1

Kendall & Kendall

Systems Analysis and Design, 9e

Systems, Roles, and

Development
Methodologies
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 Learning Objectives

• Understand the need for systems analysis

and design in organizations.
• Realize what the many roles of the systems
analyst are.
• Comprehend the fundamentals of three
development methodologies:
• SDLC
• The agile approach
• Object-oriented systems analysis and design

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 Information—A Key Resource

• Fuels business and can be the critical

factor in determining the success or
failure of a business
• Needs to be managed correctly
• Managing computer-generated
information differs from handling
manually produced data

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 Major Topics

• Fundamentals of different kinds of

information systems
• Roles of systems analysts
• Phases in the systems development life
cycle
• CASE tools

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 Need for Systems Analysis
and Design
• Installing a system without proper planning
leads to great user dissatisfaction and
frequently causes the system to fall into
disuse
• Lends structure to the analysis and design of
information systems
• A series of processes systematically
undertaken to improve a business through
the use of computerized information systems
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 Roles of the Systems Analyst

• The analyst must be able to work with

people of all descriptions and be
experienced in working with computers
• Three primary roles:
• Consultant
• Supporting expert
• Agent of change

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 Qualities of the Systems Analyst

• Problem solver
• Communicator
• Strong personal and professional ethics
• Self-disciplined and self-motivated

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 Systems Development Life Cycle
(SDLC)
• The systems development life cycle is a
phased approach to solving business
problems
• Developed through the use of a specific
cycle of analyst and user activities
• Each phase has unique user activities

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 The Seven Phases of the Systems
Development Life Cycle (Figure 1.1)

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 Identifying Problems,
Opportunities, and Objectives
• Activity:
• Interviewing user management
• Summarizing the knowledge obtained
• Estimating the scope of the project
• Documenting the results

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 Identifying Problems,
Opportunities, and Objectives
• Output:
• Feasibility report containing problem
definition and objective summaries from
which management can make a decision
on whether to proceed with the proposed
project

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 Determining Human Information
Requirements
• Activity:
• Interviewing
• Sampling and investing hard data
• Questionnaires
• Observe the decision maker’s behavior and
environment
• Prototyping
• Learn the who, what, where, when, how,
and why of the current system

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 Determining Human Information
Requirements
• Output:
• The analyst understands how users accomplish
their work when interacting with a computer
• Begin to know how to make the new system more
useful and usable
• Know the business functions
• Have complete information on the:
• People
• Goals
• Data
• Procedure involved

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 Analyzing System Needs

• Activity:
• Create data flow, activity, or sequence
diagrams
• Complete the data dictionary
• Analyze the structured decisions made
• Prepare and present the system proposal
• Output:
• Recommendation on what, if anything,
should be done

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 Designing the Recommended
System
• Activity:
• Design procedures for data entry
• Design the human-computer interface
• Design system controls
• Design database and/or files
• Design backup procedures
• Output
• Model of the actual system

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 Developing and Documenting
Software
• Activity:
• System analyst works with programmers to
develop any original software
• Works with users to develop effective
documentation
• Programmers design, code, and remove
syntactical errors from computer programs
• Document software with help files, procedure
manuals, and Web sites with Frequently Asked
Questions

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 Developing and Documenting
Software
• Output:
• Computer programs
• System documentation

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 Testing and Maintaining the
System
• Activity:
• Test the information system
• System maintenance
• Maintenance documentation
• Output:
• Problems, if any
• Updated programs
• Documentation

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 Implementing and Evaluating the
System
• Activity:
• Train users
• Analyst plans smooth conversion from old
system to new system
• Review and evaluate system
• Output:
• Trained personnel
• Installed system

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 Some Researchers Estimate that the Amount of Time Spent
on Systems Maintenance May Be as Much as 60 Percent of
the Total Time Spent on Systems Projects (Figure 1.2)

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 The Impact of Maintenance

• Maintenance is performed for two

reasons:
• Removing software errors
• Enhancing existing software
• Over time the cost of continued
maintenance will be greater than that of
creating an entirely new system. At that
point it becomes more feasible to
perform a new systems study.

