ommodore

V •O •L•U •M •E T-W-O

Everything you need to know to create sophisticated

music, sprites, and detailed bitmapped screens on
your Commodore 64—with both the convenience of
BASIC and the speed of machine language.

Craig Chamberlain

A COMPUTE! Books Publication $16.95

 ommodore

V • O ♦L • U • M • E T- W- O

Craig Chamberlain

COMPUTE!' P ib f c a t io n s j n c ®
O ne of the ABC Publishing Com panies

Greensboro, North Carolina

Copyright 1985, COMPUTE! Publications, Inc. All rights reserved

Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by

Sections 107 and 108 of the United States Copyright Act without the permission of
the copyright owner is unlawful.

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN 0-942386-45-0

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

COMPUTE! Publications, Inc., Post Office Box 5406, Greensboro, NC 27403, (919)
275-9809, is one of the ABC Publishing Companies and is not associated with any
manufacturer of personal computers. Commodore 64 is a trademark of Commodore
Electronics Limited.
Contents
Acknowledgments..........................................................................................vii
Foreword ....................................................................................................... ix
Introduction.................................................................................................. xi

P a r t 1 : A d v a n c e d B A S I C ....................................................... l
Chapter 1. Numbers and Mathematics .................................................3
Numerical Values for C on d ition s....................................................... 3
Precision and Scientific N o tatio n .................... 8
Integer Variables .................................................................................. 11
Random Number Seeding and Sequencing ................................ 15
Chapter 2 ♦ More F u n ctio n s.................................................................. 19
Print Formatting Fun ction s................................................................ 19
Transcendental F u n ctio n s.................................................................. 22
User-Defined Functions with the DEF Statem en t....................... 26
Chapter 3. File In p u t/O u tp u t.................................................................37
Introduction to I / O .............................................................................. 37
The OPEN and CLOSE S tatem en ts................................................ 38
The Printer and the CMD Statement ............................................ 45
Files on Tape ......................................................................................... 50
Disk Files ................................................................................................ 58
The Modem and Other RS-232 Devices ....................................... 71

Chapter 4. The End of B A S I C .............................................................. 81

Using Commands in Programs ....................................................... 81
The WAIT Statement ......................................................................... 84
Machine Language and the SYS Statement ................................ 88

P a r t 2 : B i t m a p p e d G r a p h i c s .................................................95
Chapter 5. The Bitmapped Graphics U tility ..................................... 97
Introduction to the Bitmapped Graphics Utility ......................... 97
The New Statements ......................................................................... 97
Graphics Modes and Point P lo ttin g .............................................. 106
Changing Colors ................................................................................ 110
Line D raw ing....................................................................................... 112
Area Filling ......................................................................................... 115
Multicolor Modes .............................................................................. 119

Chapter 6. S h a p ed it.............................................................................. 123

Introduction to Shape Tables ......................................................... 123
The Shapedit Program ..................................................................... 130
Using Shapes in BASIC P ro g ram s................................................ 146
Rotation ................................................................................................ 150
 Drawing Pen Indirection ................................................................ 153
Mixing Text with Bitmapped Graphics ....................................... 164
Suggested A pplications..................................................................... 166
The Technical Side ........................................................................... 168
EXTRACT and MERGE .................................................................. 178
BMG Statement In d e x ....................................................................... 181

P a r t 3 : S i d p l a y e r ......................................................................... 183
Chapter 7. Introduction to Music and the Sidplayer ................ 185
Electronic Music ................................................................................ 185
The Sidplayer ..................................................................................... 186
Let the Music Play ............................................................................ 190
Fundamentals of Music Theory ..................................................... 206

Chapter 8. The E d ito r ............................................................................ 227

Using the Editor ................................................................................ 249
EDIT Music ......................................................................................... 249
Special Options .................................................................................. 255
Function Key Summary .................................................................. 260
Entering a Melody ............................................................................ 260
Error Checking .................................................................................. 262
Saving the Music .............................................................................. 263
Loading a Song .................................................................................. 264
What's on the Disk? ......................................................................... 264
Using All Three Voices ..................................................................... 264
Keyboard Note Entry ....................................................................... 266
Complete Joystick Editing .............................................................. 267
Leaving the Editor: Q U IT ................................................................ 268
Chapter 9. Making Music ..................................................................... 271
W aveform s............................................................................................ 271
Envelopes ............................................................................................ 282
Envelope E xam p le.............................................................................. 287
The Filters ........................................................................................... 290
Three Demonstrations ..................................................................... 296
Repetition ............................................................................................ 298

Chapter 10. Sophisticated Sounds ..................................................... 305

Advanced Music T h e o ry .................................................................. 305
Portamento and Vibrato .................................................................. 314
Detuning .............................................................................................. 320
Transposing ......................................................................................... 322
Synchronization ................................................................................ 324
Ring Modulation ................................................................................ 333
Advanced T echniques....................................................................... 337
Chapter 11. Music and Your BASIC Program .............................. 351
Merging Sidplayer with BASIC P rogram s.................................. 351
Utility Programs ................................................................................ 364
Sidplayer Editor Command Index ................................................ 375

Part 4 : Sprite Control System ..........................................377

Chapter 12. Introduction to the Sprite Control System .............. 379
Principles of Animation .................................................................. 379
Character Graphics ........................................................................... 380
Bitmapped Graphics ......................................................................... 380
Sprite Graphics .................................................................................. 381
The Sprite Control S y s te m .............................................................. 381
Before You See It W o rk ..................................................................... 382
On with the Show ........................................................................... 389
Getting Fancy ..................................................................................... 393
Hi, Guy ................................................................................................ 398
Chapter 13. Defining Sprite Shapes ...................................................403
Joystick Editing .................................................................................. 410
The Sprite Editor Commands and Features .............................. 410
Sprites and More Sprites ................................................................ 417
Chapter 14. Using the Control System in BASIC ....................... 419
Sophisticated ....................................................................................... 419
Variable Assignments ....................................................................... 420
Load Machine Language R o u tin es................................................ 420
Load Definitions ................................................................................ 420
Install Sprite Control System ......................................................... 421
Define Block ....................................................................................... 421
Assign Block to S p rite ....................................................................... 422
Set Sprite C o lo r .................................................................................. 423
Set Sprite Size ..................................................................................... 423
Set Sprite P o sitio n .............................................................................. 423
Set Sprite D irectio n ........................................................................... 425
Select Wraparound or Bounce ....................................................... 426
Set Sprite Speed ................................................................................ 427
Set Sprite Boundaries ....................................................................... 428
Remove Sprite Control System ..................................................... 429
Review .................................................................................................. 429
Errors ..................................................................................................... 430
Multiple S p rite s .................................................................................. 430

Chapter 15. SCS Advanced F e a tu re s .................................................433

Available Definition Blocks ........................................................... 433
Automatic Shape Changing ........................................................... 434
Multicolor Mode ................................................................................ 437
 P rio rity .................................................................................................. 437
Joystick C o n tro l.................................................................................. 438
Chase Mode ....................................................................................... 440
Synchronized Sprite Motion ......................................................... 441
Enable/Disable .................................................................................. 443
Chapter 16. Miscellaneous Topics ..................................................... 445
The Merge Utility .............................................................................. 445
The Extract U tility .............................................................................. 447
Sprite-to-Sprite Collisions .............................................................. 449
Sprite-to-Screen-Data Collisions .................................................. 450
POKEing and P E E K in g ..................................................................... 451
Reading Definitions from DATA .................................................. 451
Protecting Free Memory .................................................................. 452
Relocating Screen M em o ry .............................................................. 452
Relocating the Sprite Control System ......................................... 456
Using the Control System with the
Bitmapped Graphics Extensions ................................................ 457
Using the Sprite Control System with Sidplayer ..................... 459
Using All Three Utilities T o g eth er................................................ 460
Final Comments ................................................................................ 462
Sprite Control System Command Index ..................................... 463

Appendices ...................................................................................................465
A. A Beginner's Guide to Typing In Programs ......................... 467
B . How to Type In Programs ......................................................... 469
C. Using the Machine Language Editor: M L X ........................... 471
D. The Automatic Proofreader ....................................................... 478
E. Program Merge Utility ................................................................ 482
Index .............................................................................................................. 487
Acknowledgments

Over a year in development, this book represents the talents

of many people. The author wishes to thank the following
people for their assistance in designing and debugging the
programs:
Bitmapped Graphics: Sheldon Leemon, Mark Davids, Bob
Retelle, and Jerry Brady.
Sidplayer: Harry Bratt, Robert Higgins, Jerry Brady, Chuck
Lever, Bob Retelle, Steve Maggs, Sharon Aker, Marc Sugi-
yama, Mark Freitas, and Jim Ockers.
Sprite Control System: Mark Thomas, Mark Davids, and Bob
Retelle.
Special thanks are owed to Sheldon Leemon, author of Map­
ping the Commodore 64, published by COMPUTE! Publications,
Inc. Sheldon wrote the BASIC interface for the bitmapped
graphics routines, and generously offered technical assistance
whenever it was needed. This book might not have been pos­
sible had it not been for Sheldon's help.
Also deserving special recognition are Harry Bratt, author of
the Sidplayer Editor, and Mark Davids and Bob Retelle, for
carefully reviewing the text.
Finally, the people at COMPUTE! Publications are to be
thanked for their help and patience, which has been greatly
appreciated by the author.

vii
Foreword

Bitmap graphics...music and sound...sprites— these are some of

the most powerful features of your Commodore 64. You know
what the computer can do if you've seen high-quality
commercial software. The 64 can paint any picture, play al­
most any kind of music, animate an endless variety of shapes.
Using those same techniques in your own programs, however,
isn't that simple. If you know machine language, you can do it
a bit more easily. That still may not solve the problem though,
for BASIC is often the language of convenience. And if you
know only BASIC, what can you do?
All About the Commodore 64, Volume Two is the answer. It
contains three major machine language utilities which add
new BASIC commands for bitmap graphics creation, allow you
to play the most involved music, and give you control over al­
most every aspect of sprites. Each utility is supported by an
editor, as well as other secondary programs. Examples show
you precisely what can be done and how to do it.
With bitmapped graphics you can draw, fill, and color on
the bitmap screen. With shape tables, you can draw detailed
shapes. By saving them to tape or disk, you can call them in­
stantly to the screen. "Shapedit," a shape editor, makes it a
snap to produce shapes. You can quickly change or copy any-
"Sidplayer" and its accompanying Editor allow you to
create music of your own, or type sheet music into your 64.
This editor is one of the most sophisticated available: You can
use the keyboard or joystick to add or delete notes, specify the
key, select the tempo, control volume, and number measures.
Advanced features allow you to repeat sections of a musical
piece, filter sound, and use the 64's SID chip's synchronization
and ring modulation. Almost anything that can be played,
from a symphony to a pop tune, can be reproduced on your
64. And though there are detailed explanations, you don't
even need to know how to read music to use this versatile
tool.
Sprites, those shapes you can sculpt and move across the
screen, can be easily controlled with the Sprite Control Sys­
tem. With the complete package, including a sprite editor,
you'll quickly design and create countless sprites, then move

