of Sexual Deviancy
1. Homosexuality: sexual desire towards the same sex
2. Pedophilia: sexual activity with a child
3. Exhibitionism: intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors involving
the exposure of one’s genitals to an unsuspecting stranger
4. Voyeurism: achieving sexual excitement by peeping that is “observing unsuspecting
individuals, usually strangers, who are naked, in the process of disrobing, or engaging in
sexual activity
5. Bestiality: is sexual attraction to and relationships with animals or sexual relations
between a person and an animal
6. Bisexuality: sexual desire and interaction with both males and females.
7. Fetishism: intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors involving the
use of nonliving objects (e.g. female undergarments)
8. Necrophilia: abnormal obsession with death and the dead, especially an erotic attraction
to corpses.
9. Sexual Masochism: intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors
involving the act of being humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise made to suffer
10. Sexual Sadism: “recurrent, intense, sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or
behaviors involving acts in which the psychological or physical suffering (including
humiliation) of the victim is sexually exciting to the person
11. Transsexual: a person who identifies himself as having the identity of the opposite sex,
sometimes so strongly as to undergo surgery and hormone injections to effect a change of
sex
12. Cunnilingus: licking of woman’s genital
13. Fellatio: sucking penis
14. Incest: sexual relationship between persons related by blood
15. Pluralism: participating in sexual orgy/ies or festival

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Class A(distrust,suspicious to social detachment)
1. Paranoid P.D.= recurrent suspicions without justification , preoccupied by unjustified
doubts, hostility, oversensitivity, tends to see oneself as blameless.
2. Schizoid P.D. = pervasive detachment from social relationship, restricts expression of
emotion, neither enjoy nor desire close relationship, inability to form social relationship
and lack of interest to do so.
3. Schizotypal P.D. = reduced capacity for close relationship, have old beliefs and magical
thinking such as superstitions, telepathy etc.

Class B (dramatic, emotional erratic)

1. Antisocial P.D. = fail to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors as
indicated by repeated acts that are grounds fro arrest. Unable to control their impulse, perform
violent and harmful acts without experiencing a bit of guilt.
2. Borderline P.D.= instability of interpersonal relationships, instability of mood, self-
image and affects and marked impulsivity, may have recurrent suicidal behaviors. Their mood
may shift rapidly and inexplicably from depression to anxiety to anger over a pattern of several
hours.
3. Histrionic P.D. = pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and attention seeking.
Overly concerned with their appearance and exaggerated impression of emotion.
4. Narcissistic P.D. = exaggerated sense of self importance, a preoccupation with being
admired and lack of empathy for the feeling of others.
Hypochondriasis = chronic anxiety about health.

Class C (anxiety and fearfulness)

1. Avoidant P.D. =feeling of inadequacy, hypersensitive to negative evaluation, timid
and shy but do wish to have friends, uncomfortable and afraid of rejection or criticism. Unlike
schizoid, they don’t enjoy being alone.
2. Dependent P.D. = difficulty in making everyday decision without an excessive amount
of advice and reassurance from others, lack self confidence in judgment, uncomfortable and
helpless when alone.
3. Obsessive –Compulsive P.D. = pervasive pattern of preoccupation with orderliness,
perfectionism and mental and interpersonal control. Preoccupied with trivial details and rules
and do not appreciate changes and routine.

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CRISIS MANAGEMENT

Crisis – refers to any unstable, dangerous, and untoward situation affecting an individual,
group, community or whole society.
Emergency - any situation that poses an immediate
risk to health, life, property or environment.
Disaster -  is a natural or man-made (or technological) hazard resulting in an event of
substantial extent causing significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic
change to the environment.
Crisis Management – it is the expert, positive, effective, and systematic way of handling of any
form of crisis. Involves the art of P.O.L.C. … the planning-organizing-leading-controlling
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 Emergency and Risk Management – deal primarily with NATURAL DISASTERS
&
Crisis Management – deals mainly with MAN-MADE or HUMAN causes crisis

*The Very Purpose of Crisis Management: to save lives or minimize or neutralize the
threatening effect of the crisis in life and property.
Crisis Response team –specialized team tasked and charged in responding and handling of a
given crisis.
National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) - The agency charge with the handling of crisis
particularly natural incidents.