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 Resource Consumption over the
System Life (Figure 1.3)

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 Approaches to Structured Analysis and Design
and to the Systems Development Life Cycle

• Traditional systems development

life cycle
• CASE systems development life
cycle
• Object-oriented systems analysis
and design

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 Case Tools

• CASE tools are productivity tools for

systems analysts that have been
created explicitly to improve their
routine work through the use of
automated support

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 Reasons for Using Case Tools

• Reasons for using CASE tools

• Increasing analyst productivity
• Improving analyst-user communication
• Integrating life cycle activities

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Kendall & Kendall Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-26
 The Agile Approach

• Based on:
• Values
• Principles
• Core practices

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 Agile Values

• Communication
• Simplicity
• Feedback
• Courage

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 Four Agile Resources

• Resources are adjusted to ensure

successful project completion
• Time
• Cost
• Quality
• Scope

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 Five Stages of Agile Development

• Exploration
• Planning
• Iterations to the first release
• Productionizing
• Maintenance

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 Agile Project Development
Process (Figure 1.5)

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 Object-Oriented (O-O) Systems
Analysis and Design

• Alternate approach to the structured

approach of the SDLC that is intended to
facilitate the development of systems
that change rapidly in response to
dynamic business environments
• Analysis is performed on a small part of
the system followed by design and
implementation

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 Object-Oriented (O-O) Systems
Analysis and Design

• The cycle repeats with analysis,

design, and implementation of the
next part and this repeats until the
project is complete
• Examines the objects of a system

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 Choosing a Method

• Choose either:
• SDLC
• Agile
• Object-oriented methodologies

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 When to Use SDLC

• Systems have been developed and

documented using SLDC
• It is important to document each step
• Upper level management feels more
comfortable or safe using SDLC
• There are adequate resources and time to
complete the full SDLC
• Communication of how new systems work is
important

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 When to Use Agile

• There is a project champion of agile methods in the

organization
• Applications need to be developed quickly in
response to a dynamic environment
• A rescue takes place (the system failed and there is
no time to figure out what went wrong)
• The customer is satisfied with incremental
improvements
• Executives and analysts agree with the principles of
agile methodologies

Kendall & Kendall Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-36
 When to Use Object-Oriented

• The problems modeled lend themselves to

classes
• An organization supports the UML learning
• Systems can be added gradually, one
subsystem at a time
• Reuse of previously written software is a
possibility
• It is acceptable to tackle the difficult
problems first

Kendall & Kendall Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-37
 Summary

• Information is a key resource

• Integration of traditional systems with new
technologies
• Roles and qualities of the systems analyst
• The systems development life cycle
• CASE tools
• Agile systems development
• Object-oriented systems development

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 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Publishing as Prentice Hall

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 2
Kendall & Kendall
Systems Analysis and Design, 9e

Understanding and Modeling

Organizational Systems

Kendall & Kendall Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall
 Learning Objectives

• Understand that organizations and their

members are systems and that analysts need
to take a systems perspective.
• Depict systems graphically using context-level
data flow diagrams, and entity-relationship
models, use cases, and use case scenarios.
• Recognize that different levels of
management require different systems.
• Comprehend that organizational culture
impacts the design of information systems.

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 Three Main Forces Interacting to
Shape Organizations
• Levels of management
• Design of organizations
• Organizational cultures

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 Major Topics

• Organizations as systems
• Depicting systems graphically
• Data flow diagram
• Entity-relationship model
• Use case modeling
• Levels of management
• Organizational culture

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 Organizations as Systems

• Conceptualized as systems designed to

accomplish predetermined goals and
objectives
• Composed of smaller, interrelated
systems serving specialized functions
• Specialized functions are reintegrated to
form an effective organizational whole

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 System Outputs Serve as Feedback that
Compares Performance with Goals (Figure 2.1)

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 Organizational Environments

• Community
• Physical location
• Demographic profile (education, income)
• Economic
• Market factors
• Competition
• Political
• State and local government
• Legal
• Federal, state, regional, local laws, and guidelines

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 Taking a Systems Perspective

• Allows system analyst to understand

businesses before they begin their tasks
• It is important that members of subsystems
realize that they are interrelated with other
subsystems
• Problems occur when each manager thinks
that his/her department is the most important
• Bigger problems may occur when that
manager rises through the ranks

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 Taking a Systems Perspective
(Figure 2.2)
Outputs from one
department serve as
inputs for another such
that subsystems are
interrelated.

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 Perspective of Functional
Managers (Figure 2.3)

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 Depicting Systems Graphically

• Context-level data flow diagrams

• Entity-relationship model
• Use case modeling

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 Context-Level Data Flow
Diagrams
• Focus is on the data flowing into and
out of the system and the processing of
the data
• Shows the scope of the system:
• What is to be included in the system
• The external entities are outside the scope
of the system

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 The Basic Symbols of a Data Flow
Diagram (Figure 2.4)

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 Airline Reservation System
(Figure 2.5)

A context-level data
flow diagram
for an airline
reservation system

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 Entity-Relationship Model

• Focus is on the entities and their

relationships within the organizational
system
• Another way to show the scope of a
system

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 Relationships

• Relationships show how the entities are

connected
• Three types of relationships:
• One-to-one
• One-to-many
• Many-to-many

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 Entity-Relationship Example
(Figure 2.7)