IX
them on the screen at incredible speeds. The computer will
move them for you, or you can control them with the joystick.
In a matter of minutes you can have sprites bouncing, dis­
appearing, reappearing, crawling, and flying through your
own programs. Even though you may know how to program
just in BASIC, you can create impressive arcade-quality games
with the Control System.
Each of these utilities can be used separately, or in any
combination. They let you control, through your own BASIC
programs, some of the most advanced features available on
any home computer.
There's even more information in All About the Com­
modore 64, Volume Two. An entire section is devoted to ad­
vanced BASIC programming techniques. It picks up where
Volume One left off. You'll learn about advanced functions,
file input/output, and the little-known, but powerful, WAIT
statement.
All the programs in Volume Two are ready to type in.
Error-checking programs make typing them in easy.
If you prefer, you can purchase all the programs from
Parts 2, 3, and 4 on disk for $12.95 plus shipping by calling
toll free 1-800-334-0868.
With the information and utilities included in this book,
you can turn your 64 into the computer you've always hoped
it would become. Powerful features become convenient
enough to use. Everything is clearly documented and illus­
trated, from the simplest technique to the most advanced.
With All About the Commodore 64, Volume Two, you can have a
new computer. It may look like your old 64, but it's not. It's a
machine that's opened up hundreds of new doors into per­
sonal computing.

x
Introduction

Welcome to the second volume of COMPUTE! Books' com­

prehensive series, All About the Commodore 64. The first vol­
ume showed you everything you needed to write BASIC
programs on your 64. But there's more built into your com­
puter than just BASIC. There's a dedicated graphics chip
which features superior bitmapped graphics and eight sprites,
as well as a sound chip with capabilities comparable to those
in many commercial synthesizers. No other computer on the
market gives you such graphics and sound for such a low
price.
Unfortunately, these features are not easily accessible
from BASIC. Commodore 64 BASIC does not offer commands
for high-resolution plotting, for playing music, or for animat­
ing sprites. These have to be done with POKE statements, but
POKEs can be unwieldy and slow. In fact, BASIC programs
which use POKEs just do not run fast enough to play three
voices simultaneously or to control eight sprites at the same
time.
One solution is to write the programs in machine lan­
guage (ML), the "native" language of the Commodore 64. Ma­
chine language is so fast that it can clear the bitmap screen in
a fraction of a second; it can even move sprites faster than the
screen can display them. But to use ML you must first learn how
to write it. Learning a new language can be time-consuming.
All About the Commodore 64, Volume Two offers an alter­
native. It describes three major utilities, written in machine
language, which can be merged with your BASIC programs to
do fast drawing, play music, or animate sprites. You can keep
the convenience of BASIC while adding the speed of ML— all
without having to plug a special cartridge into your computer.
This book is divided into four parts. Part 1 explains ad­
vanced features of BASIC; the remaining three each cover one
utility, showing how to use it and suggesting some practical
applications. The concise, but clear, approach of Volume One,
including the use of summaries at the end of each section in
Part 1, has been retained for this book. These two books
supplement each other. What you didn't find in Volume One,
you'll find here. Although you don't need Volume One to

xi
understand this book, both are necessary to completely ex­
plore the capabilities of your computer.

Advanced BASIC
Part 1 picks up where All About the Commodore 64, Volume
One left off. The advanced features of BASIC are explored, de­
fined, and illustrated.
Chapters 1 and 2 cover subjects such as user-defined
functions and how to simplify IF-THEN statements. Chapter 3
discusses peripherals, such as printers and modems. The ad­
vanced topic of tape and disk files is presented with numerous
examples. A simple terminal program is even included for
those of you who have a modem. Finally, Chapter 4 covers
several miscellaneous items (how to call machine language
from a BASIC program, for instance).
Since the topics in this section are somewhat advanced
and may not be immediately applicable, you might want to
skip over these chapters and move to the graphics and sound
utilities first. However, there is a wealth of information in­
cluded in this section— it's nice to know that it's there when
you need it.

Bitmapped Graphics
This collection of machine language routines lets you work
with high-resolution and multicolor graphics. To make them
as accessible as possible, they're written in the form of state­
ments which can be added to BASIC. Even more important,
the routines don't take up a single byte of BASIC's free
memory.
New BASIC statements like GRAPHICS and DRAW are
used to clear the bitmap screen and do high-resolution plot­
ting, while others let you quickly draw lines and fill in areas.
The SHAPE statement lets you draw a complete object at any
place on the screen. There's even a program— “Shapedit"—
that helps you create a library of shapes.

Sidplayer
The SID (Sound Interface Device) chip built into your 64 is a
rather complex integrated circuit. However, “Sidplayer," the
music editing program included here, has been carefully de­
signed so that everyone can use it. No particular musical
knowledge is required; in fact, it's so easy to use that you can

xii
enter a song without knowing how to read sheet music.
As well as detailing Sidplayer's advanced features, this
section offers a discussion of the fundamentals of music
theory.
Sidplayer is capable of emulating a wide variety of in­
struments, and any music you create with it can be merged
with other BASIC programs. The music will play while the
program is doing something else. Several demonstration tunes
are even provided.

Sprite Control System

How would you like to see eight sprites go whizzing across
the screen, each with a different direction, speed, shape, size,
and color? What if you could control them with one or even
two joysticks? And how about if they changed shape when­
ever they changed direction?
All of these things are possible with the Sprite Control
System— and you don't need a single POKE statement! Even
better, the animation takes place independently of BASIC.
This means that sprites can move and change shape while a
BASIC program is displaying a score or generating sound
effects.
You'll find this utility especially useful for your own
projects, such as action games. Programs include a Sprite Edi­
tor and plenty of demonstrations.

Each of these three utilities— Bitmapped Graphics, Sidplayer,

and the Sprite Control System— can make your Commodore
64 do impressive things. That's not all, though— you'll also
see ways to use all three together to create even more impres­
sive results with your computer.

You Paid for It

All About the Commodore 64, Volume Two has something for
everyone. You'll finally be able to make use of all the special
features within your machine. They've always been there; it's
just that they haven't been easy to get to. You paid for them—
isn't it about time you used them?

X lll
Part 1
Advanced
BASIC
Chapter 1

Numbers and Mathematics

Numerical Values for Conditions

In All About the Commodore 64, Volume One, you saw how the
AND and OR operators work on true/false values and on
numbers. Actually, these operators work only on numbers;
true and false have corresponding numerical values. Consider
the following statement:
PRINT 5 = 5
Surprisingly enough, this BASIC statement will make your
computer print a minus one ( —1). Another (and somewhat
clearer) way of writing this is:
PRINT (5=5)
Note that the equal sign is not assigning anything. Rather, it's
being used as a relational operator, just like the greater than
(> ) and less than (<) symbols. The values to the equal sign's
left and right are compared for equality. If the two values are
equal— if the relation is true— BASIC associates a —1 with
this condition.
However, if the values are not equal— if the relation is
false— zero is associated with such a condition. For example,
the following statement will print a zero:
PRINT 5 = 4
The next example shows both uses of the equal sign. The
first equal sign is being used to assign the variable A, as in a
LET statement. The second is comparing variables B and C for
equality.
A =B = C
When this statement is executed, B and C will be compared
first, and the result (0 or —1) will then be assigned to A. Vari­
ables B and C will not be changed.
The fact that true and false have numerical values can
sometimes be used to simplify IF-THEN statements. These
statements work by performing a comparison, and then using
the result to decide whether to execute the commands after
the THEN or to skip to the next line.
IF 5 = 5 THEN PRINT "TRUE"

3
Chapter 1

The condition 5 = 5 is evaluated. Since both values are equal,

the result is —1, and the instruction after THEN is executed.
But look at this line:
IF 5 = 4 THEN PRINT "TRUE"
This time the result is 0, and the part after THEN does not
execute.
Actually, the instructions following THEN will be exe­
cuted whenever the result is any nonzero value, not just —1.
In the first line 310 below, the PRINT statement after the
THEN will execute if C has a value other than 0. Execution
will skip to the next line only when C equals 0.

310 IF C THEN PRINT "C HAS NONZERO VALUE"

This line is just a shortened form of:

310 IF C<>0 THEN PRINT "C HAS NONZERO VALUE"

Thus, whenever a conditional statement checks to see if a

value does not equal zero, the < > 0 portion can be eliminated.
This has a number of applications. For instance, here are
two ways of checking for a sprite collision. (Variable SN is the
number of the sprite being checked.)
IF (PEEK(53278)AND2T SN)<>0 THEN PRINT "COLLIDED!"
IF PEEK(53278)AND2TSN THEN PRINT "COLLIDED!"
Both lines produce the same results, but the second is a little
shorter.
Not only can lines be shortened because conditions have
numerical values, but they can be eliminated altogether. Con­
sider a program which has to keep incrementing a color num­
ber. When the color reaches 16, it has to be set back to 1.

