MICRO-LINK

IT COLLEGE
DATA COMMUNICATION
ASSIGNMENT

NAME ID
ABDULKERIM ALI 15/326/21
AMAR ABDELA
EYOB KETEMA 15,381/21
EYUEL DEJENE 15,362/21
GENA DEREGE 15,357/21
KALEB ZEKARIYAS 15,377/21
NIGUS SOLOMON 15,360/21
SAMSON BAYISA 15,243/21
ZERUBABEL ZEKARIYAS 15,373/21
Submitted to:
Submission date: 05/11/2022
 Data link control

Data Link Control is the carrier with the aid of using the Data Link Layer to offer
dependable statistics switch or data transfer over the physical medium. For example,
In the half-duplex transmission mode, one device can only transmit the statistics at a
time. If each the gadgets on the stop of the hyperlinks transmit the data
simultaneously, they'll collide and results in the lack of the information. The Data link
layer offers the coordination to most of the gadgets in order that no collision occurs.

The data link layer needs to pack bits into frames, so that each frame is
distinguishable from another. Our postal system practices a type of framing. The
simple act of inserting a letter into an envelope separates one piece of information
from another; the envelope serves as the delimiter.

The data link layer provides three functions:

 Line discipline
 Flow control
 Error detection and control

Data link control is found on the second layer which is the data link layer

Application layer
Presentation layer
Session layer
Transfer layer
Network layer
Data link layer
Physical layer

Data link control

* Line discipline
*Flow control
*Error detection and control
Line discipline

Line Discipline is a functionality of the Data link layer that provides the coordination
among the link systems. It determines which device can send, and when it can send
the data.

It simply determines and identifies the direction of communication. It is simply

process of coordinating half-duplex transmission i.e. data can be transmitted in both
directions on network of data communication but not at the same time just by
establishing and developing continuity among sender and receiver stations before
transfer of data.
It also makes sure that whether or not receiver is ready to accept or signal sender to
start. Line discipline is generally sequence of various operations of network among
devices that usually transfers and receives data, controls errors occurred during the
transmission, deals with message sets sequence, and also ensures confirmation that
data is being received. It is also used to determine which of device can transfer or
transmit, and when it can transfer data.

Ways of doing Line Discipline :

There are basically two ways of doing Line discipline as given below –

1. ENQ/ACK (Enquiry/Acknowledgement) :
ENQ/ACK is a procedure of line discipline that is generally used to determine that
which of device on network is capable of initiating or starting transmission of data or
message and whether the receiver is ready and is capable to receive the data or not.
If the hosts have similar and equal ranks, then either of hosts or stations can initiate
process of transmission.

The initiating device generally establishes session in both transmission i.e. full and
half-duplex. Both of devices can send or transmit simultaneously once session is
established in full-duplex. But in full-duplex, initiator transmits data whereas
responder simply waits. The responder further might take over link when initiator is
finished or simply has requested for the response.

2. Poll/Select :
The Poll/Select method in line discipline basically works with some topologies where
one of devices is considered as primary station and other devices are considered as
secondary stations. Multipoint connections can be seen rather than two i.e.,
multipoint systems must coordinate several nodes.

When primary station wants to transmit something to secondary station i.e.

downstream, then Select mode is used. To solicit (ask for obtaining) transmission
from secondary to primary i.e. upstream, then Poll mode is used. The primary device
basically controls and handles link or connection and on the other hand, secondary
device simply follows its instructions.

Flow Control
Flow control is design issue at Data Link Layer. It is technique that generally observes
proper flow of data from sender to receiver. It is very essential because it is possible
for sender to transmit data or information at very fast rate and hence receiver can
receive this information and process it. This can happen only if receiver has very high
load of traffic as compared to sender, or if receiver has power of processing less as
compared to sender.

Flow control is basically technique that gives permission to two of stations that are
working and processing at different speeds to just communicate with one another.
Flow control in Data Link Layer simply restricts and coordinates number of frames or
amount of data sender can send just before it waits for an acknowledgment from
receiver. Flow control is actually set of procedures that explains sender about how
much data or frames it can transfer or transmit before data overwhelms receiver.