An entity-
relationship
diagram
showing a
many-to-one
relationship

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 Examples of Different Types of
Relationships in E-R Diagrams (Figure 2.8)

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 Entities

• Fundamental entity
• Associative entity
• Attributive entity

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 Three Different Types of Entities
Used in E-R Diagrams (Figure 2.9)

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 Attributes

• Data attributes may be added to the

diagram.
Patron Name
Patron Patron address
Patron phone
Patron credit card

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 Creating Entity-Relationship
Diagrams
• List the entities in the organization
• Choose key entities to narrow the scope
of the problem
• Identify what the primary entity should
be
• Confirm the results of the above
through data gathering

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 A More Complete E-R Diagram Showing Data
Attributes of the Entities (Figure 2.12 )

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 Use Case Modeling

• Describes what a system does without

describing how the system does
• A logical model of the system
• Use case is a view of the system
requirements
• Analyst works with business experts to
develop requirements

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 Use Case Diagram

• Actor
• Refers to a particular role of a user of the system
• Similar to external entities; they exist outside of
the system
• Use case symbols
• An oval indicating the task of the use case
• Connecting lines
• Arrows and lines used to diagram behavioral
relationships

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 Actor

• Divided into two groups

• Primary actors:
• Supply data or receive information from the
system
• Provide details on what the use case should do
• Supporting actors:
• Help to keep the system running or provide
help
• The people who run the help desk, the
analysts, programmers, and so on

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 Some components of use case diagrams showing actors,
use cases, and relationships for a student enrollment
example (Figure 2.14)

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 Why Use Case Diagrams Are
Helpful
• Identify all the actors in the problem
domain
• Actions that need to be completed are
also clearly shown on the use case
diagram
• The use case scenario is also
worthwhile
• Simplicity and lack of technical detail

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 The Main Reasons for Writing Use Cases Are
Their Effectiveness in Communicating with Users
and Their Capturing of User Stories (Figure 2.18)

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 Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Publishing as Prentice Hall

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 4
Kendall & Kendall
Systems Analysis and Design, 9e

Information Gathering:
Interactive Methods

Kendall & Kendall Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall
 Objectives

• Recognize the value of interactive methods for

information gathering.
• Construct interview questions to elicit human
information requirements and structure them in a
way that is meaningful to users.
• Understand the purpose of stories and why they are
useful in systems analysis.
• Understand the concept of JAD and when to use it.
• Write effective questions to survey users about their
work.
• Design and administer effective questionnaires.

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 Interactive Methods to Elicit
Human Information Requirements
• Interviewing
• Joint Application Design (JAD)
• Questionnaires

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 Major Topics

• Interviewing
• Interview preparation
• Question types
• Arranging questions
• The interview report
• User Stories
• Joint Application Design (JAD)
• Involvement
• Location
• Questionnaires
• Writing questions
• Using scales
• Design
• Administering

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 Interviewing

• Interviewing is an important method for

collecting data on human and system
information requirements
• Interviews reveal information about:
• Interviewee opinions
• Interviewee feelings
• Goals
• Key HCI concerns

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 Interview Preparation

• Reading background material

• Establishing interview objectives
• Deciding whom to interview
• Preparing the interviewee
• Deciding on question types and
structure

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 Question Types

• Open-ended
• Closed

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 Open-Ended Questions

• Open-ended interview questions allow

interviewees to respond how they wish,
and to what length they wish
• Open-ended interview questions are
appropriate when the analyst is
interested in breadth and depth of reply

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 Advantages of Open-Ended
Questions
• Puts the interviewee at ease
• Allows the interviewer to pick up on
the interviewee’s vocabulary
• Provides richness of detail
• Reveals avenues of further
questioning that may have gone
untapped
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 Advantages of Open-Ended
Questions (continued)
• Provides more interest for the
interviewee
• Allows more spontaneity
• Makes phrasing easier for the
interviewer
• Useful if the interviewer is
unprepared

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 Disadvantages of Open-Ended
Questions
• May result in too much irrelevant detail
• Possibly losing control of the interview
• May take too much time for the amount
of useful information gained
• Potentially seeming that the interviewer
is unprepared
• Possibly giving the impression that the
interviewer is on a “fishing expedition”

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 Closed Interview Questions

• Closed interview questions limit the

number of possible responses
• Closed interview questions are
appropriate for generating precise,
reliable data that is easy to analyze
• The methodology is efficient, and it
requires little skill for interviewers to
administer

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 Benefits of Closed Interview
Questions
• Saving interview time
• Easily comparing interviews
• Getting to the point
• Keeping control of the interview
• Covering a large area quickly
• Getting to relevant data
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 Disadvantages of Closed
Interview Questions
• Boring for the interviewee
• Failure to obtain rich detailing
• Missing main ideas
• Failing to build rapport
between interviewer and
interviewee
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 Attributes of Open-Ended and
Closed Questions (Figure 4.5)