260 C=C+1 : IF C=16 THEN C=1

270 POKE 53280,C

Every time these lines are executed, C is incremented. The

conditional statement insures that the value of C is always
kept in the range from 1 to 15.
Lines 260 and 270 could be combined if it wasn't for the
IF-THEN statement at the end of 260. This statement makes it

4
 Chapter 1

impossible to add other instructions to the end of the line, be­

cause they may not always be executed. However, the lines
could be combined if the IF-THEN was eliminated. The
following shows how it can be done, not in two lines as
above, but in only one line.
260 C=C+1sC=C+15*(C=16):POKE 53280,0

The logic may be hard to follow, so let's run through a

short explanation. Whenever C has a value from 1 to 15, the
statement C = C + 15*(C = 16) does not change the variable's
value. For all these values, (C = 1 6 ) is false, or 0. Since 15
times 0 is still 0, the statement effectively becomes
C = C + 0; the value of C is left unchanged. But when C is 16,
(C = 16) is true, or —1. Multiplying 15 by —1, however, gives
—15, which when added to the value of C (16) yields 1. No­
tice that an addition operation has to be used because the
value being added is negative. But the end result is subtrac­
tion. The process is outlined below.
C has the value 16
C = C+15*(C=16)
C = C +15*(-1)
C = C + (—15)
C = C—15
C = 1 6 -1 5
C =1
The example could be compacted even more by com­
bining the C = C + 1 with the C = C + 15*(C = 16). The follow­
ing line produces the same result as the previous two
examples.
260 C=C+1+15*(C=15):POKE 53280,C

This statement behaves just like C = C + 1 when C ranges from

1 to 14. When C is 15, however, adding 1 to it would make it
16, so the 15 is subtracted instead.
Here's a slight variation on this technique; it's taken from
the "Shapedit" program found later in the book. The variable
X represents a coordinate that must be kept in the range 0-39.
If X is larger than 39, it must be set back to 0. If it's less than
0, it must wrap around to 39.
240 IF X<0 THEN X=39
250 IF X>39 THEN X=0

5
Chapter 1

Instead, one line was saved by writing the code this way:
240 IF X<0 OR X>39 THEN X=-39*(X<0)

If X is less than 0, the value —39*(X<0) is 39, and the variable

is assigned the number 39. When X is greater than 39, the
value —39*(X<0) is 0, and the variable is set to 0.
One other application of this number technique is to use
it with the ON-GOTO statement. Consider the following pro­
gram segment, which waits until the joystick is pushed, and
then jumps to line 300.
320 JS=PEEK(56320)AND15:IF JS=15 GOTO 320
330 GOTO 300
Having a GOTO on a line all by itself seems wasteful.
Line 330 is necessary, but anything put on the same line, after
the GOTO, would never be executed. By taking advantage of
the number trick, you can revise the lines and end up with:
320 JS=PEEK(56320)AND15 :ON (JS=15)+2 GOTO 320,300

The possible values of (JS = 15) are —1 and 0, which

when added to 2 give the values 1 and 2, just right for using
ON-GOTO. Here is another way of writing the line so that the
numbers after GOTO can be transposed:
320 JS=PEEK(56320)AND15:ON 1-(JS=15) GOTO 300,320

Subtracting the numbers —1 and 0 (possible values of

(JS == 15)) from 1 gives 2 and 1, respectively.
These tricks and techniques with numerical values for
conditions are not necessarily faster, because they often re­
quire the use of multiplication, a slow operation. They may
also seem to be rather complicated. However, they can be
used to reduce excessive IF-THEN and GOTO statements,
which contribute to confusing program logic. It's up to you
whether you want to use these techniques in your own pro­
grams, but at least you'll be able to recognize them in other
programs.

Summary
• The values true and false have corresponding numerical val­
ues, —1 and 0.

6
 Chapter 1

• The statement PRINT A = 5 will print a —1 if A equals 5, a 0

if A does not equal 5.
• In the statement PRINT A = 5, the equal sign is used as a
relational operator. The variable A is not being assigned and
will keep its previous value.
• BASIC uses the numerical values in determining whether to
execute instructions after THEN in an IF-THEN statement.
• In the statement IF A = 5 THEN PRINT “TRUE", BASIC will
execute instructions after THEN if the value of (A = 5) is —1,
and will skip to the next line if the value is 0.
• Actually, BASIC will execute instructions after THEN if the
part between IF and THEN is any nonzero value. The state­
ment IF A THEN PRINT means “IF A is not zero THEN
PRINT" and will print a message if A has any value other
than 0.
• The statement IF A THEN PRINT is identical to IF A < > 0
THEN PRINT. Whenever < > 0 appears in a condition, it can
be removed to shorten the line without affecting the logic.
• One disadvantage in using IF-THEN statements is that two
lines cannot be combined when the first one contains such a
statement. To do so would affect the program's logic. How­
ever, the fact that the values true and false have numerical
values can be used to get around this problem.
• The statement C = C + 1 + 15*(C = 15) will increment the vari­
able C and reset it to 1 if its new value would be 16. The end
result is that C will always have a value from 1 to 15. This
statement is comparable to C = C + 1:IF C = 16 THEN C = l,
but is shorter and can be followed by more statements.
• When a GOTO statement is found on a line by itself, it can
usually be combined with the previous line.
• If a GOTO cannot be combined because the previous state­
ment is an IF-THEN, the ON-GOTO statement can be used
instead. Each of the three following examples accomplishes
the same thing.

350 JS=PEEK(56320)AND15:IF JS=15 GOTO 350

360 GOTO 300

350 JS=PEEK(56320)AND15:ON (JS=15)+2 GOTO 350,300

350 JS=PEEK(56320)AND15:ON 1-(JS=15) GOTO 300,350

7
Chapter 1

• The number techniques introduced in this section are mainly

used to shorten a program. They do not necessarily make the
program any simpler.

Precision and Scientific Notation

Your Commodore 64 always performs mathematical calcula­
tions with a high degree of accuracy. If it tries to tell you that
2 + 2 is not 4, something is wrong with your computer. But
there's a limit to how precise an answer can be. Commodore
64 BASIC uses a maximum of nine digits in representing num­
bers. If an answer needs more than nine, the least significant
digits are dropped.
Here's an example.
PRINT 1234567 + 0.9876543
The answer should be 1234567.9876543, but that takes 14
digits. The most significant digits are the ones to the left, so
only the first 9 are used. BASIC responds with the answer
1234567.99. Notice that the ninth digit is rounded up because
the tenth digit would have been 7. Numbers are rounded up if
the missing digit is greater than or equal to 5; otherwise
they're rounded down.
Because BASIC can manage only nine digits, there are
some numbers that BASIC can only approximate. The fraction
1 /7 is an example. The decimal representation of 1 /7 contains
a sequence of digits which repeat forever.
1/7 = 0.142857142857142857...
But if you PRINT this fraction, you'll get only the first nine
digits, the last a 3, rounded up from ...28.
PRINT 1/7
.142857143
This inability to exactly represent some numbers doesn't
apply just to numbers with too many digits. The following
program looks simple enough, but it will not work as you
might expect.
10 FOR K=1 TO 10 STEP 0.01
20 PRINT K
30 NEXT K
The program starts printing the numbers correctly (1,
1.01, 1.02, and so on), but after 1.22 things begin to get

8
 Chapter 1

strange. The number 1.22999999 appears for 1.23. This contin­

ues for the rest of the program. To see why, enter the follow­
ing statement.
PRINT 1.01 - 1
You'll see .0100000002. The number 0.01 is another of
those values that BASIC cannot precisely represent. This can
lead to some really frustrating problems if you're not aware of
the limitations. For instance, enter this next line.
PRINT 1.01 - .01
BASIC prints 1. But the printed number may sometimes
be slightly different from the machine's internal representation
of the number. In the next example, the part after the THEN
will not be executed.
IF 1.01 - .01 = 1 THEN PRINT "YES"
Because of the problems in computing .01, 1.01 —.01 may
print as 1 but yet not exactly equal 1.
Sometimes you can use programming and a little
mathematics to get around these problems. The example that
stepped in 0.01 increments could be rewritten like this:
10 FOR K=100 TO 1000
20 PRINT K/100
30 NEXT K
Other problems may not be as easy to solve, and will re­
quire more creative solutions. The IF-THEN statement above
needs to be rewritten so that it's something like this:
N=1.01 - .01 : IF INT(N*100)=100 THEN PRINT "YES"
One other possibility must be considered. If BASIC can
handle a maximum of only nine digits, what happens when it
comes across a number which has more than nine digits to
one side of the decimal? Can BASIC process numbers such as
1,234,567,890 (1.23456789 billion)? Yes, but it has to display
them using a form of representation known as scientific
notation.
PRINT 1234567890
1.23456789E+09
Any number can be represented as a number (the mantissa)
times 10 raised to a power (the exponent). The E means times

9
Chapter 1

10 to the ..., so 1.23456789E + 09 means 1.23456789 times 10 to

the ninth power. This is commonly written as:
1.23456789 X 109
For practical purposes, E + 0 9 means move the decimal
point nine places to the right to get the correct value. If
1.23456789 is adjusted, 1234567890 results. (Sometimes it's
necessary to add one or more zero digits to move the decimal
point completely.)
Scientific notation is convenient when representing num­
bers with a lot of digits, especially those which contain several
zeros. The numbers 10000000000 and 1000000000 look very
much the same (especially without the normal comma nota­
tion), but there's a difference of 9000000000 between them.
Representing the numbers as 1E + 10 and 1E + 09 eliminates
the need to count the zeros, and reduces the chance of error.
The use of scientific notation is not confined to the
displaying of numbers, as in the following:
PRINT 1E8,1E9
100000000 IE +09
You can also express numbers in scientific notation in re­
sponse to INPUT statements, include them as values in DATA
statements, and use them in most other places where numbers
are used. The absolute maximum value that BASIC can repre­
sent is 1.70141183E + 38. If a number exceeds this limit,
BASIC will stop and print the OVERFLOW error.
Scientific notation works in the other direction as well.
Values less than 0.01 are always represented using scientific
notation.
PRINT 0.00001089
1.089E-05
The minus sign means that the decimal point should be
moved the designated number of places to the left. It does not
mean that the number is negative.
There is no underflow error. Numbers less than
2.93873588E —39 are converted to zero.
PRINT 3.14E-40
0

10
 Chapter 1

Summary
• Commodore 64 BASIC uses a maximum of nine digits to
represent any number. If a number is made up of more than
that, the nine most significant digits (leftmost digits) are
used. The remaining digits are dropped.
• When digits have to be dropped, the nine-digit number is
rounded up or down (depending on the tenth digit). If the
tenth digit is 5 or more, the number is rounded up; other­
wise, it's rounded down.
• Values need not have more than nine digits for the computer
to have trouble representing them. Examples showed how
the 64 has difficulty handling the number 0.01.
• The computer's internal representation of a number may be
slightly different from the printed form. The result of 1.01 —
.01 prints as 1, but is not equal to 1 in IF-THEN comparisons.
• Sometimes it's possible to rewrite a line or lines to reduce the
problems associated with precision.
• Scientific notation can be used to represent numbers with
more than nine digits to one side of the decimal point. Any
number can be represented as a number from 0 to 9 times 10
raised to a power. The number 1234567890 is represented as
1.23456789E + 09 in scientific notation. The 1.23456789 is
called the mantissa, the E means times 10 to the ..., and the
+ 09 is called the exponent.
• In practical terms, E + n , where n is a number, means that the
decimal point should be moved n places to the right, with
zeros added if necessary.
• Scientific notation makes it easier to read numbers with lots
of digits and reduces the chance of error.
• If a value exceeds 1.70141183E + 38, BASIC will stop with an
OVERFLOW error.
• All numbers of magnitude less than 0.01 are represented in
scientific notation. The number 0.00123 becomes 1.23E —03,
with E —03 meaning that the decimal point should be moved
to the left three places.
• Numbers less than 2.93873588E —39 are converted to 0. No
error occurs when this happens.