The receiving device also contains only limited amount of speed and memory to
store data. This is why receiving device should be able to tell or inform the sender
about stopping the transmission or transferring of data on temporary basis before it
reaches limit. It also needs buffer, large block of memory for just storing data or
frames until they are processed.

Approaches to Flow Control

Flow Control

Feedback based flow control Rate based flow control

Feedback – based Flow Control :

In this control technique, sender simply transmits data or information or frame to
receiver, then receiver transmits data back to sender and also allows sender to
transmit more amount of data or tell sender about how receiver is processing or
doing. This simply means that sender transmits data or frames after it has received
acknowledgments from user.

Rate – based Flow Control :

In this control technique, usually when sender sends or transfer data at faster speed
to receiver and receiver is not being able to receive data at the speed, then
mechanism known as built-in mechanism in protocol will just limit or restricts overall
rate at which data or information is being transferred or transmitted by sender
without any feedback or acknowledgment from receiver.

Techniques of Flow Control in Data Link Layer

1. Stop-and-Wait Flow Control :
This method is the easiest and simplest form of flow control. In this method,
basically message or data is broken down into various multiple frames, and then
receiver indicates its readiness to receive frame of data. When acknowledgment is
received, then only sender will send or transfer the next frame.
This process is continued until sender transmits EOT (End of Transmission) frame. In
this method, only one of frames can be in transmission at a time. It leads to
inefficiency i.e. less productivity if propagation delay is very much longer than the
transmission delay.
Advantages
 This method is very easiest and simple and each of the frames is checked and
acknowledged well.
 It can also be used for noisy channels.
 This method is also very accurate.
Disadvantages
 This method is fairly slow.
 In this, only one packet or frame can be sent at a time.
 It is very inefficient and makes the transmission process very slow.

2. Sliding Window Flow Control :

This method is required where reliable in-order delivery of packets or frames is very
much needed like in data link layer. It is point to point protocol that assumes that
none of the other entity tries to communicate until current data or frame transfer
gets completed. In this method, sender transmits or sends various frames or packets
before receiving any acknowledgment.
In this method, both the sender and receiver agree upon total number of data
frames after which acknowledgment is needed to be transmitted. Data Link Layer
requires and uses this method that simply allows sender to have more than one
unacknowledged packet “in-flight” at a time. This increases and improves network
throughput.
Advantages –
 It performs much better than stop-and-wait flow control.
 This method increases efficiency.
 Multiples frames can be sent one after another.
Disadvantages –
 The main issue is complexity at the sender and receiver due to the transferring
of multiple frames.
 The receiver might receive data frames or packets out the sequence

Error Detection and Control

Error Control
Error Control is a technique of error detection and retransmission.

Categories of Error Control:

Stop-and-wait ARQ

Stop-and-wait ARQ is a technique used to retransmit the data in case of damaged or

lost frames.
This technique works on the principle that the sender will not transmit the next
frame until it receives the acknowledgement of the last transmitted frame.

Four features are required for the retransmission:

 The sending device keeps a copy of the last transmitted frame until the
acknowledgement is received. Keeping the copy allows the sender to retransmit
the data if the frame is not received correctly.
 Both the data frames and the ACK frames are numbered alternately 0 and 1 so
that they can be identified individually. Suppose data 1 frame acknowledges the
data 0 frame means that the data 0 frame has been arrived correctly and
expects to receive data 1 frame.
 If an error occurs in the last transmitted frame, then the receiver sends the NAK
frame which is not numbered. On receiving the NAK frame, sender retransmits
the data.
 It works with the timer. If the acknowledgement is not received within the
allotted time, then the sender assumes that the frame is lost during the
transmission, so it will retransmit the frame.

Two possibilities of the retransmission:

o Damaged Frame: When the receiver receives a damaged frame, i.e.,

the frame contains an error, then it returns the NAK frame. For example,
when the data 0 frame is sent, and then the receiver sends the ACK 1 frame
means that the data 0 has arrived correctly, and transmits the data 1 frame.
The sender transmits the next frame: data 1. It reaches undamaged, and the
receiver returns ACK 0. The sender transmits the next frame: data 0. The
receiver reports an error and returns the NAK frame. The sender retransmits
the data 0 frame.
o Lost Frame: Sender is equipped with the timer and starts when the
frame is transmitted. Sometimes the frame has not arrived at the receiving
end so that it can be acknowledged neither positively nor negatively. The
sender waits for acknowledgement until the timer goes off. If the timer goes
off, it retransmits the last transmitted frame.

