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LECTURE NOTE GIT 201

INTRODUCTION TO GEOINFORMATICS
Geo-Informatics: - The art, science and technology dealing with the acquisition,
storage, processing, production, presentation and dissemination of geoinformation
is called geoinformatics.
Geoinformatics is made up of Geographical Information System (GIS), Remote
Sensing (RS) and Global Positioning System (GPS). It is the advancing science and
technology, which can be used for research and development
in any discipline. For a geographer, it is a powerful tool to generate and geocoded
data and attribute database to help taking decisions appropriately for planning.
Geographical Information System (GIS) is a computer system capable of capturing,
storing, analyzing, and displaying geographically referenced information i.e. data
identified according to location. Parker (1988) defined GIS as “an information
technology which stores, analyses, and display both spatial and non-spatial data

Geo-informatics is the science and art of

• Measuring
• Storing
• Organizing
• Analyzing
• Visualizing data related to phenomena occurring on or near the earth’s
surface. For analyzing information related to earth

Geoinformatics combines:

• Geospatial analysis
• Modeling
• Geospatial databases
• Human-computer interaction
• Both wired and wireless networking technologies
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Applications of Geo-Informatics

Many fields benefit from geoinformatics, few of them includes

• Urban planning and land use management

• Tourism
• Virtual globes
• Local and national gazetteer management
• Environmental modeling and analysis
• Military
• Transport network planning and management
• Agriculture
• Meteorology and climate change
• Telecommunications

Branches of Geoinformatics
• Cartography
• Geodesy
• Geographic Information Systems
• Global Navigation Satellite Systems
• Photogrammetry
• Remote Sensing
• Web Mapping

1. Cartography

Study and Practice of making maps

2. Geodesy

The scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the
Earth.

3. Geographic Information Systems

A system that captures, stores, analyzes, manages and presents data with reference
to geographic location data
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A Geographic Information System (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for
capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically
referenced information. GIS allows users to view, understand, question, interpret,
and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the
form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. A GIS helps users answer questions and
solve problems by looking at data in a way that is quickly understood and easily
shared, and GIS technology can be integrated into any enterprise information system
framework.

A GIS is an organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data,

and personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and
display all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS technology
integrates common database operations, such as query and statistical analysis, with
the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps.

The database information (attribute data) is tied to spatial data (feature layers). An
example of this would be schools. The actual location of the schools is the spatial
data. Additional data such as the school name, school ID, and school type would
make up the attribute data. It is the partnership of these two data types that enables
GIS to be such an effective problem-solving tool. By querying the database
associated to the layers, the GIS allows users to perform "why" and "what if"
scenarios and creates a resulting map depicting a visual analysis.

COMPONENTS OF GIS

A working GIS integrates these five key components: hardware, software, data,
people, and methods.

Hardware

Hardware is the computer system on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software
runs on a wide range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to
desktop computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations.
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Software

GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display
geographic information. A review of the key GIS software subsystems is provided
above.

Data

Perhaps the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and
related tabular data can be collected in-house, compiled to custom specifications and
requirements, or occasionally purchased from a commercial data provider. A GIS
can integrate spatial data with other existing data resources, often stored in a
corporate DBMS. The integration of spatial data (often proprietary to the GIS
software), and tabular data stored in a DBMS is a key functionality afforded by GIS.

People

GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and
develop plans for applying it to real world problems. GIS users range from technical
specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help them
perform their everyday work. The identification of GIS specialists versus end
users is often critical to the proper implementation of GIS technology.

Methods

A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed implementation plan and

business rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to each
organization.

As in all organizations dealing with sophisticated technology, new tools can only be
used effectively if they are properly integrated into the entire business strategy and
operation. To do this properly requires not only the necessary investments in
hardware and software, but also in the retraining and/or hiring of personnel to utilize
the new technology in the proper organizational context. Failure to implement your
GIS without regard for a proper organizational commitment will result in an
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unsuccessful system! Many of the issues concerned with organizational commitment

are described in Implementation Issues and Strategies.

4. Global navigation Satellite Systems

A system of satellites that provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning with global

coverage.

5. Remote Sensing

The acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon, without making

physical contact with the object.