Integer Variables
In All About the Commodore 64, Volume One, the concept of
type was introduced. The variable type helps describe what

11
Chapter 1

kind of information is being expressed by the variable. The

types described in Volume One were numbers and character
strings. The TYPE MISMATCH error occurred whenever these
were improperly mixed, as in LET A = "CHRIS".
There's a third type of variable that's not often used. An
integer variable is denoted by a percent symbol (%) after the
variable name, just as a string variable is indicated by a dollar
sign ($). Integer variables are treated like other types of vari­
ables, so they can be used with such statements as PRINT, IN­
PUT, READ, and so on. The difference lies in their possible
values.
The numeric variables that have been used up until now
are also known as floating-point variables. They can have frac­
tional values, which are written in decimal form with digits to
the right of the decimal. Integer variables cannot.
Integer numbers include the counting numbers (1, 2, 3,
and so on), their negative counterparts ( —1, —2, —3, ...), and
0. Fractional values cannot be represented by integers.
Integer variables can have integer values ranging from
—32768 to +32 7 6 7 . Values outside this range cause an IL­
LEGAL QUANTITY error.
LET A°/o= 5:PRINT A% 5
N% = —3:PRINT N% -3
Q% = 100000 ILLEGALQUANTITY
If you try to assign a decimal value to an integer variable,
the value is converted to an integer before it's assigned.
A% = 5.5:PRINT A% 5
N%=6.9:PRINT N% 6
This conversion uses the same process as that used by the
integer function (INT(X)). The INT function takes a decimal
value and returns the largest integer that's less than or equal
to the argument (the value within parentheses). For positive
numbers, this has the effect of dropping all digits to the right
of the decimal point. But for negative numbers, it works a little
differently.
PRINT INT(—5) -5
PRINT INT(—5.4) -6
In the first example, the argument is already an integer, so
no conversion is necessary. The second example returns —6
instead of —5, because —5 is actually larger than —5.4. You
can more easily see this on a number line, as shown by Figure
12
 Chapter 1

1-1. Notice that the largest integer less than —5.4 is not —5,
but —6.

Figure 1-1. A Number Line

—7 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
« -- 1— 1^ 1 I I I I I— I I I I I I I---►

- 5 .4

Here's another example:

A%= —3 : PRINT A% -3
N°/o= —3.427 : PRINT N% - 4
Integer and floating-point variables can be used together,
since the variable named A% is completely different from the
variable named A. Floating-point variable A does not change
when integer variable A% is assigned, and vice versa. Integer
variables can even take the values previously assigned to
floating-point variables, although the values are converted
into integer form. The process can be reversed as well. The
next few lines illustrate all these points. Notice that the last
line (IF N = N % THEN PRINT...) shows that N and N% are
not equal.
Q=3.14159 : PI%= Q : PRINT PI% 3
R%=32 : S=R% : PRINT S 32
N =2 : N%=3 : IF N=N% THEN PRINT "YES" (nothing printed)
The only exception to using integer and floating-point
variables together is that the former can't be used as counting
variables in FOR-NEXT loops. For some strange reason, Com­
modore 64 BASIC stops and displays a SYNTAX ERROR if
you try to use an integer variable in this way.
FOR K% = 1 TO 10 : REM WRONG
In most computer languages, integer variables are avail­
able because they take less memory and can be processed
faster. This isn't true, however, of integer variables in Com­
modore 64 BASIC. All math operations are computed using
floating-point numbers, so if an integer variable is used in a
math operation, it's first converted to floating point (the ma­
chine's internal representation for integer and floating-point
numbers is different). Then the operation is performed, and

13
Chapter 1

the result converted back to integer form. Look at the follow­

ing example; three conversions have to be done.
LET C% = A% + B%
1. Convert A% to floating point
2. Convert B% to floating point
Perform the operation
3. Convert result to integer
Conversions take time. This means that integer variables
actually compute slower than floating-point variables. Also,
because each floating-point and integer variable take up seven
bytes of free memory, using integer variables does not save
memory.
All of this leads to a very good question. If integer vari­
ables have a limited range, cannot have decimal values, com­
pute slower than floating-point variables, and take just as
much memory, when would you ever want to use them? The
answer is never, unless they're being used as an array. Each
entry in an integer array takes only two bytes, compared with
five bytes per entry in a floating-point array.
DIM A(100) 101 entries * 5 + 7-byte array overhead = 512
bytes
DIM A%(100) 101 entries * 2 + 7-byte array overhead = 209
bytes
If your program is using several very large arrays and free
memory is a concern, it may be worthwhile to use integer ar­
rays. Or, if you want to use a certain variable name (such as
X), but the name is already in use for a floating-point variable,
you can still use the name with an integer variable (X%). With
these exceptions, you might as well not bother to use integer
variables.

Summary
• Numeric variables used up to now are more accurately called
floating-point variables.
• Type describes what kind of information is being conveyed
by a variable. The two types of variables used thus far have
been floating-point and string variables.
• Integer numbers include the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, ...,
their negative counterparts, and 0. A fraction cannot be ex­
pressed by an integer.
14
 Chapter 1

• Integer variables are a third type of variable. They're distin­

guished from floating-point variables by a percent sign (%)
after their name.
• Integer variables can have integer values from —32768 to
+ 32767. If an integer variable is assigned a value outside
this range, the ILLEGAL QUANTITY error will occur.
• When an integer variable is assigned a decimal value, the
value is first converted to an integer using the same proce­
dure as that used by the INT function. For positive numbers,
this has the effect of dropping all digits to the right of the
decimal point.
• Integer and floating-point variable names are completely
separate. N and N% are two different variables, and what
happens to one will not affect the other.
• Integer variables can be used wherever floating-point vari­
ables can be used, except that they cannot be used as count­
ing variables of FOR-NEXT loops. A SYNTAX ERROR would
result.
• Integer variables take just as much memory as floating-point
variables and actually compute slower.
• The only practical application of the integer variable type is
for an array, the one time when integers take less memory
than floating-point numbers. Each entry in an integer array
takes two bytes, as opposed to five bytes per entry in a
floating-point array.

Random Number Seeding and Sequencing

The random function was introduced in Volume One as a
means of adding a certain amount of unpredictability to a pro­
gram. RND(O) returns a decimal number between 0 and 1, and
returns a different number each time it's called. By multiplying
the value by 10 and taking the integer, a random number
from 0 to 9 can be obtained. This is useful in such applications
as games. There are some applications of random numbers,
though, where you will not want to use RND(O). Although
this function returns numbers between 0 and 1, it will return
only selected values. After a number of calls, RND(O) will re­
peat some values, yet not return others, no matter how many
times the function is used. The following program line graphi­
cally demonstrates this.
10 Z=RND(0)* 1000:POKE 55296+Z,15:POKE 1024+Z,160:G
OTO 10

15
Chapter 1

The plotting appears random at first, but it soon begins to

form a pattern of diagonal lines. Since not all of the screen is
covered, you can easily tell that the numbers generated by
RND(O) are not very dense. In other words, there are plenty of
values missing.
Fortunately, there's a solution to this. Change the argu­
ment of the RND function from 0 to 1, clear the screen, and
run the program again. This time the plotting does not form
any discernable pattern, and if you let the program run long
enough, the whole screen is eventually filled.
Commodore 64 BASIC actually supports two kinds of ran­
dom functions. If the argument is 0, the computer PEEKs some
constantly changing hardware locations to construct the ran­
dom number. This would be acceptable, except that the con­
tents of the hardware locations do not change enough. One is
a clock/timer that normally isn't even running!
Using the RND function with a nonzero argument cal­
culates a value based on a repeating series. This process forms
a very dense set of numbers, yet it's not without flaws either.
RND(l) will return the same sequence of numbers every time
you turn the computer on. Try it by first turning your com­
puter off and back on. Then enter this line:
PRINT RND(1);RND(1);RND(1)
Note the three values returned. Now turn the computer
off again, then back on, and retype the line. After pressing RE­
TURN, you'll see the same three values as before.
Using arguments such as 8 or 1.5 in place of 1 doesn't
make any difference. The numbers may be dense, but they
will always occur in the same order. This certainly limits the
usefulness of the RND function for applications like games.
To get a dense set of numbers that will be different every
time you turn on the computer, you have to “seed" the ran­
dom number generator. This is usually done at the beginning
of a program by calling the random function with a negative
argument. For every negative argument, a different sequence is
selected. For example, every time you enter the following line,
you'll get the same results.
N = RND( - 1):PRINT RND(1);RND(1);RND(1)
Try changing the seed value to —2. Though a different set
of numbers will be printed, they'll still be the same each time.
You can imagine that the computer holds a very long sequence
16
 Chapter 1

of numbers, and each seed starts the random function at a dif­

ferent point in the sequence.
To get truly random numbers, you need to randomly seed
the random function. Sound confusing? It's not. Instead of
using a constant negative number for the seed value at the
beginning of the program, just use a changing value, such as:
100 N=RND(-TI)

Do this only once, when the program initializes, and then

use RND(l) to get the random numbers.
This should be the perfect solution. You get a dense set of
numbers, and the set is different every time. Random numbers
produced by this technique are suitable for both games and
statistical applications.