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 Bipolar Questions

• Bipolar questions are those that may be

answered with a “yes” or “no” or
“agree” or “disagree”
• Bipolar questions should be used
sparingly
• A special kind of closed question

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 Probes

• Probing questions elicit more detail

about previous questions
• The purpose of probing questions is:
• To get more meaning
• To clarify
• To draw out and expand on the
interviewee’s point
• May be either open-ended or closed

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 Arranging Questions

• Pyramid
• Starting with closed questions and working toward
open-ended questions
• Funnel
• Starting with open-ended questions and working
toward closed questions
• Diamond
• Starting with closed, moving toward open-ended,
and ending with closed questions

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 Pyramid Structure

• Begins with very detailed, often closed

questions
• Expands by allowing open-ended
questions and more generalized
responses
• Is useful if interviewees need to be
warmed up to the topic or seem
reluctant to address the topic
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 Pyramid Structure for Interviewing Goes from
Specific to General Questions (Figure 4.7 )

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 Funnel Structure

• Begins with generalized, open-ended

questions
• Concludes by narrowing the possible
responses using closed questions
• Provides an easy, nonthreatening way
to begin an interview
• Is useful when the interviewee feels
emotionally about the topic

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 Funnel Structure for Interviewing Begins with
Broad Questions then Funnels to Specific
Questions (Figure 4.8)

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 Diamond Structure

• A diamond-shaped structure begins in a

very specific way
• Then more general issues are examined
• Concludes with specific questions
• Combines the strength of both the
pyramid and funnel structures
• Takes longer than the other structures

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 Diamond-Shaped Structure for Interviewing
Combines the Pyramid and Funnel Structures
(Figure 4.9)

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 Closing the Interview

• Always ask “Is there anything else that

you would like to add?”
• Summarize and provide feedback on
your impressions
• Ask whom you should talk with next
• Set up any future appointments
• Thank them for their time and shake
hands.

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 Interview Report

• Write as soon as possible after the

interview
• Provide an initial summary, then more
detail
• Review the report with the respondent

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 Joint Application Design (JAD)

• Joint Application Design (JAD) can

replace a series of interviews with the
user community
• JAD is a technique that allows the
analyst to accomplish requirements
analysis and design the user interface
with the users in a group setting

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 Conditions That Support the Use
of JAD
• Users are restless and want something
new
• The organizational culture supports
joint problem-solving behaviors
• Analysts forecast an increase in the
number of ideas using JAD
• Personnel may be absent from their
jobs for the length of time required

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 Who Is Involved

• Executive sponsor
• IS analyst
• Users
• Session leader
• Observers
• Scribe
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 Where to Hold JAD Meetings

• Offsite
• Comfortable surroundings
• Minimize distractions
• Attendance
• Schedule when participants can attend
• Agenda
• Orientation meeting

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 Benefits of JAD

• Time is saved, compared with

traditional interviewing
• Rapid development of systems
• Improved user ownership of the
system
• Creative idea production is improved

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 Drawbacks of Using JAD

• JAD requires a large block of time to be

available for all session participants
• If preparation or the follow-up report is
incomplete, the session may not be
successful
• The organizational skills and culture
may not be conducive to a JAD session

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 Questionnaires

Questionnaires are useful in gathering

information from key organization
members about:
• Attitudes
• Beliefs
• Behaviors
• Characteristics

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 Planning for the Use of
Questionnaires
• Organization members are widely
dispersed
• Many members are involved with the
project
• Exploratory work is needed
• Problem solving prior to interviews is
necessary

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 Question Types

Questions are designed as either:

• Open-ended
• Try to anticipate the response you will get
• Well suited for getting opinions
• Closed
• Use when all the options may be listed
• When the options are mutually exclusive

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 Trade-offs between the Use of Open-Ended and
Closed Questions on Questionnaires (Figure 4.12)

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 Questionnaire Language

• Simple
• Specific
• Short
• Not patronizing
• Free of bias
• Addressed to those who are knowledgeable
• Technically accurate
• Appropriate for the reading level of the
respondent

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 Designing the Questionnaire

• Allow ample white space

• Allow ample space to write or type in
responses
• Make it easy for respondents to clearly
mark their answers
• Be consistent in style

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 Order of Questions

• Place most important questions first

• Cluster items of similar content together
• Introduce less controversial questions
first

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 Administering Questionnaires

• Administering questionnaires has two

main questions:
• Who in the organization should receive the
questionnaire
• How should the questionnaire be
administered

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 Ways to Capture Responses When Designing a
Web Survey (Figure 4.13)

