IIPM-Information Technology

Project report on Networking

Information Technology

Submitted To:-
Prof. Sanjana Adlaka

Submitted By:-
Arjun Vasishta
Sandeep
Mohit Pawaria
Tushar Bhatia
Nikita Keshari

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Contents:-

 Definition
 Purpose
 Classification
 Connection Method
 Wired
 Wireless
 Based on physical scale
 Internet
 Intranet & Extranet
 Basic Hardware Components

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Computer Networking

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection

of computers and devices interconnected by communications channels that facilitate
communications among users and allows users to share resources. Networks may
be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics

A computer network allows sharing of resources and information among

interconnected devices. 

Purpose
Computer networks can be used for a variety of purposes:

 Facilitating communications. Using a network, people can communicate

efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video
telephone calls, and video conferencing.
 Sharing hardware. In a networked environment, each computer on a network
may access and use hardware resources on the network, such as printing a
document on a shared network printer.
 Sharing files, data, and information. In a network environment, authorized
user may access data and information stored on other computers on the network.
The capability of providing access to data and information on shared storage
devices is an important feature of many networks.
 Sharing software. Users connected to a network may run
application programs on remote computers.
 Information preservation.
 Security.
 Speed up

Classification of Networks:-

The following list presents categories used for classifying networks.

Connection method
Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and software
technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such
as optical fiber, Ethernet, wireless LAN, HomePNA, power line
communication or G.hn.

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Ethernet as it is defined by IEEE 802 utilizes various standards and mediums that
enable communication between devices. Frequently deployed devices include hubs,
switches, bridges, or routers. Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect
devices without wiring. These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a
transmission medium. ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home wiring (coaxial
cable, phone lines and power lines) to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local
area network.

Wired technologies

 Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for telecommunication.

Twisted-pair cabling consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary
telephone wires consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs.
Computer networking cabling consist of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be
utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted
together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The
transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 100 million bits per
second. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms which are Unshielded Twisted
Pair (UTP) and Shielded twisted-pair (STP) which are rated in categories which
are manufactured in different increments for various scenarios.

 Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and
other worksites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or
aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a
high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The
layers of insulation help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed
range from 200 million to more than 500 million bits per second.

 Optical fiber cable consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in

protective layers. It transmits light which can travel over extended distances.
Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission
speed may reach trillions of bits per second. The transmission speed of fiber
optics is hundreds of times faster than for coaxial cables and thousands of times
faster than a twisted-pair wire.

Wireless technologies

 Terrestrial microwave – Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter

and receiver. The equipment look similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial

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microwaves use low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-

sight. Path between relay stations spaced approx, 30 miles apart. Microwave
antennas are usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain
peaks.

 Communications satellites – The satellites use microwave radio as their

telecommunications medium which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere.
The satellites are stationed in space, typically 22,000 miles (for geosynchronous
satellites) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of
receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.

 Cellular and PCS systems – Use several radio communications technologies.

The systems are divided to different geographic areas. Each area has a low-
power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the
next area.

 Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio

technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology.
Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication
between multiple devices in a limited area. An example of open-standards
wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE.

 Infrared communication , which can transmit signals between devices within

small distances not more than 10 meters peer to peer or ( face to face ) without
any body in the line of transmitting.

Scale
Networks are often classified as local area network (LAN), wide area
network (WAN), metropolitan area network (MAN), personal area
network (PAN), virtual private network (VPN), campus area network (CAN), storage
area network (SAN), and others, depending on their scale, scope and purpose,
e.g., controller area network (CAN) usage, trust level, and access right often differ
between these types of networks. LANs tend to be designed for internal use by an
organization's internal systems and employees in individual physical locations, such
as a building, while WANs may connect physically separate parts of an organization
and may include connections to third parties.

Functional relationship (network architecture)

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Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which

exist among the elements of the network, e.g., active networking, client–
server and peer-to-peer (workgroup) architecture.
Network topology
Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which
the network is based, such as bus network, star network, ring network, mesh
network. Network topology is the coordination by which devices in the network are
arranged in their logical relations to one another, independent of physical
arrangement. Even if networked computers are physically placed in a linear
arrangement and are connected to a hub, the network has a star topology, rather
than a bus topology. In this regard the visual and operational characteristics of a
network are distinct. Networks may be classified based on the method of data used
to convey the data, these include digital and analog networks.

Types of networks based on physical scope

Common types of computer networks may be identified by their scale.