Sliding Window ARQ

SlidingWindow ARQ is a technique used for continuous transmission

error control.

Three Features used for retransmission:

o In this case, the sender keeps the copies of all the transmitted frames until
they have been acknowledged. Suppose the frames from 0 through 4 have
been transmitted, and the last acknowledgement was for frame 2, the sender
has to keep the copies of frames 3 and 4 until they receive correctly.

o The receiver can send either NAK or ACK depending on the conditions. The
NAK frame tells the sender that the data have been received damaged. Since
the sliding window is a continuous transmission mechanism, both ACK and
NAK must be numbered for the identification of a frame. The ACK frame
consists of a number that represents the next frame which the receiver
expects to receive. The NAK frame consists of a number that represents the
damaged frame.
 o The sliding window ARQ is equipped with the timer to handle the lost
acknowledgements. Suppose then n-1 frames have been sent before
receiving any acknowledgement. The sender waits for the acknowledgement,
so it starts the timer and waits before sending any more. If the allotted time
runs out, the sender retransmits one or all the frames depending upon the
protocol used.

Two protocols used in sliding window ARQ:

o Go-Back-n ARQ: In Go-Back-N ARQ protocol, if one frame is lost or

damaged, then it retransmits all the frames after which it does not receive
the positive ACK.

Three possibilities can occur for retransmission:

o Damaged Frame: When the frame is damaged, then the receiver sends

a NAK frame.

In the above figure, three frames have been transmitted before an

error discovered in the third frame. In this case, ACK 2 has been
returned telling that the frames 0,1 have been received successfully
without any error. The receiver discovers the error in data 2 frame,
so it returns the NAK 2 frame. The frame 3 is also discarded as it is
transmitted after the damaged frame. Therefore, the sender
retransmits the frames 2,3.
 o Lost Data Frame: In Sliding window protocols, data frames
are sent sequentially. If any of the frames is lost, then the
next frame arrive at the receiver is out of sequence. The
receiver checks the sequence number of each of the frame,
discovers the frame that has been skipped, and returns the
NAK for the missing frame. The sending device retransmits the
frame indicated by NAK as well as the frames transmitted
after the lost frame.
o Lost Acknowledgement: The sender can send as many
frames as the windows allow before waiting for any
acknowledgement. Once the limit of the window is reached,
the sender has no more frames to send; it must wait for the
acknowledgement. If the acknowledgement is lost, then the
sender could wait forever. To avoid such situation, the sender
is equipped with the timer that starts counting whenever the
window capacity is reached. If the acknowledgement has not
been received within the time limit, then the sender
retransmits the frame since the last ACK.

Selective-Reject ARQ

o Selective-Reject ARQ technique is more efficient than Go-

Back-n ARQ.
o In this technique, only those frames are retransmitted for
which negative acknowledgement (NAK) has been received.
o The receiver storage buffer keeps all the damaged frames on
hold until the frame in error is correctly received.
o The receiver must have an appropriate logic for reinserting
the frames in a correct order.
o The sender must consist of a searching mechanism that
selects only the requested frame for retransmission.
Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the set of strategies and technique that lets in the

simultaneous transmission of more than one signals throughout a
solitary information link.
the transport layer receives segments from the network layer just
below. The transport layer has the responsibility of delivering the
data in these segments to the appropriate application process
running in the host. Let’s take a look at an example. Suppose you
are sitting in front of your computer, and you are downloading Web
pages while running one FTP session and two Telnet sessions. You
therefore have four network application processes running—two
Telnet processes, one FTP process, and one HTTP process. When the
transport layer in your computer receives data from the network
layer below, it needs to direct the received data to one of these four
processes.
. Each transport-layer segment has a set of fields in the segment for
this purpose. At the receiving end, the transport layer examines
these fields to identify the receiving socket and then directs the
segment to that socket. This job of delivering the data in a
transport-layer segment to the correct socket is called
demultiplexing. The job of gathering data chunks at the source host
from different sockets, encapsulating each data chunk with header
information (that will later be used in demultiplexing) to create
segments, and passing the segments to the network layer is called
multiplexing.