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 Methods of Administering the
Questionnaire
• Conveying all concerned respondents
together at one time
• Personally administering the
questionnaire
• Allowing respondents to self-administer
the questionnaire
• Mailing questionnaires
• Administering over the Web or via email

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 Electronically Submitting
Questionnaires
• Reduced costs
• Collecting and storing the results
electronically

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Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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 7
Kendall & Kendall
Systems Analysis and Design, 9e

Using Data Flow

Diagrams

Kendall & Kendall Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall
 Learning Objectives

• Comprehend the importance of using logical and

physical data flow diagrams (DFDs) to graphically
depict movement for humans and systems in an
organization.
• Create, use, and explode logical DFDs to capture and
analyze the current system through parent and child
levels.
• Develop and explode logical DFDs that illustrate the
proposed system.
• Produce physical DFDs based on logical DFDs you
have developed.
• Understand and apply the concept of partitioning of
physical DFDs.
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 Data Flow Diagrams

• Graphically characterize data processes

and flows in a business system
• Depict:
• System inputs
• Processes
• Outputs

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 Major Topics

• Data flow diagram symbols

• Data flow diagram levels
• Creating data flow diagrams
• Physical and logical data flow diagrams
• Partitioning
• Communicating using data flow
diagrams

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 Advantages of the Data Flow
Approach
• Freedom from committing to the
technical implementation too early
• Understanding of the interrelatedness
of systems and subsystems
• Communicating current system
knowledge to users
• Analysis of the proposed system

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 Basic Symbols

• A double square for an external entity

• An arrow for movement of data from
one point to another
• A rectangle with rounded corners for
the occurrence of a transforming
process
• An open-ended rectangle for a data
store

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 The Four Basic Symbols Used in Data Flow
Diagrams, Their Meanings, and Examples
(Figure 7.1)

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 External Entities

• Represent another department, a

business, a person, or a machine
• A source or destination of data, outside
the boundaries of the system
• Should be named with a noun

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 Data Flow

• Shows movement of data from one

point to another
• Described with a noun
• Arrowhead indicates the flow direction
• Represents data about a person, place,
or thing

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 Process

• Denotes a change in or transformation of

data
• Represents work being performed in the
system
• Naming convention:
• Assign the name of the whole system when
naming a high-level process
• To name a major subsystem attach the word
subsystem to the name
• Use the form verb-adjective-noun for detailed
processes

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 Data Store

• A depository for data that allows examination,

addition, and retrieval of data
• Named with a noun, describing the data
• Data stores are usually given a unique
reference number, such as D1, D2, D3
• Represents a:
• Database
• Computerized file
• Filing cabinet

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 Steps in Developing Data Flow
Diagrams

(Figure 7.2)

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 Creating the Context Diagram

• The highest level in a data flow diagram

• Contains only one process, representing
the entire system
• The process is given the number 0
• All external entities, as well as major
data flows are shown

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 Basic Rules

• The data flow diagram must have one

process
• Must not be any freestanding objects
• A process must have both an input and
output data flow
• A data store must be connected to at least
one process
• External entities should not be connected to
one another

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 Context Diagram (Figure 7.3)

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 Drawing Diagram 0

• The explosion of the context diagram

• May include up to nine processes
• Each process is numbered
• Major data stores and all external
entities are included

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 Drawing Diagram 0 (continued)

• Start with the data flow from an entity

on the input side
• Work backward from an output data
flow
• Examine the data flow to or from a data
store
• Analyze a well-defined process
• Take note of any fuzzy areas

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 Data Flow Diagram Levels

• Data flow diagrams are built in layers

• The top level is the context level
• Each process may explode to a lower
level
• The lower level diagram number is the
same as the parent process number
• Processes that do not create a child
diagram are called primitive

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 Creating Child Diagrams

• Each process on diagram 0 may be

exploded to create a child diagram
• A child diagram cannot produce output
or receive input that the parent process
does not also produce or receive
• The child process is given the same
number as the parent process
• Process 3 would explode to Diagram 3

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 Creating Child Diagrams
(continued)
• Entities are usually not shown on the
child diagrams below Diagram 0
• If the parent process has data flow
connecting to a data store, the child
diagram may include the data store as
well
• When a process is not exploded, it is
called a primitive process

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 Checking the Diagrams for Errors
(Figure 7.5)
• Forgetting to include a data flow or
pointing an arrow in the wrong direction

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 Checking the Diagrams for
Errors (continued Figure 7.5)
• Connecting data stores and external
entities directly to each other

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 Typical Errors that Can Occur in a Data
Flow Diagram (Payroll Example)
(continued Figure 7.5)

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 Logical and Physical Data Flow
Diagrams
• Logical
• Focuses on the business and how the
business operates
• Not concerned with how the system will be
constructed
• Describes the business events that take
place and the data required and produced
by each event