Two Phase/ Stage of Crisis Management

1. Pro-active Phase – the preparation stage (designed to predict or prevent the probability
of occurrence of crisis)
a. Prediction
b. Prevention
c. Preparation
2. Reactive Phase – actual execution of all coordinated efforts and plans to handle the
given crisis.
a. Initial Action
b. Action
c. Post Action
Ten (10) Possible and Simplified Steps to take during a CRISIS
1. assess the situation
2. draw preliminary plan of action
3. line up a crisis management team
4. setup a crisis management center
5. set up communication system
6. prioritize matters
7. face problems one-at-a-time
8. prepare detail plans
9. continuously monitor what exactly is happening
10. evaluate actions and reactions

Hostage Situation – involve the taking of a person captive for “instrumental” or tangible reasons;
the suspect needs the police or other authorities to meet specific demands (e.g., ransom,
transportation, money)
Hostage Taker – person who holds other people for his own purpose
Hostage – Any person held against their will as security for the performance of specific actions.
Negotiator – in hostage taking, person responsible in negotiating directly with hostage taker for
the purpose of freeing the captive using available resources.
Tactical Response - refers to actions taken by a Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) or similar
specialized unit to resolve either the hostage or non-hostage situation.
Priorities in Hostage Situation;
1. preservation of life – hostage, hostage taker, public, etc.
2. arrest of the hostage taker, recover and protect property
3. successfully negotiate
Principle of Hostage Negotiation
 the hostage has no value to the hostage taker
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  the main priorities in the hostage situation are preservation of life and the
apprehension of the hostage taker, recovery and protect property.
 hostage situation must not go violently
 there must be a need to live on the part of the hostage taker and his captive
Negotiation – A mutual discussion between authorities and a hostage-taker or barricaded
offender leading to an agreement concerning the release of hostages or the surrender of the
offender. Negotiation is intended to aim at compromise.
Why Negotiate?
 provides time for gathering of necessary info about the hostage taker and hostage
 provide clues in deciding what approach or strategy to use in the situation
*There are three choices for the hostage taker to take before and during hostage situation
 The first is to choose martyrdom, kill the hostages and commit suicide.
 The second is to lessen the demands to a more achievable proportion and continue
negotiations.
 The third is to surrender to police.
Hostage Taker’s Demands
o Negotiable – food, drinks, transportation, media coverage, freedom cigarettes
o Non-Negotiable – weapons, ammunition, drugs, release of prisoners, exchange of
hostages
Stockholm Syndrome
is a theory that has shown that the longer the hostage-taker spends with his hostages, a bond
develops that creates a close relationship of understanding between the parties involved. The
case of Patricia Hearst, who was kidnapped by the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA), and while
in captivity, became an active member of the SLA, is considered a classic case of the Stockholm
Syndrome.
Negotiator Common Objectives
o Prolong the situation.
o Ensure the safety of the hostages.
o Keep things calm.
o Foster the growth of relationships between negotiator and hostage-taker and between
hostage-taker and hostages.
Three Distinct Phases of Hostage Situations
1. Initial Phase - This phase is violent and brief and lasts as long as it takes for the
hostage-takers to make their assault and subdue the hostages. The end of this
phase is often marked by the presentation of the hostage-takers' demands.
2. Negotiation Phase - At this point, law-enforcement officials are on the scene, and
the demands have probably been received. This phase can last hours, days or
months and could also be referred to as "the standoff phase."
3. Termination Phase - This is the brief, sometimes violent final phase.
This phase has one of three results:
 The hostage-takers surrender peacefully and are arrested.
 Police assault the hostage-takers and kill or arrest them.
 The hostage-takers' demands are granted, and they escape.
*The fate of the hostages does not necessarily depend on what happens during the termination
phase. Even if the hostage-takers give up, they may have killed hostages during the
negotiations. Often, hostages are killed either accidentally by police or intentionally by their
captors during an assault.

OFTEN Categories for Hostage Takers

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 1. Ordinary and Professional Criminals - (robbers, burglars, and carjackers) may take a
hostage accidentally or as a fight or flight panic reaction when the criminal act is
discovered and interrupted.
How to handle: most easy to handle (rational in nature) show force but refrain using
unnecessary force/violence
2. Mentally and Emotionally Disturbed - those suffering from mental and personality
disorder
How to handle: stealthily go to him and apprehend him, use chemical to main,
prolong time in negotiation
3. Personality Disorder (ASP)
4. Paranoid – believes threatened and persecuted (suspicious)
How to handle: 
-His need to explain may offer an opportunity to establish rapport.
-Allow him to vent --- (Let him talk, try to stay with concrete topics)
-Do not try to argue him out of his delusions.
-Try to ally yourself with his perspective without sounding insincere.
-Avoid use of family members as they may be part of the delusional system.
-Media (Publicity) attention 
-Excluding mental health profession.
-Do not stare or get too close.
-Consider using an opposite sex negotiator.
5. Persons in Crisis – people who take hostages during the period of frustration, despair
and problems. Ex. prisoners, those suffering from insolvency
How to handle: coordination with concern parties to resolve grievances, use
chemical to main, prolong time in negotiation
6. Terrorist (most difficult to handle)