Summary
• The random function, RND, returns a random decimal num­
ber between 0 and 1.
• When RND is called with an argument of 0, the value re­
turned is based on a hardware timer. However, only a few of
the possible numbers are ever returned. In other words, the
numbers are not very dense.
• Calling RND with an argument greater than 0, such as 1,
makes the function return a value based on a repeating se­
ries. Values returned by RND(l) are dense. The only problem
with RND(l) is that it returns values in the same order every
time the computer is turned on.
• The random number generator can be "seeded" by calling
RND with a negative argument. For each negative number,
or seed, the values returned by RND(l) start at a different
place in the series.
• To get truly random numbers (dense and different each time
the computer is turned on), the random number generator
should be seeded with a random value as part of a program's
initialization. Using RND( —TI) should be satisfactory.

17
Chapter 2

More Functions

Print Formatting Functions

The screen on the Commodore 64 is divided into 25 rows of
40 columns each. These rows are more specifically called phys­
ical lines. Another type of row is known as a logical line. You
may have noticed while editing a line in BASIC, that when
the typing wraps around to the left edge of the screen, the
rows below scroll down. This makes room for typing on a sec­
ond row. Together, the two rows form one logical line.
One logical line can be up to two physical lines long,
which is why BASIC lines on the 64 cannot exceed 80 charac­
ters. If the typing wraps around to a third row, a new logical
line is used.
Logical lines control the cursor movement when the RE­
TURN key is pressed. Hitting RETURN moves the cursor to
the beginning of the next logical line. This means that the
cursor may move down one or two physical lines. Normally,
the cursor just moves to the next row; if it's on the first row of
a two-row logical line, however, it skips the second and goes
to the first row of the next logical line.
Logical lines also affect screen scrolling. The screen may
scroll by one or two rows. The number of rows in the logical
line currently scrolling off the screen determines how far the
screen scrolls.
The POS function returns the current horizontal position
of the cursor within a logical line. POS indicates this position
with a column number from 0 to 79. Values 0-39 correspond
to the 40 columns of the first row, while those from 40 to 79
indicate that the cursor is on the second row of a logical line.
POS requires an argument. It's a dummy argument (it
doesn't affect the value returned) and is usually set to 0.
PRINT POS(O)
PRINT "GRAPHICS" POS(O) "SOUND"
In the first example, BASIC printed a zero— that's because
the cursor moved to column 0 when the RETURN key was
pressed to enter the line. Eight was returned in the second ex­
ample because the cursor was in column 8 after printing the
word GRAPHICS.

19
Chapter 2

Once in a while you'll find a situation in which POS may

come in handy, but generally it's a relatively useless function.
Two functions which can be used more often are TAB and
SPC. Actually, they are not true functions. They do not return
values, and they can be used only in PRINT statements. TAB
and SPC are used to change the position of the cursor. Here's
an example:
PRINT TAB(20) "HOWDY"
The only thing that was printed was the word HOWDY,
but its first letter was in column 20. TAB is like a special
instruction to the PRINT statement which makes the cursor
move to a certain column. Commas in PRINT statements
allow only very limited formatting of displayed information,
because you have no choice about where the first character
appears. With TAB, however, you can select your own col­
umns. Program 2-1, "Parts," shows a simple example of how
you can use TAB to format a screen display.

Program 2-1. Parts

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.
10 PRINT " PART" TAB(6) "NAME" TAB(16) " QUANTITY"
srem 126
20 FOR K=1 TO 3sREAD PN,N$,Q srem 231
30 PRINT PN TAB(6) N$ TAB(16) Q srem 62
40 NEXT srem 163
50 DATA 33,WING NUT,5,10,BOLT,3,47,1/4 SCREW,16
srem 85
TAB works by comparing the number in parentheses with
the current position (the value returned by POS). If the cursor
has to be moved to the right, the necessary number of spaces
are printed. TAB cannot move the cursor to the left, which
would cause overwriting of something already on the screen.
In fact, if you try to use TAB(12) when the cursor is at column
20, the cursor won't move. You can see this for yourself by
entering this PRINT statement:
PRINT TAB(20) 6 TAB(12) 4
Another use of TAB is to center or right justify text lines.
These lines center each word printed.
10 READ S$ :IF S $ o " E N D " THEN PRINT TAB (20-LEN (S$ )/
2) S $ :GOTO 10
20 DATA BITMAPPED,GRAPHICS,MUSIC,SYNTHESIS,SPRITE
{SPACE}ANIMATION,END

20
 Chapter 2

By changing the expression for the TAB value from

20 —LEN(S$)/2 to 39 —LEN(S$) the words will be right jus­
tified instead.
TAB is used to absolutely position the cursor. Regardless of
where the cursor is, TAB moves it to the requested column, as
long as it's not trying to move to the left. The SPC function
works a little differently. It moves the cursor the designated
number of spaces to the right from its current position. It al­
lows relative positioning of the cursor. If the cursor is at col­
umn 8, for instance, SPC(10) moves it to column 18. If it's at
column 12, SPC(10) moves it to column 22. This is useful
when you want to print several leading spaces. A statement
starting with PRINT SPC(6) is easier to read than PRINT
", where it can be hard to count the number of
spaces. SPC can also be used to print patterns, as the example
below illustrates.
10 FOR K=1 TO 9:PRINT SPC(K) MID?("COMMODORE ",K ,1)
:NEXT K
Remember, TAB and SPC are not true functions, and can
be used only with the PRINT statement. That means, though
it would be handy, you cannot do something like this:
10 BL?=SPC(10) : REM WRONG

Summary
• A physical line is one of the 25 rows on the screen.
• A logical line can consist of one or two contiguous rows. A
logical line becomes two rows long when typing at the right
edge of the screen wraps around to the next row at the left
edge.
• BASIC program lines are one logical line long, which is why
they cannot be longer than 80 characters.
• When RETURN is pressed, the cursor moves to the begin­
ning of the next logical line.
• Logical lines also affect screen scrolling.
• The POS function returns the current position (columns
0-79) of the cursor within a logical line. Columns 40-79 in­
dicate the second row of a logical line. Unfortunately, POS
has few applications.
• TAB and SPC are special kinds of functions which can be
used only in a PRINT statement. They control cursor

21
Chapter 2

positioning, more like commas and semicolons in PRINT

statements than like true functions. TAB and SPC do not re­
turn values.
• TAB advances the cursor to a designated column, as long as
this does not require moving the cursor leftward. TAB allows
absolute positioning of the cursor. Its applications include
columnar printing and the centering and right justification of
text.
• SPC moves the cursor to the right a designated number of
spaces. Thus, SPC allows relative positioning of the cursor.
SPC is used to print leading spaces and patterns.

Transcendental Functions
This section presents a group of functions that are used mainly
in mathematics-oriented applications.
The SQR function returns the square root of its argument.
The square root of number N is the number that, when mul­
tiplied by itself, produces N. Thus, the square root of 9 is 3,
because 3*3 is 9; the square root of 16 is 4. The square root of
12 is somewhere between 3 and 4, but the decimal representa­
tion for this number continues indefinitely. With nine digits
the value can be approximated as 3.46410162. Square roots of
negative numbers are undefined, so using a negative argument
with SQR causes an ILLEGAL QUANTITY error.
Finding the square root of a number is the same as raising
the number to the power of 1/2. Square roots can also be cal­
culated by using the exponentiation operator— the up-arrow
key on your Commodore 64 (t)— with the value 0.5. That's
why both the following lines produce the same result.
PRINT SQR(12)
PRINT 12T.5
The only advantages to using SQR instead of the
exponentiation operator are that SQR is easier to read, and it
executes just a little faster.

22
 Chapter 2

It might be a good idea to take a moment and see

how complex mathematical formulas are converted into
BASIC expressions. BASIC, of course, uses a slightly dif­
ferent notation than normal mathematics.
A common formula that uses the SQR function is the
solution to the quadratic equation ax2+ b x + c = 0 . The
solution is written as:
x = —b ± \/b2—4ac
2a
The first difficulty is the ± operation, which is not
available in BASIC. The equation has to be written twice,
once using + and once using —.
The long horizontal bar represents division, and
means that the entire top part is to be divided by the bot­
tom part. To keep the precedence correct, parentheses
have to be used. Here's how the equations might be writ­
ten in BASIC.
X = ( —B+SQR(BT2—4* A*C))/2* A
X = ( - B - SQR(Bf 2 - 4*A*C))/2*A
These expressions, however, are wrong. A common
mistake is to forget about precedence in the denominator.
The quantity 2*A should be placed in parentheses so that
the top part is divided by the value of 2*A. As the above
expressions are written, the top part is first divided by 2
and then multiplied by A. That will give an incorrect re­
sult. This is the right way to note the formula:
X = ( - B + SQRfBt 2 —4* A*C))/(2* A)
X =(-B -S Q R (B t2 -4 *A *C ))/(2 *A )
These expressions are correct, but inefficient. The
exponentiation operator executes very slowly. When pos­
sible, use multiplication instead. In this example, the

23
Chapter 2

computer can calculate B*B almost seven times faster than

BT2. Change the expressions to read:
X = ( —B+SQR(B*B—4*A*C))/(2*A)
X = ( —B —SQR(B*B—4*A*C))/(2*A)
For further optimization, the part SQR(B*B—4*A*C),
called the discriminant, should be calculated only once,
like this.
D=SQR(B*B—4*A*C)
X = (-B + D )/(2 * A )
X = ( —B -D )/(2*A )
One more thing can be done to simplify the second
expression above. Replace ( —B + D) with the equivalent
(D -B ).
Converting formulas into BASIC expressions is ac­
tually quite easy. Just remember the rules of precedence,
arid look for ways to optimize the code.