Kendall & Kendall Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 7-24
 Logical and Physical Data Flow
Diagrams
• Physical
• Shows how the system will be
implemented
• Depicts the system

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 Features Common of Logical and Physical
Data Flow Diagrams (Figure 7.7)

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 The Progression of Models from
Logical to Physical (Figure 7.8)

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 Logical Data Flow Diagram
Example (Figure 7.9)

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 Physical Data Flow Diagram
Example (Figure 7.9)

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 Developing Logical Data Flow
Diagrams
• Better communication with users
• More stable systems
• Better understanding of the business by
analysts
• Flexibility and maintenance
• Elimination of redundancy and easier
creation of the physical model

Kendall & Kendall Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 7-30
 Developing Physical Data Flow
Diagrams
• Clarifying which processes are performed by
humans and which are automated
• Describing processes in more detail
• Sequencing processes that have to be done in
a particular order
• Identifying temporary data stores
• Specifying actual names of files and printouts
• Adding controls to ensure the processes are
done properly

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 CRUD Matrix

• The acronym CRUD is often used for

• Create
• Read
• Update
• Delete
• These are the activities that must be present
in a system for each master file
• A CRUD matrix is a tool to represent where
each of these processes occurs in a system

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 CRUD Matrix (Figure 7.11)

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 Summary

• Data flow diagrams

• Structured analysis and design tools that
allow the analyst to comprehend the system
and subsystems visually as a set of
interrelated data flows
• DFD symbols
• Rounded rectangle
• Double square
• An arrow
• Open-ended rectangle

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 Summary (continued)

• Creating the logical DFD

• Context-level data flow diagram
• Level 0 logical data flow diagram
• Child diagrams
• Creating the physical DFD
• Create from the logical data flow diagram
• Partitioned to facilitate programming

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 Summary (continued)

• Partitioning data flow diagrams

• Whether processes are performed by
different user groups
• Processes execute at the same time
• Processes perform similar tasks
• Batch processes can be combined for
efficiency of data
• Processes may be partitioned into different
programs for security reasons

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Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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 8
Kendall & Kendall
Systems Analysis and Design, 9e

Analyzing Systems
Using Data Dictionaries

Kendall & Kendall Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall
 Learning Objectives

• Understand how analysts use of data dictionaries for

analyzing data-oriented systems.
• Understand the concept of a repository for analysts’
project information and the role of CASE tools in
creating them.
• Create data dictionary entries for data processes,
stores, flows, structures, and logical and physical
elements of the systems being studied, based on
DFDs.
• Recognize the functions of data dictionaries in
helping users update and maintain information
systems.

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 Cataloging

• Data flow diagrams can be used to catalog:

• Data processes
• Flows
• Stores
• Structures
• Elements
• Cataloging takes place with the data
dictionary

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 Major Topics

• The data dictionary

• The data repository
• Defining data flow
• Defining data structures
• Defining data elements
• Defining data stores
• Using the data dictionary
• XML
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 The Data Dictionary

• A reference work of data about data

(metadata)
• Collects and coordinates data terms,
and confirms what each term means to
different people in the organization

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 Need for Understanding the Data
Dictionary
• Provide documentation
• Eliminate redundancy
• Validate the data flow diagram
• Provide a starting point for developing
screens and reports
• Determine the contents of data stored in files
• To develop the logic for DFD processes
• Create XML

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 How Data Dictionaries Relate to
Data Flow Diagrams (Figure 8.1)

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 Data Dictionary Categories

• Data flows
• Data structures
• Elements
• Data stores

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 Defining the Data Flow

• ID—identification number
• Unique descriptive name
• A general description of the data flow
• The source of the data flow
• The destination of the data flow
• Type of data flow
• The name of the data structure describing the
elements
• The volume per unit time
• An area for further comments and notations

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 An Example of a Data Flow Description from
World’s Trend Catalog Division (Figure 8.3)

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 Describing Data Structures

• Data structures are made up of smaller

structures and elements
• An algebraic notation is used to
describe data structures

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 Algebraic Notation

• Equal sign means “is composed of”

• Plus sign means “and”
• Braces {} mean repetitive elements
• Brackets [] for an either/or situation
• Parentheses () for an optional element

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 Data Structure Example for Adding a Customer
Order at World’s Trend Catalog Division
(Figure 8.4)

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 Structural Records

• A structure may consist of elements or

structural records
• These are a group of elements, such as:
• Customer name
• Address
• Telephone
• Each of these must be further defined until
they are broken down into their component
elements

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 Structural Record Example

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 Logical and Physical Data
Structures
• Logical:
• Show what data the business needs for its
day-to-day operations
• Physical:
• Include additional elements necessary for
implementing the system