Command Post – place wherein the ground commander and concerned parties monitor and
exercise command over the hostage incident.
Hostage Crisis Response Team
 The Ground Commander a.k.a Incident Commander – senior officer in command of the
incident
 Negotiator – the one who directly communicate and negotiate with the hostage taker
 Secondary or Back up Negotiator(if needed)
 Intelligence Officer
 The Assault Team or Tactical team
 Other Concerned Units or Personnel : Fire Department, Health Department, LGU, Admin
and Operational Aides
Inner and Outer Perimeter
 The Inner Perimeter – immediate controlled area of containment designated by the
ground commander
 The Outer Perimeter –is the secondary control area surrounding the inner perimeter,
providing safe zone for access to the inner perimeter.

IMPORTANT THINGS TO HAVE A SUCCESSFUL HOSTAGE NEGOTIATION

1. Expertise in their respective field (negotiator, tactical team)
2. Advance knowledge (psychology) for negotiator
3. Training
4. Equipment
5. Proper coordination
IMMEDIATE ACTIONS OF THE NEGOTIATOR and CRISIS RESPONSE TEAM

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1st. UPON ARRIVAL
 Isolate
Isolate the hostage zone, creating an outer perimeter and keeping keep onlookers beyond the
police safety line.
 Contain
Limit the mobility of the hostage taker to the smallest area possible (the inner perimeter) and
prevent them from observing police activity.
 Evaluate
Evaluate the original information provided, which may be from the hostage taker or a
representative, or perhaps a member of the public. Without causing any escalation, gather as
much additional information as possible, including the number of hostage takers and hostages,
their appearance, weapons and so on.
Assess the threat and estimate the resources that may be needed to handle the situation.
 Report
Report all available information gathered, including on the hostage takers and hostages, events,
weapons, zones, routes and so on, informing other officers and the chain of command.
2nd. Assessing the situation
 Preventing early harm
The first job of the hostage negotiator is to assure safety of all concerned in the incident.
 Getting organized
- Finding information (find as much information about the situation as possible)
- The numbers and names of the hostage-takers.
- What they are demanding and what they really want.
- Their emotional state and how close they are to harming hostages.
- The numbers and general health of hostages.
3rd. Getting close/ Establishing Contact
A critical process used in many hostage negotiations is to get close to them, to build bonds and
gain their trust.
 Creating normality
Whilst there may be chaos and panic on all sides, the negotiator first seeks to create calm. They
talk in a calm voice and do a great deal of listening. In particular, they seek to establish a sense
of normality amongst the emotion, a space in which the hostage-takers can talk with the
negotiator as reasonable people, much as you would talk with any normal person on the
phone.
 Developing authority
4th. Developing the scene
Once a relationship is established, the negotiator can seek to move the situation forward.
 Small steps
Progress may be in small steps, as trust and relationships continue to be built. Food and
medicine may be given. Depending on the urgency of the situation, the negotiator may seek to
speed up or slow down the talking. If hostages are hurt, then speed may be needed. If the
hostage-takers are requiring transport or other things that would lead to more problems, then
it may be more prudent to insert delays, such as saying you are 'looking into it'.
 Managing stress
 Exploring solutions
5th.Releasing the hostages
 Wearing them down

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Sometimes, just talk, talk, talk is enough to wear down the hostage-takers and for them to give
themselves up. High emotions do not last forever and are followed by exhaustion. The ideal
negotiation ends with the hostage-taker agreeing to let everyone go.
 Releasing the weak
Depending on the number of people taken hostage, a release of children, old people and those
with medical conditions may be negotiated. It allows the hostage-takers to show that they are
not 'bad' people after all and also rids them of the problems of illness and wailing children.
 Concessions for people
People may also be exchanged for various concessions, from food to publicity. When something
is given to the hostage-takers, especially if it is on their list of demands, then a concession may
be requested in return, with the ultimate concession of hostage release.
 The final assault
It is a very delicate balance for the negotiator when no clear exchange can be found and the
hostage-takers look like they are going to kill hostages. Whilst they are seeking to create
exchange, the negotiator must also find the point at which they pull the plugs and let the armed
forces take over. Even though some hostages may be killed, force may ultimately be the best
solution to minimize total harm.