EXP and LOG are two more functions based on expo­

nents. EXP takes the natural number e, a constant equal to
2.71828183, and raises it to the power specified by the argu­
ment. This power cannot exceed 88.0296919, or the OVER­
FLOW error occurs. Arguments less than —88.0296919 return 0.
Like the square root of 12, e is an irrational number (it
cannot be written as a fraction) and can only be approximated.
The nine-digit approximation of e is 2.71828183, which is pro­
duced by EXP(l). This means that EXP can also be done using
exponentiation. Both the following statements produce the
same result.
PRINT EXP(8)
PRINT ET8 (assuming E equals 2.71828183)
Again, EXP is a little easier to work with than exponentia­
tion, but in this case it's also much faster; it can be almost
twice as fast as raising e to a power.
The LOG function is the inverse of EXP. Again, both of
the next two statements return the same value, in this case 8.
PRINT LOG(EXP(8))
PRINT EXP(LOG(8))
Note that LOG computes natural logarithms, logarithms
to the base e, instead of the base 10 often found on pocket

24
 Chapter 2

calculators. Also, due to the nature of logarithms, the argu­

ment must be greater than zero, or the ILLEGAL QUANTITY
error occurs.

The remaining functions have to do with trigonometry.

SIN and COS are used to calculate the sine and cosine of
an angle specified in radians. Radians are often specified in
terms of the irrational number pi, written x , which is approxi­
mately equal to 3.14159265. Since this value is frequently
used, it's available as a special keyboard character. Type
SHIFT-up-arrow to get the x symbol.
PRINT x
If you prefer working with degrees instead of radians, you can
convert one to the other. To convert n degrees to radians, mul­
tiply n by x /1 8 0 . To convert n radians to degrees, multiply n
by 180/ x .
The SIN and COS functions take the argument in radians,
subtract any extra multiples of 2* x (or 360 degrees), calculate
the sine or cosine value, and return a decimal number from
—1 to 1.
The TAN function calculates the tangent of an angle
given in radians. The tangent of an angle is equal to the sine
of the angle divided by the cosine. Thus, TAN is not really
necessary, but it is more convenient. However, because it is a
fraction with COS in the denominator, some restrictions must
be placed on TAN's argument. The function is undefined for
the angles x /2 , 3* x /2 , and all equivalent angles. These an­
gles have a cosine of zero, and since tangent is sine/cosine,
this would lead to division by zero (undefined in normal
mathematics). You'll see the DIVISION BY ZERO error when
TAN is given an illegal angle.
The last function is ATN (arctangent), the inverse of TAN.
ATN returns the angle in radians which has the given tangent
as the argument. Where TAN( t /4 ) is 1, ATN(l) is x /4 , or
0.785398163. ATN will always return values from — x / 2 to
x/2.
Other trigonometric functions can be calculated using the
transcendental functions already described. See Appendix H of
the Commodore 64 User's Guide (the manual that came with
your computer) for a listing of these derived mathematical
functions.

25
Chapter 2

Summary
• The SQR function returns the square root of its argument.
The argument must be greater than or equal to zero, or an
ILLEGAL QUANTITY error occurs. The function is used in­
stead of raising a number to the power 0.5 because it's easier
to read and executes slightly faster.
• The EXP function raises the natural number e, approximately
equal to 2.71828183, to the power indicated by its argument.
If the power is greater than 88.0296919, the OVERFLOW er­
ror occurs. If the power is less than —88.0296919, EXP will
return 0. EXP is used instead of exponentiation because it's
easier to read and it executes significantly faster than raising
e to a power.
• The function LOG returns the natural logarithm, the log to
the base e, of its argument. The argument must be greater
than zero to prevent the ILLEGAL QUANTITY error.
• The 7r symbol can be used to represent the value 3.14159265,
an approximation of the mathematical constant pi.
• The SIN and COS functions return the sine and cosine,
respectively, of the angle specified (in radians) as the argu­
ment. Extra multiples of 2* x (360 degrees) are removed
from the angle. The value returned is a decimal number from
- 1 to 1.
• It's possible to convert radians to degrees, and vice versa. To
convert n degrees to radians, multiply n by x /1 8 0 . To con­
vert n radians to degrees, multiply n by 1 8 0 / x .
• The TAN function returns the tangent of the angle (expressed
in radians) given by the argument. TAN is not defined for
the angles x /2 , 3* x /2 , and equivalent angles. Using any of
these causes the DIVISION BY ZERO error.
• The ATN function is used to calculate the arctangent (inverse
tangent). It returns the angle in radians which has the tan­
gent specified as the argument. ATN will always return val­
ues from — x / 2 to x /2 .
• Formulas can be used to obtain other trigonometric functions,
such as the remaining inverses and the hyperbolics.

User-Defined Functions with the D EF Statement

Sometimes when writing a program, you may find yourself
typing the same expression again and again. Consider a pro­
gram that's working with dollar and cent values which has to

26
 Chapter 2

round numbers to the nearest cent several times. The process

of rounding is done by the following expression:
INT(N*100 + .5)/100
Given a number N, this formula will preserve all digits to
the left of the decimal point (dollars) and the first two digits to
the right of the decimal point (cents). The remaining digits will
be dropped because they represent a value less than one cent.
However, if what's dropped is half a cent or more, the number
is rounded up. Try the short program below to check that the
formula really does work.
10 INPUT N :PRINT INT(N*100+.5)/100
20 GOTO 10

The value 1.234 becomes 1.23, but 1.235 will become 1.24.
Other computers may have a rounding process included
in their BASIC. It's usually implemented in the form of a func­
tion, so that rounding a number can be as easy as saying
PRINT ROUND(N). Since Commodore 64 BASIC has no
rounding function, the formula will have to be placed in a
program wherever a number has to be rounded. If rounding
was necessary in several parts of the program, this could take
a fair amount of typing. The formula is somewhat com­
plicated, and every time you enter it, you increase the chance
of error. One solution is to use a subroutine instead, some­
thing like the program segment which follows.
10 INPUT N:GOSUB 60:PRINT A
20 GOTO 10
60 A=INT(N*100+.5)/100:RETURN

For every place where a number has to be rounded, the

statement GOSUB 60 can be used. This may be a little easier
to type, and the risk of mistyping the formula is reduced be­
cause it's entered only once. But this method is still awkward
to use.
The ideal solution would be to add the rounding process
to BASIC as one of the standard functions. That's where the
DEF statement comes in. DEF lets you create your own func­
tions, which include arguments and are called like any other
function. The availability of user-defined functions is one of
the best features of Commodore 64 BASIC.
The syntax of the DEF statement consists of several parts:

27
Chapter 2

The keyword DEF, the function name prefix FN, the function
name, parentheses containing a variable, an equal sign, and fi­
nally an expression. The restrictions which apply to variable
names apply to function names (only the first two characters
are significant, the first character must be alphabetic, and the
remaining characters are optional and must be alphanumeric).
The expression should be defined in terms of the variable in
the parentheses. This is rather complicated, so here's an
example.
10 DEF FNR(N)=INT(N*100+.5)/100:REM DEFINES FUNCTI
ON ’R ’
To call the newly defined function, the function name pre­
fix FN should be followed by the function name R, with
parentheses containing an argument.

20 INPUT N :PRINT FNR(N ):GOTO 20:REM CALLS FUNCTION

’R 1
When FNR(N) is executed, the value of argument N is
substituted for every N in the definition. PRINT FNR(3) means
PRINT INT(3*100 + .5)/100. When you run the two-line pro­
gram (lines 10 and 20 above), it gives the same results as the
previous demonstrations. But the defined function is much
more convenient.
There are several interesting things concerning the vari­
able used in the function definition which you should know.
First of all, the variable in the function call does not have to
match the variable in the function definition. Line 20 could
have been written as:

20 INPUT Q :PRINT FNR(Q):GOTO 20

You don't even have to use a variable. Make sure the two-line
program from above (with either version of line 20) is loaded
and run, hit the RUN/STOP-RESTORE key combination, then
type this line in immediate mode (without a line number).
PRINT FNR(5.118)
You'll see 5.12 returned as the result.
The purpose of the variable in the definition is to show
the relationship between the argument and the expression.
The statement DEF FNR(N) = INT(N*100 + .5)/100 really

28
 Chapter 2

means define a function R which will take the argument, multiply

it by 100, add 0.5, take the integer portion, divide by 100, and re­
turn the result as the value of the function. The variable N has
nothing to do with the definition, other than to show where
the argument is in the expression. This is necessary in case
more than one variable name appears.
10 DEF FNR(N)=INT(N*T+.5)/T
20 T=100
30 INPUT Ms PRINT FNR(N ):GOTO 30

The definition uses variable T, which has the value 100,

to make the function execute a little faster. When executing
function R, BASIC knows that the argument should be sub­
stituted for every N in the definition, because N, not T, ap­
pears as the argument.
Using a variable in a DEF statement, such as N, is a very
unusual application. Variables are not used like this in any
other aspect of BASIC. To illustrate the fact that N is indepen­
dent of the defined function, here are two things you should
know:
1. The value of N is not affected by the definition or call of a
function defined in terms of N.
2. The value of N has no effect on the definition or call of a
function defined in terms of N.
To demonstrate the first point, take a look at the next
short routine. It shows how the value of N is preserved
through a function definition and call.
10 N=193 : REM ARBITRARY CHOICE
20 DEF FNR(N )=INT(N*100+.5)/100
30 PRINT FNR(2.639)
40 PRINT N : REM WILL PRINT 193
To illustrate the second point, just try different values for
N in line 10. You'll see that function R always returns the
same value for the argument 2.639, regardless of the value of N.
You can even define a function that doesn't use its argu­
ment. This line defines function G which returns a random
integer from 1 to 10.
10 DEF FNG(X) = INT(RND(1)* 10)+1

The argument, indicated by X, is not used in the

29
Chapter 2

expression. This means that whenever function G is called, the

argument will not have any effect on the value returned by
the function.
You can go further and use a dummy argument, such as
0, just to satisfy the function's syntax.

20 PRINT FNG(0)

Another possibility is to use two arguments in a function.