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 Physical Data Structures

• Key fields used to locate records

• Codes to identify record status
• Transaction codes to identify different
record types
• Repeating group entries
• Limits on items in a repeating group
• Password

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 An Element Description Form Example from
World’s Trend Catalog Division (Figure 8.6)

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 Data Element Characteristics

• Element ID
• The name of the element
• Aliases
• A short description of the element
• Element is base or derived
• Element length
• Type of data
• Input and output formats
• Validation criteria
• Default value
• An additional comment or remark area

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 Element ID

• Optional entry
• Allows the analyst to build automated
data dictionary entries

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 The Name of the Element

• Should be:
• Descriptive
• Unique
• Based on what the element is
commonly called in most programs or
by the major user of the element

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 Aliases

• Synonyms or other names for the

element
• Names used by different users in
different systems
• A CUSTOMER NUMBER may also be
called a RECEIVABLE ACCOUNT
NUMBER or a CLIENT NUMBER

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 Short Description of the Element

• An example might be:

• Uniquely identifies a customer who has
made any business transactions within the
last five years

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 Element Is Base or Derived

• A base element is one that has been

initially keyed into the system
• A derived element is one that is created
by a process, usually as the result of a
calculation or a series of decision-
making statements

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 Element Length

What should the element length be?

• Some elements have standard lengths,
state abbreviations, zip codes, or telephone
numbers.
• For other elements, the length may vary
and the analyst and user community must
decide the final length.

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 Element Length Considerations

• Numeric amount lengths

• Name and address fields
• Other fields

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 Name and Address Length

Percent of data that will

Element Length fit (United States)

Last Name 11 98
First Name 18 95
Company Name 20 95
Street 18 90
City 17 99

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 Data Truncation

• If the element is too small, the data will

be truncated
• The analyst must decide how this will
affect the system outputs
• If a last name is truncated, mail would
usually still be delivered
• A truncated email address or web
address is not usable

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 Type of Data

• Alphanumeric or text data

• Formats
• Mainframe: packed, binary, display
• Microcomputer (PC) formats
• PC formats, such as Currency, Number, or
Scientific, depend on how the data will be
used

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 Some Examples of Data Formats
Used in PC Systems (Figure 8.7)

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 Format Character Codes
(Figure 8.8)

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 Validation Criteria

• Ensure that accurate data are captured

by the system
• Elements are either:
• Discrete, meaning they have fixed values
• Continuous, with a smooth range of values

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 Default Value

• Include any default value the element

may have
• The default value is displayed on entry
screens
• Reduces the amount of keying
• Default values on GUI screens
• Initially display in drop-down lists
• Are selected when a group of radio buttons are
used
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 Comment or Remarks Area

• This might be used to indicate the

format of the date, special validation
that is required, the check-digit method
used, and so on

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 Data Stores

• Data stores are created for each different

data entity being stored
• When data flow base elements are grouped
together to form a structural record, a data
store is created for each unique structural
record
• Because a given data flow may only show
part of the collective data that a structural
record contains, many different data flow
structures may need to be examined to arrive
at a complete data store description

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 Describing the Data Store

• The data store ID

• The data store name
• An alias for the table
• A short description of the data store
• The file type
• File format

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 Describing the Data Store
(continued)
• The maximum and average number of
records on the file as well as the growth per
year
• The file or data set name specifies the file
name, if known
• The data structure should use a name found
in the data dictionary
• Primary and secondary keys
• Comments

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 Example of a Data Store Form for World’s
Trend Catalog Division (Figure 8.9)

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 Two Data Flow Diagrams and Corresponding Data
Dictionary Entries for Producing an Employee Paycheck
(Figure 8.11)

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Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
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8-40
 11
Kendall & Kendall
Systems Analysis and Design, 9e

Designing Effective
Output

Kendall & Kendall Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall
 Learning Objectives

• Understand the objectives for effective output design

• Relate output content to output methods inside and
outside the organizational context
• Realize how output bias affects users
• Design display output
• Design dashboard, widgets, and gadgets
• Design a websites for ecommerce and corporate uses
that include Web 2.0 technologies
• Understand the development process for apps used
on smartphones and tablets

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 Output

• Information delivered to users

• Output forms
• Hard-copy—printed reports
• Soft-copy—computer screens, microforms,
and audio
• To create output, the analyst works
interactively with the user until the
output is satisfactory

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 Output Design Objectives

• Serve a specific user or organizational

purpose
• Meaningful to the user
• Deliver the appropriate quantity of output
• Make sure the output is where it is needed
• Provide output on time
• Choosing the most effective output method

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 Relating Output Content to
Method
• Content of output must be considered
as interrelated to the output method
• External—going outside the business
• Internal—staying within the business

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 External Output

• Examples:
• Utility bills
• Advertisements
• Paychecks
• Differs from internal output in:
• Distribution
• Design
• Appearance