NEGOTIATING TACTICS/ VERBAL TACTICS IN CRISIS COMMUNICATION

1. Telephone Negotiation Technique (if possible and available)
o Advantage:
- easier to say no
- conversation is quicker
- caller has the advantage
- easier to conclude the conversation
2. Face to Face Negotiation
o prepare for possible confrontation (physical-emotional- psychological
o have tactical back-up
o maintain distance (initially: 1 to 3ft / intimate: 6inches)
o have a weapon
o wear body armor
3. Practice Active Listening
 Mirroring refers to repeating the last few words or gist of the person in crisis. It
demonstrates to the subject that the negotiator is attentive.
 Paraphrasing involves restating the content of what the subject said in the
negotiator’s own words.
 Emotional Labeling identifies the emotions of the subject.
Examples: “You sound angry”, “you seem frustrated, & I hear frustration in
your voice”.
 Summarizing restating of both the content and emotion expressed by the subject.
This provides clarification of what the person in crisis is experiencing.
Example: “Let me make sure I understand what you’re saying; you lost your job for
no apparent reason and this makes you angry“
 Use of Minimal Encouragers - verbal cues to the subject that the negotiator is
attentive and attempting to understand the perspective of the person. Ex. uh-huh,
yes, bright, go on, and okay.
 Open-Ended Questions - encourage the subject to expand on his or her responses in
an effort to decrease emotionality and bring the person in crisis to a more rational
level. Typically start with “What” or “When” or statements such as, “Tell me more
about that”.
 Personal Disclosure

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 "Time" Advantage and Disadvantages
(the most important element of hostage negotiation)
Advantage (positive effect) of "Time"
1. Increases basic human needs.
a. Biological needs.
b. Physical needs.
2. Reduces stress and anxiety.
3. Increases rationality.
4. Allows formation of the Stockholm syndrome.
5. Increases the hostage's opportunities for escape.
6. Permits better decision making through the gathering of intelligence.
7. Allows formation of negotiator - subject rapport.
8. Subject's expectations are reduced.

Disadvantage (negative effect) of "Time"

1. Exhaustion
a. Thinking clearly --- decision making
b. Short temper, anger
2. Loss of objectivity (sense of purpose)
3. Boredom
4. Creeping Up Effect (outer parameter begins to move toward inner parameter)

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE MANUAL OF PNP (2010)

Rule 26. HOSTAGE SITUATION/BARRICADED SITUATIONS
Section 1: The following steps shall be undertaken:
a. Crisis Management Task Group shall be activated immediately.
b. Incident scene shall be secured and isolated.
c. Unauthorized persons shall not be allowed entry and exit to the incident scene.
d. Witnesses’ names, addresses, and other information shall be recorded. Witnesses shall be
directed to a safe location.

SECTION 2: Ground Commander

There shall be only one Ground Commander in the area. Until such time that he officially
designates a spokesperson, he may issue appropriate press statements and continue to
perform the role of the spokesperson.

SECTION 3: Negotiators
Negotiators shall be designated by the Ground Commander. No one shall be allowed to talk to
the hostage-taker without clearance from the negotiator or Ground Commander.

SECTION 4: Assault Team

An assault team shall be alerted for deployment in case the negotiation fails. Members of the
assault team shall wear authorized and easily recognizable uniform during the conduct of the
operation.

SECTION 5: Assault Plan

The assault shall be planned to ensure minimal threat to life for all parties.

SECTION 6: Support Personnel

An ambulance with medical crew and a fire truck shall be detailed at the incident area.

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SECTION 7: Coordination
Proper coordination with all participating elements shall be done to consolidate efforts in
solving the crisis.

SECTION 8: Safety of Hostage(s)

In negotiating for the release of a hostage, the safety of the hostage shall always be paramount.

SECTION 9: Guidelines during Negotiations

a. Situation must be stabilized first and contained before the start of the negotiation;
b. Do not introduce outsiders (non-law enforcement officers) into the negotiation process,
unless their presence is extremely necessary in the solution of the crisis. If so introduced,
they shall be properly advised on the do’s and don’ts of hostage negotiations; and
c. Police officers without proper training shall not be allowed to participate in hostage
negotiations.

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