DIGITAL MAPPING
. Digital mapping (also called digital cartography) is the process by which a
collection of data is compiled and formatted into a virtual image. The primary
function of this technology is to produce maps that give accurate representations of
a particular area, detailing major road arteries and other points of interest. The
technology also allows the calculation of distances from one place to another.

Although digital mapping can be found in a variety of computer applications the

main use of these maps is with the Global Positioning System, or GPS satellite
network, used in standard automotive navigation systems
PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL MAPPING
there are three main principles and this includes;

i. Data capture or data acquisition which involves converting the data into digital
format.
ii. Data processing in which the data are transformed into different structures to
serve different functions.
iii. Data presentation, using either computer graphics techniques for visual display
or electronic method for transmitting the data to other users.
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The major components are as follows: -

• Data acquisition: - digitizing, scanning etc.
• Data classification: - allocating features codes.
• Data structure: - Vector, raster and topology.
• Data restructuring: - Raster to vector conversion
• Data editing: - corrections etc.
• Data transformation: - map projections
• Data selection: - feature overlay
• Data generalization: - small scale compilation
• Data enhancement: - Graphic display, symbolization.
• Data analysis: - calculating areas, distance etc.

DATABASE SYSTEM
A database system is a computer-based record keeping System whose overall
purpose is to record and maintain information that is relevant to the organization
necessary for making decisions.
With the growth of the database, these systems are used in various applications of
real world such as
• Banking System and ATM's machines.
• Stock Trading Systems.
• Flight Reservation Systems.
• Computerized Library Systems.
• Super Market Product Inventory System.
• Credit Card/Credit Limit Check System.
Database can range from those of a single user with a desktop
computer to those on mainframe computers with thousands of users.

DATABASE FUNCTION INCLUDES: -

• The database can be used by multiple users at the same time- i.e. it allows
concurrent use.
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• The database offers a number of techniques for storing data and allows to use
the most efficient one i.e. it supports storage optimization.
• The database allows imposing rules on the stored data, which will be
automatically checked after each update- i.e. it supports data integrity.
• The update offers an easy to use data manipulation language, which allows to
perform all sorts of data extraction and data updates. i.e. it has a query facility.
• The database will try to execute each query in the data manipulation language
in the most efficient way. i.e. it offers query optimization.

COMPONENTS OF DATABASE SYSTEM

A database system is composed of four components;
• Data
• Hardware
• Software
• Users
1. Data - It is a very important component of the database system. Most of the
organizations generate, store and process 1arge amount of data. The data acts a
bridge between the machine parts i.e. hardware and software and the users which
directly access it or access it through
some application programs.
Data may be of different types.
• User Data - It consists of a table(s) of data called Relation(s) where Column(s) are
called fields of attributes and rows are called Records for tables. A Relation must be
structured properly.
• Metadata - A description of the structure of the database is known as Metadata. It
basically means "data about data". System Tables store the
Metadata which includes.
- Number of Tables and Table Names
- Number of fields and field Names
- Primary Key Fields
• Application Metadata - It stores the structure and format of Queries, reports and
other applications components. '
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2. Hardware- The hardware consists of the secondary storage devices such as

magnetic disks (hard disk, zip disk, floppy disks), optical disks (CD-ROM),
magnetic tapes etc. on which data is stored together with the
Input/output devices (mouse, keyboard, printers), processors, main memory etc.
which are used for storing and retrieving the data in a fast and efficient manner.
Since database can range from those of a single user with a desktop computer to
those on mainframe computers with
thousands of users, therefore proper care should be taken for choosing appropriate
hardware devices for a required database.
3.Software: A set of programs written to perform a specific job with the help of
hardware. Operating system: windows 2008, 2010, Windows XP, Windows Vista,
Unix etc.
GIS Software: ArcGIS, QGIS, Erdas, FMA, POSTGIS, Idrisi, ILWIS, Autocad,
Civil 3D etc
4.Users are those persons who need the information from the database to carry out
their primary business responsibilities i.e. Personnel, Staff, Clerical, Managers,
Executives etc. On the basis of the job and requirements made by them they are
provided access to the
database totally or partially.
The various types of users which can access the database are: -
• Database Administrators (DBA)
• Database Designers
• End Users
• Application Programmers ‘
DIGITIZING