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 Internal Output

• Examples:
• Summary reports
• Detailed reports
• Historical reports
• Exception reports
• Might consist of material available on an
intranet

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 Factors to Consider When
Choosing Output Technology
• Who will use the output?
• How many people need the output?
• Where is the output needed?
• What is the purpose?
• What is the speed with which output is needed?
• How frequently will the output be accessed?
• How long will the output be stored?
• Regulations depicting output produced, stored, and
distributed
• Initial and ongoing costs of maintenance and supplies
• Human and environmental requirements

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 Green IT Initiatives

• May limit the quantity of paper reports

that are printed
• May discourage employees from
printing out copies of email messages
by adding a green IT notification to the
bottom of each corporate email
message

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 Designing Printed Output

• Detailed reports
• Print a report line for every record on the master
file
• Exception reports
• Print a line for all records that match a certain
condition
• Summary reports
• Print one line for a group of records that are used
to make decisions

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 Designing Output for Displays

• Keep the display simple

• Keep the presentation consistent
• Facilitate user movement among
displayed output
• Create an attractive and pleasing
display

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 Graphical Output in Screen
Design
• The purpose of the graph
• The kind of data to be displayed
• The audience
• The effects on the audience of different
kinds of graphical output

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 Designing a Website

• Use professional tools

• Study other sites
• Use Web resources
• Examine the sites of professional
website designers
• Use the tools you’ve learned
• Use storyboarding, wireframing, and
mockups
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 Designing a Website (continued)

• Consult the books

• Examine poorly designed websites
• Creating Web templates
• Style sheets allow you to format all Web
pages in a site consistently
• Using plug-ins, audio, and video
sparingly

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 Designing a Website (continued)

• Plan ahead, pay attention to:

• Structure
• Content
• Text
• Graphics
• Presentations style
• Navigation
• Promotion

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 Structure

• One of the most important steps in

developing a professional website
• Each page in the Web structure should
have a distinct message
• Can benefit from using website
diagramming and mapping tools

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 Content

• Appropriate content is needed to keep

the user interested
• Use a metaphor or images that provide
metaphor for your site
• Should include a FAQ page
• May take advantage of prewritten
software

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 Text

• Each Web page should have a title

• Place meaningful words in the first
sentence appearing on your Web page
• Clear writing is important

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 Content Management Systems

• Content on ecommerce sites needs to

be constantly updated
• Content management systems (CMSs)
are software tools that help to develop
and maintain websites and online
applications

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 Graphics

• Use either JPEG, GIF, or PNG formats

• Keep the background simple and readable
• Create a few professional-looking graphics for
use on your pages
• Keep images small and reuse bullet or
navigational buttons
• Include text in what is called a Title or ALT
attribute for images and image hot spots
• Examine your website on a variety of displays
and screen resolutions

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 Presentation Style

• Provide a home page

• Keep the number of graphics to a reasonable
minimum
• Use large and colorful fonts for headings
• Use interesting images and buttons for links
• Use CSS to control the formatting and layout
of the Web page

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 Presentation Style (continued)

• Use divisions and cascading styles or

tables to enhance a layout
• Use the same graphics image on
several Web pages
• Use Javascript to enhance Web page
layout
• Avoid overusing animation, sound, and
other elements

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 Navigation

• The three-clicks rule

• Promote the website
• Include a navigation bar and links to
the home page on every page on the
website

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 Promotion

• Promote your site

• Submit often to search engines
• Include key words in metatags
• Encourage your readers to bookmark
your website

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 Designing for Smartphones and
Tablets
1. Set up a developer account
2. Choose a development process
3. Be an original
4. Determine how you will price the app

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 Designing for Smartphones and
Tablets
5. Follow the rules for output design
6. Design your icon
7. Choose an appropriate name for the
app
8. Design for a variety of devices
9. Design the output for the app

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 Designing for Smartphones and
Tablets
10. Design the output a second time for
different orientation
11. Design the logic
12. Create the user interface using
gestures
13. Protect your property
14. Market your app

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 Choose a Development Process

• Prototyping is most likely the best way to

develop your app
• Quick releases are important
• Quality should not be sacrificed, but you can
introduce an app and then add features later
• Advantages of introducing an app first:
• It allows you to gain an advantage
• Revise the app adding new features
• Increases visibility because the app appears on a
list of apps that have been updated

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 Create the User Interface Using
Gestures
• Smartphones and tablets have innovative user
interfaces
• Technically called touchscreen capacitive sensing
• Design apps assuming that users will demand touch-
sensitive interfaces
• Use gestures such as:
• Swipes
• Pinches
• Tugs
• Shakes

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Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Publishing as Prentice Hall

11-30