Local area network
A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a
limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building,
or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a
node. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology,
although new standards like ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN
using existing home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines).

The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks),

include their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and no need for
leased telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN
technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer
rate. IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 40 and 100 Gbit/s. [3]

Personal area network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication
among computer and different information technological devices close to one
person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers,
printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles.
A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically

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extends to 10 meters.[4] A wired PAN is usually constructed with USB and Firewire
connections while technologies such as Bluetooth and infrared communication
typically form a wireless PAN.
Home area network
A home area network (HAN) is a residential LAN which is used for communication
between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of
personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing
devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband
service through a CATV or Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) provider. It can also be
referred to as an office area network (OAN).

Wide area network

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic
area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a
communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone
lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN often uses transmission facilities provided by
common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally
function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer,
the data link layer, and the network layer.

Campus network
A campus network is a computer network made up of an interconnection of local
area networks (LAN's) within a limited geographical area. The networking
equipments (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, copper
plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost entirely owned (by the campus tenant / owner: an
enterprise, university, government etc.).

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In the case of a university campus-based campus network, the network is likely to

link a variety of campus buildings including; academic departments, the university
library and student residence halls.

Metropolitan area network

A Metropolitan area network is a large computer network that usually spans a city or
a large campus.

Global Area Network

A Global Area Network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile
communications across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage
areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off the user
communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this
involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.

Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic,
corporate, public, and private computer networks. It is based on the networking
technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is the successor of the Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network(ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the United
States Department of Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone
underlying the World Wide Web (WWW).

Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred

documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol
Suite and an addressing system (IP addresses) administered by the Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority and address registries. Service providers and large
enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces
through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh
of transmission paths.

Intranets and extranets

Intranets and extranets are parts or extensions of a computer network, usually a
local area network.

An intranet is a set of networks, using the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such

as web browsers and file transfer applications, that is under the control of a single
administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific,

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authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an

organization. A large intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide
users with organizational information.

An extranet is a network that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity and

also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not
necessarily, trusted organizations or entities—a company's customers may be given
access to some part of its intranet—while at the same time the customers may not
be considered trusted from a security standpoint. Technically, an extranet may also
be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although an extranet
cannot consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external
network.

Basic hardware components

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect

network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches,
and Routers. In addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is
required, usually in the form of galvanic cable (most commonly Category 5 cable).
Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE 802.12) or optical cable ("optical
fiber").

Network interface cards

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece

of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer
network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a
low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses.

Each network interface card has its unique id. This is written on a chip which is
mounted on the card.

Repeaters

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it of unnecessary

noise, regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side
of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation.
In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that
runs longer than 100 meters. Repeaters work on the Physical Layer of the OSI
model.

Hubs

A network hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied
unmodified to all ports of the hub for transmission. The destination address in the

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frame is not changed to a broadcast address. [7] It works on the Physical Layer of the
OSI model

Bridges

A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2)

of the OSI model. Bridges broadcast to all ports except the port on which the
broadcast was received. However, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all
ports, as hubs do, but learn whichMAC addresses are reachable through specific
ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that
address to that port only.

Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source
address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port,
its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated
with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen,
the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame
arrived.

Bridges come in three basic types:

Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)

Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between
LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks,
largely have been replaced with routers.

Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.

Switches

A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunks

of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC
addresses in the packets.[8] A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the
frames to the ports involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. A
switch breaks the collision domain but represents itself as a broadcast domain.
Switches make forwarding decisions of frames on the basis of MAC addresses. A
switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and
cascading additional switches.[9] Some switches are capable of routing based on
Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels; these are called multi-layer switches.
The term switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass devices including routers
and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application
content (e.g., a Web URL identifier).

Routers

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A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by

processing information found in the datagram or packet (Internet protocol information
from Layer 3 of the OSI Model). In many situations, this information is processed in
conjunction with the routing table (also known as forwarding table). Routers use
routing tables to determine what interface to forward packets (this can include the
"null" also known as the "black hole" interface because data can go into it, however,
no further processing is done for said data).

Firewalls

Firewalls are the most important aspect of a network with respect to security. A
firewalled system does not need every interaction or data transfer monitored by a
human, as automated processes can be set up to assist in rejecting access requests
from unsafe sources, and allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role
firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in
'cyber' attacks for the purpose of stealing/corrupting data, planting viruses, etc.

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