Types of Multiplexing

Multiplexing is divided into three categories these are

 Time division multiplexing
 Frequency division multiplexing
 Wave length division multiplexing

Time division multiplexing

Time division multiplexing is a mechanism for dividing the
bandwidth of a link into separate channels or time slots. The router
supports TDM in two forms—G.703 TDM and BRI TDM. In this manual
the term G.703 refers to both the G.703 ITU (previously CCITT)
recommendation for the physical and electrical characteristics of the
multiplexed link and the G.704 ITU recommendation for
synchronous frame structures. G.703 TDM is often referred to as E1
because in Europe it is used as the primary level of digital
telecommunications. G.703 TDM provides a 2.048 Mbps
communications link divided into 32 slots of 64kbps each. It was
first used by telephone companies for the transport of digitised
voice, but since there is no difference between digitised voice and
other kinds of data G.703 TDM is now also used for wide area
network links. Of the 32 time slots in a G.703 TDM link, time slot 0 is
always reserved for framing. For Primary Rate ISDN running over
G.703 TDM where calls need to be set up and cleared dynamically,
time slot 16 is reserved for signalling. This leaves 30 time slots,
each of 64kbps, for information transfer over ISDN connections and
31 time slots for static G.703 links. G.703 TDM support is provided
on the router by the Primary Rate interface (PRI) card. The G.703
TDM facility can be used as the data link layer transport mechanism
for Primary Rate ISDN and as the data channel over which one or
more static PPP links can be configured. It is this later functionality
which is described in this chapter. See Chapter 5, Integrated
Services Digital Network (ISDN) for more information about using
G.703 for Primary Rate ISDN connections. BRI TDM support is
provided by a router Basic Rate Interface. As with G.703 TDM the
interface can be used for Basic Rate ISDN and as a data channel for
one or more static PPP links, with the restriction that the Basic Rate
Interface has only 2 time slots of 64 kbps. This chapter describes
how to set up static TDM links over a Basic Rate Interface. See
Chapter 5, Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) for detailed
information about configuring ISDN Basic Rate interfaces. A
powerful feature of the router’s support for TDM is the ability to use
an interface for ISDN and static PPP links simultaneously. The slots
available on the interface are statically apportioned, by command,
between static TDM and dynamic ISDN use. For example on a PRI
interface slots 1 to 20 could be reserved for ISDN calls and slots 21
to 31 for static TDM links. Note that not every telecommunication
service provider is able to support simultaneous static and dynamic
use of Basic Rate and Primary Rate ISDN services.

Frequency division multiplexing

 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) divides the frequency
spectrum of a higher bandwidth channel into many individual
smaller bandwidth communication channels. Signals on these
channels are transmitted at the same time but at different carrier
frequencies. Guard bands are needed between the frequency
channels to reduce interchannel interference.
Frequency division multiplexing also is used to translate each
message signal to reside inside a specific frequency slot inside
the passband of the channel by assigning it a distinct carrier
frequency. At the receiver, a bank of filters is used to separate the
different modulated signals and prepare them individually
for demodulation.
Wave length division multiplexing
WDM involves transmission of multiple digital signals using several wavelengths
without their interfering with one another. This technology enables many optical
signals to be transmitted simultaneously by a single fiber cable. It is also referred to
as wave-division multiplexing.

WDM is accomplished by modulating injection laser diodes, which are transmitting

highly concentrated light waves at different wavelengths (i.e. at different optical
frequencies). Therefore WDM is coupling light at two or more discrete wavelengths
into and out of an optical fiber. Each wavelength is capable of carrying vast amounts
of information in either analog or digital form, and the information can already be
time- or frequency division multiplexed.
Reference

Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach, 7th Edition

Computer Networks: A Systems Approach
https://www.javatpoint.com/
zlibrary.com