Digitizing in GIS is the process of converting geographic data either from a hardcopy
or a scanned image into vector data by tracing the features. During the digitizing
process, features from the traced map or image are captured as coordinates in either
point, line, or polygon format.
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TYPES OF DIGITIZING IN GIS

There are several types of digitizing methods. Manual digitizing involves tracing
geographic features from an external digitizing tablet using a puck (a type of mouse
specialized for tracing and capturing geographic features from the tablet). Heads up
digitizing (also referred to as on-screen digitizing) is the method of tracing
geographic features from another dataset (usually an aerial, satellite image, or
scanned image of a map) directly on the computer screen. Automated digitizing
involves using image processing software that contains pattern recognition
technology to generated vectors
TYPES OF DIGITIZING ERRORS IN GIS
Since most common methods of digitizing involve the interpretation of geographic
features via the human hand, there are several types of errors that can occur during
the course of capturing the data. The type of error that occurs when the feature is not
captured properly is called a positional error, as opposed to attribute errors where
information about the feature capture is inaccurate or false. These positional error
types are outlined below, and a visualization of the different methods is shown at the
bottom of this section.

During the digitizing process, vectors are connected to other lines by a node, which
marks the point of intersection. Vertices are defining points along the shape of an
unbroken line. All lines have a starting point known as a starting node and an ending
node. If the line is not a straight line, then any bends and curves on that line are
defined by vertices (vertex for a singular bend). Any intersection of two lines is
denoted by node at the point of the intersection.

DANGLES OR DANGLING NODES

Dangles or dangling nodes are lines that are not connected but should be. With
dangling nodes, gaps occur in the linework where the two lines should be connected.
Dangling nodes also occur when a digitized polygon doesn’t connect back to itself,
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leaving a gap where the two end nodes should have connected, creating what is
called an open polygon

An open polygon caused

by the endpoints not snapping together
SWITCHBACKS, KNOTS, AND LOOPS

These types of errors are introduced when the digitizer has an unsteady hand and
moves the cursor or puck in such a way that the line being digitized ends up with
extra vertices and/or nodes. In the case of switchbacks, extra vertices are introduced
and the line ends up with a bend in it. With knots and loops, the line folds back onto
itself, creating small polygon like geometry known as weird polygons.

Example of a weird polygon where the line folds

back on itself
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OVERSHOOTS AND UNDERSHOOTS

Similar to dangles, overshoots and undershoots happen when the line digitized
doesn’t connect properly with the neighboring line it should intersect with. During
digitization a snap tolerance is set by the digitizer. The snap tolerance or snap
distance is the measurement of the diameter extending from the point of the cursor.
Any nodes of neighboring lines that fall within the circle of the snap tolerance will
result in the end points of the line being digitized automatically snapping to the
nearest node. Undershoots and overshoots occur when the snap distance is either
not set or is set too low for the scale being digitized. Conversely, if the snap distance
is set too high and the line endpoint snaps to the wrong node. In a few cases,
undershoots and overshoots are not actually errors. One instance would be the
presence of cul-de-sacs (i.e. dead ends) within a road GIS database.

The circle represents the area of the

snap tolerance. The line being digitized will automatically snap to the nearest nodes
within the snap tolerance area.
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SLIVERS

Slivers are gaps in a digitized polygon layer where the adjoining polygons have gaps
between them. Again, setting the proper parameters for snap tolerance is critical for
ensuring that the edges of adjoining polygons snap together to eliminate those gaps.
Where the two adjacent polygons overlap in error, the area where the two polygons
overlap is called a sliver.

Gap and Sliver Errors in Digitized Polygons

TYPES OF DATA
There are two types of data used in GIS

1. Spatial data
2. Non spatial data
Spatial data contains coordinates like latitudinal and longitudinal position of
features. It represents the location of geographical entities together with their spatial
dimension. The spatial data are represented with the help of point, line and polygon.
Non spatial data (attribute data) represents a set of information that is systematically
organized and compute against each spatial data
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For example, if the spatial data contain a polygon representing a state or country and
in attribute data it has information about its administrative division, total areas,
population and so on respectively.

The non-spatial data can be two types

Statistical (Numerical values)
Descriptive (Word or text)
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Spatial data are divided into two types; Raster data and Vector data
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