Since the DEF statement syntax supports only one, variables
will have to be used to pass the two values. The defined func­
tion in the following program ignores the argument from the
function call and accepts the variables A and B instead. The
function is named MN because it is a minimum function; it re­
turns the smaller of the two arguments.
10 DEF FNMN(N)=-A*(A<B)-B*(A>=B)
20 A=3:B=4
30 PRINT FNMN(0)
When you run this, the number 3 prints. Change A so that it's
equal to or greater than B, and the number 4 will print
instead.
A = 5:PRINT FNMN(O)
This program demonstrates the definition for a maximum
function, one that returns the larger of the two arguments. No­
tice the three values that display. In each, the larger argument
appears.
10 DEF FNMX(N)=-A*(A>B)-B*(A<=B)
20 A=3:B=4:PRINT FNMX(0)
30 A=5:PRINT FNMX(0)
40 B=-7SPRINT FNMX(0)
As you can see, using function calls can prevent repeated
typings of an expression.
One application of user-defined functions is to calculate
low and high bytes of memory addresses. A common method
of storing data, from note information for a song to a sprite
shape definition, is to place a sequence of bytes in memory
locations. Whatever the information is, its first location is the
address of the data. Locations can range from 0 to 65535; so
can addresses.
This, however, presents a problem— there will be many

30
 Chapter 2

times when you'll have to store an address in a memory loca­

tion. Locations hold values (bytes) which have a range only of
0-255. Since there's no way to convert an address (0-65535)
into a byte (0-255), it's necessary to express the address in the
form of two bytes. The high byte indicates the number of mul­
tiples of 256, and the low byte specifies the remainder. All
memory locations can be expressed with this two-byte format.
The table below shows some examples.
Address Hi Lo
0 0 0
1 0 1
2 0 2
254 0 254
255 0 255
256 1 0
257 1 1
511 1 255
512 2 0
513 2 1
1024 4 0
49152 192 0
49487 193 79
65535 255 255
To break any address into its two equivalent bytes, two func­
tions are needed.
10 DEF FNH(N)=INT(N/256):DEF FNL(N )= N-256*INT(N/25
6)
20 INPUT A:PRINT FNH(A ) ;FNL(A ):GOTO 20

Function H calculates the high byte and function L calculates

the low byte. Check the values in the chart by running the
program, and then enter a few of your own.
You'll find these two functions used quite often in pro­
grams in other parts of this book. Usually the low and high
bytes will be POKEd into two consecutive memory locations,
such as in:
POKE 251,FNL(BA):POKE 252,FNH(BA)
By convention, the low byte is always POKEd into the
first location, and the high byte into the second. This format is
important to remember.
A third function used in later programs is one that re­
constructs an address stored in low byte/high byte form.

31
Chapter 2

10 DEF FNDP(A)=PEEK(A)+256*PEEK(A+l)
The "double PEEK" function PEEKs the two locations and
returns the address they contain. If you type in and run the
line above, then enter PRINT FNDP(«), where n is the low
byte location, the function will calculate the address and dis­
play it.
You may have noticed that part of the definition for func­
tion L is the same as that for function H. Can one defined
function call another? Certainly. Take a look at this line.
10 DEF FNH(N)=INT(N/256):DEF FNL(N )=N-256*FNH(N )
The only thing you don't want a function definition to do
is call itself. BASIC won't know how to deal with that and in­
dicates its confusion by printing the OUT OF MEMORY error
if the function is called.
10 DEF FNB(X)=3+FNB(X ) : REM WRONG
If there are any SYNTAX ERRORS in the expression for
the function definition, they won't be detected until the func­
tion is actually called. It's also possible for an error to occur
within a defined function, such as ILLEGAL QUANTITY, DI­
VISION BY ZERO, or OVERFLOW. In all these cases, when
BASIC stops and prints the error, the line number indicated is
the line of the function call, not the definition.
Another error associated with user-defined functions is
UNDEF'D FUNCTION. This happens whenever a program
tries to call a function not yet defined. The most common
causes are either forgetting to define the function or using dif­
ferent names for the function definition and call.
Once a function has been defined, it doesn't have to keep
that definition. If a function name is already in use, but placed
in another DEF statement, the old definition will be replaced
with the new. This also means that it's okay for the same DEF
statement to be executed more than once. No error will occur.
Defined functions are erased by the CLR statement.
The argument in a DEF statement must be a floating-point
variable. Using a string variable or an integer variable leads to
a SYNTAX ERROR.
Finally, like the GET and INPUT statements, the DEF
statement can be executed only in a program. Attempting to
define a function in the immediate mode only causes the
ILLEGAL DIRECT error.
32
 Chapter 2

Summary
• Sometimes you'll find yourself entering the same expression
again and again. Often the expression performs some process
on a value. Repeatedly typing the same expression should be
avoided, not only to eliminate extra work, but also to lessen
the chance of error.
• The ideal way to handle such an expression is to implement
it as a function. The value used by the expression could be
the argument, and the number produced by the expression
could be the value returned by the function.
• One of the best features of Commodore 64 BASIC is that it
lets you create new functions through the DEF statement.
Functions defined with DEF behave just like standard BASIC
functions. They have a name, take an argument, and return a
value.
• The syntax for the DEF statement is: DEF, the function
name prefix FN, the function name, parentheses containing a
floating-point variable for an argument, an equal sign, and
an expression.
• Function names follow the same syntax rules as variable and
array names. The first character must be alphabetic and the
remaining characters, which are optional, must be alpha­
numeric. Only the first two characters are significant.
• The variable in parentheses is called the argument variable.
The expression is defined in terms of this argument variable.
Every occurrence of the argument variable name in the ex­
pression is used to represent the value passed as the
argument.
• The argument variable is used only as a place holder, to
show the relationship of the argument to the expression. Any
variable name can be used, even one that does not appear
elsewhere in the program.
• The DEF statement can be used only in program mode.
• To call a defined function, use the prefix FN followed by the
function name, then parentheses containing an argument that
is passed to the function.
• When the function is called, BASIC refers to the expression
in the definition and substitutes the argument passed for ev­
ery occurrence of the argument variable. BASIC then eval­
uates the expression and returns the result as the function
value.

33
Chapter 2

• The value of the variable used to represent the argument is

not changed when DEF is executed or when the function is
called; the definition and call of a function are not affected
by the value of the variable.
• The argument of a call to a defined function can be a num­
ber, a variable, or an expression. It does not have to be a
variable matching the argument variable in the correspond­
ing DEF statement.
• The expression in the DEF statement does not have to con­
tain the variable for the argument. The function can ignore
the argument, and the argument will have no effect on the
value returned. It will be a dummy argument.
• To pass more than one argument to a defined function, vari­
ables have to be used. A function can ignore the normal
argument and return a value based on one or more variables.
An example here was a minimum function which took two
arguments and returned the lesser value. The definition for
this function expected the two arguments to always be in the
variables A and B.
• The expression for a definition can contain other variables,
functions, or even other defined functions.
• The only thing that a function definition may not contain is a
call to itself. That is a form of recursion, which BASIC cannot
handle, and is reflected by an OUT OF MEMORY error.
• When a call is made to a function that has not yet been de­
fined, the UNDEF'D FUNCTION error occurs. Other errors,
such as SYNTAX and ILLEGAL QUANTITY, can also occur
while a function is being called. Whenever such an error oc­
curs, the line number displayed is the line of the call, not of
the definition.
• A function can be redefined without an error. This means
that the definition associated with a function name can be
changed while the program is running, or the same DEF
statement can be executed more than once.
• All defined functions are erased when CLR is performed.
• The first memory location for a sequence of bytes is called
the address of the data. An address can range from 0 to
65535. An address can be expressed in a two-byte format,
each byte in the range 0-255. The high byte indicates mul­
tiples of 256, the low byte the remainder, of the address.
• Being able to express an address in this form makes it pos­
sible to POKE the address into memory locations.
34
 Chapter 2

• When the low and high bytes of an address are POKEd into
memory locations, two very important rules must be fol­
lowed: First, the locations must be contiguous. Second, the
low byte is always POKEd into the first location, and the
high byte is always POKEd into the second location.
• An address can be reconstructed after it has been broken
down into low and high bytes and POKEd into locations. To
get the original value, PEEK the second location, multiply it
by 256, and add the result to the value found in the first
location.
• A common application of defined functions is to calculate
low and high bytes, and to reconstruct addresses. In this
book, functions L and H are always used to take an address
and return the low and high byte, respectively. Function DP
will always take a location number, PEEK the location and
the one that follows, and return a reconstructed address.

35
Chapter 3

File Input/Output

Introduction to I/O
A computer is a communications device— it moves information
from one place to another. The most common example is
when the computer accepts information from a user through
the keyboard, and presents information by displaying it on a
screen. This process of communicating is referred to as
input/output, and is often abbreviated as I/O .
The keyboard and screen are not the only parts of a com­
puter system that can be involved in input/output. Other
peripherals, such as a printer, tape recorder, disk drive, or
modem, can also be used to transfer information. With a
printer, you can get a permanent copy of a program listing or
program results on paper. The Datassette recorder and the
disk drive can be used to load and save programs and other
kinds of information. By using a modem and a telephone, you
can connect your computer to other similarly equipped
computers.
Collectively, the keyboard, screen, printer, Datassette, disk
drive, and modem are called devices. The transfer of infor­
mation takes place between the computer and one of these de­
vices. An important aspect of this information exchange is the
direction in which the information is traveling. The direction
describes whether information is being sent or being received,
and is always described from the point of view of the com­
puter. If the computer is receiving information from a device,
the term input is used. When the computer is sending infor­
mation to a device, it's termed output. Sometimes the terms
reading and writing are used to mean receiving and sending.
With some devices, only one direction is possible. For ex­
ample, the keyboard can be used only to input information.
The keyboard is not capable of displaying information, and it
would be ridiculous to try to make the computer send infor­
mation to the keyboard. On the other hand, the printer is an
output-only device. Information cannot be entered into the
computer through the printer. Devices such as the Datassette,
disk drive, and modem, however, support both input and
output.
The purpose of this chapter is to show you how BASIC
can be used to make the computer communicate with other
37
Chapter 3

devices. BASIC's input statements are GET and INPUT, and

its output statement is PRINT. With a few modifications, these
same statements can be used with all the devices, not just the
keyboard and screen. The next section introduces a new way
to access the keyboard and screen, while the later sections
show how these methods can be applied to the other devices.

Summary
• The process of the computer communicating is called
input/output, abbreviated I/O . A typical example is when the
computer receives information from the keyboard and trans­
mits information to the screen.
• Those parts of the computer system which can be used for
input or output— the keyboard, screen, printer, Datassette,
disk drive, and modem— are called devices. The transfer of
information takes place between the computer and a device.
• The direction of the transfer is described from the point of
view of the computer. When the computer accepts infor­
mation from a device, the term input is used. Output applies
to information sent from the computer to a device.
• Some devices are capable of communicating in only one
direction. The keyboard can be used only to input infor­
mation, for instance, and the printer can be used only to out­
put information. Other devices, including the Datassette, disk
drive, and modem, can communicate in both directions.
• The rest of this chapter will show how to use variations of
GET, INPUT, and PRINT to communicate with all devices,
not just the keyboard and screen.

The OPEN and CLOSE Statements

To formally initiate communication with a device, you must
create a file which is used for the actual input/output. Creat­
ing a file informs the computer that I/O is going to be per­
formed. The file then acts as a sort of intermediary:
Information to be sent to the device is first sent to the file;
information coming from the device is first brought into the
file to be retrieved by BASIC. Like a program, a file is more of
a concept than a tangible reality.
For now, all that matters is that you realize a file is nec­
essary in order to communicate with a device, and that the
communication is done through the file. The details of how a
38
 Chapter 3

file works will become clearer as you explore its function and
use.
A file is created by the OPEN statement, which has the
following syntax:
OPEN file number, device number, command number, filename
The file number, sometimes also called the logical file number,
can range from 1 to 255. Numbers greater than 127 may have
special significance and normally should not be used. The ac­
tual value is chosen by the programmer, but the most com­
mon is 1. The file number will later be used by the GET,
INPUT, and PRINT statements.
Since it's possible for several devices to be active at the
same time, the file number is needed to distinguish one cur­
rently active file from another. For example, a program could
print a prompt on the screen, wait for a response on the key­
board, print a status message on the printer, and read in some
information from the disk. For each device that's used, a new
file must be created with a different file number. In the ex­
ample above, the screen might have been opened as file 1, the
keyboard as file 2, the printer as file 3, and the disk as file 4.
The device number is needed to specify which device is
associated with the file. Each device is identified by its own
number.
Number Device
0 Keyboard
1 Datassette
2 RS-232 (modem)
3 Screen
4 Printer
5,6,7 Other devices
8 Disk drive
As long as the file is open, the device indicated by the device
number will correspond with the file. All references to the file
will be directed to the specified device.
The command number is also called the secondary ad­
dress. It's not needed when using the keyboard or screen, and
will be discussed in a later section.
The filename is needed when working with devices such
as tape or disk drive. Like the command number, the filename
will be dealt with later.

39
Chapter 3

This leaves us with the simplest form of the OPEN

statement:
OPEN file number, device number
Here's an example of how the statement would look in a
program.

10 OPEN 1,0

This creates a file, designated as file 1, which uses device 0,

the keyboard. To input information from file 1, the INPUT
statement can now be used. However, since there might be
several files open, to various devices, the computer will need
to know from which file the input is expected. That's why the
file number must be included as part of the INPUT statement,
as shown by the next line.
INPUT# file number, variable list
In our example program, the INPUT statement would look
like:
20 INPUT#1,N

The # symbol is considered a part of the keyword, so no space

is allowed between the word INPUT and the symbol. A
comma must be used after the file number. Using a semicolon
causes a SYNTAX ERROR.
Add these two lines to lines 10 and 20 above, and run the
short program to see how this special form of INPUT works.
30 PRINT
40 PRINT "YOU TYPED" N

Notice that there's no question mark printed as a prompt.

The cursor just blinks, waiting for you to enter a number.
When you type a number and press RETURN, the program
echoes it back, as you'd expect. Now run it again, but this time
enter some letters instead of a number. Instead of getting the
REDO FROM START message, the program stops with a FILE
DATA error. If you run the program once more and type two
numbers separated by a comma, you'll not get the EXTRA IG­
NORED message— instead, just the first number appears.
Also, if you examine the syntax for the new INPUT, you'll dis­
cover that no optional prompt message is allowed. As you can

40
 Chapter 3

see, INPUT used with a file is different from the INPUT with
which you're already familiar.
The explanation of these differences is that the plain IN­
PUT is a special form of INPUT#. Because INPUT is always
used with the keyboard, features like prompt messages and er­
ror handling are helpful. However, since INPUT# may be
used to fetch information from a device other than the key­
board, such as a data file on tape, features like prompt mes­
sages would not be appropriate or even desirable.
Let's try using the screen for output. Erase the old pro­
gram by typing NEW, and enter this one.
10 OPEN 1,3 : REM 3 IS FOR SCREEN
20 PRINT#1,34
30 PRINT#1,"HAPPY BIRTHDAY"
40 PRINT#1,64,46

The # symbol is a part of the keyword, so this is one in­

stance where the abbreviation for PRINT (?) cannot be used—
you must type the full word PRINT#. As with INPUT#, a
comma is needed after the file number. This first comma does
not affect spacing. Run the program to see for yourself.
There's no difference between using PRINT and PRINT#
when the file has been opened to the screen. If a program is
going to be printing information only to this device, there's no
sense in using PRINT# when the normal PRINT works just as
well. The advantage in using the file method is that by chang­
ing the device number in the OPEN statement, all printing
will be directed to a different device. By simply changing the 3
in the OPEN statement to 4, the messages will be printed on
the printer instead of the screen (assuming a printer is con­
nected). Use of the printer is discussed in greater detail in the
next section.
Now let's consider using two open files at the same time.
The next program uses file 1 for keyboard input, and file 2 for
screen output.
10 OPEN 1,0 : REM KEYBOARD
20 OPEN 2,3 : REM SCREEN
30 PRINT#2,"WHAT IS YOUR NAME?";
40 INPUT#1,N$
50 PRINT#2
60 FOR K=1 TO 10
70 PRINT# 2,N$
80 NEXT K

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Chapter 3

Because two files are open simultaneously, different file

numbers must be used. If the second OPEN statement also
used file 1, a FILE OPEN error would occur. Use this new line
20 with the program you just ran.
20 OPEN 1,3 : REM SCREEN
The error indicates that file 1 is already in use. A number
(such as 1) cannot be used in another OPEN statement until
the file currently using that number is finished with all
input/output. At that time, the file should be closed with the
CLOSE statement, which has a very simple syntax.
CLOSE file number
The CLOSE statement formally terminates an
input/output session with a device. The file created by the
earlier OPEN no longer exists after CLOSE is executed, and
the file number is free to use in opening another file. The
following program shows how CLOSE is used.
10 OPEN 1,3 : REM SCREEN
20 PRINT#1,"WHAT IS YOUR NAME?";
30 CLOSE 1
40 OPEN 1,0 : REM KEYBOARD
50 INPUT#1 ,N$
60 CLOSE 1
70 OPEN 1,3 : REM SCREEN
80 PRINT#1
90 FOR K=1 TO 10: PRINT#1,N $ :NEXT K

If you run this, you'll not see a FILE OPEN error. That's
because the CLOSE statement closed file 1 after it was used.
At this point you may be wondering why it's even nec­
essary to bother with a file at all. Instead of a file number after
PRINT# and INPUT#, why not just use the device number?
The answer lies in the fact that with some devices, other infor­
mation besides a device number is needed. Input/output with
the disk or cassette requires that a filename be specified.
Entering the filename in an OPEN statement once, and then
using the corresponding file number in each subsequent
PRINT# or INPUT# statement is a lot easier than typing the
filename every time those statements are used.
Another reason is that some devices (such as the disk
drive) permit more than one file to be open at the same time.
The computer could input information from two different disk

42
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files. Since the device number for both these files would be 8,
just using a device number in an INPUT statement would not
be enough— the computer couldn't tell them apart. File struc­
ture using OPEN and CLOSE provides an organized means of
communicating with all types of devices, and has proven to be
a good method for general input/output.
There are a few other errors which can appear when
using file input/output. You've already seen the FILE OPEN
error when you tried to open an already opened file. The FILE
NOT OPEN error occurs when you try to access a file that has
not been opened. You'll see this error when you run this next
program.
10 OPEN 1,3
20 PRINT#3 : REM FILE 3 NOT OPENED YET

The NOT OUTPUT FILE error happens when an attempt

is made to output information to a device which can only
handle input, such as the keyboard. Likewise, the NOT INPUT
FILE error occurs when a program requests input from a de­
vice which is not capable of outputting information.
These kinds of errors can occur only when there is some­
thing wrong with a program's logic. They should not happen
when the normal OPEN and CLOSE procedure is followed.
The only two errors which denote some other type of problem
are FILE DATA and DEVICE NOT PRESENT. The FILE DATA
error (described as BAD DATA in Commodore literature) oc­
curs when INPUT# is expecting a numeric value, but a string
value is received instead. In some cases it's best to always use
string variables with INPUT#, and the VAL function to deter­
mine if the value was a number. This prevents the program
from crashing due to the FILE DATA error.
A DEVICE NOT PRESENT error appears when either the
device is not connected to the computer or it's not turned on.
A program has no way of preventing this type of error, so you
just have to make sure that all peripherals are properly
hooked up and have power before running a program that
may use them.
A few more comments should be made about the CLOSE
statement. It's good practice for a program to use CLOSE
when it's finished sending or receiving information. This pro­
motes good style and frees up a file for use later in the

43
Chapter 3

program. When using tape or disk files, it's absolutely nec­

essary to use CLOSE to terminate I/O .
A CLOSE of all files is performed as part of a CLR. Since
CLR is part of the RUN, NEW, and LOAD commands, and
also happens automatically when a program line is changed,
any of these actions will close all open files.

Summary
• The OPEN statement is used to create a file through which
input/output will be done. A file is the programming link
between the computer and a device.
• The full syntax for the OPEN statement is the keyword
OPEN, a file number, a comma, a device number, another
comma, a command number, one more comma, and then a
filename.
• The file number, also called the logical file number, is used to
distinguish one active file from another. It's necessary be­
cause there may be several different files open at the same
time.
• The file number is chosen by the programmer and may range
from 1 to 255. File numbers greater than 127 are reserved for
special purposes. File numbering usually starts at 1.
• The file number will later be used in the PRINT#, GET#,
and INPUT# statements.
• The device number is used to identify the device associated
with a file.
• A file can use only one device.
• The command number, also called the secondary address, and
the filename are optional, and are covered in a later section.
• To make the INPUT statement read from a file instead of the
keyboard, use INPUT#, the file number, a comma, and then
a variable list, as in INPUT#1,N. No space is allowed be­
tween INPUT and the # symbol.
• The INPUT statement is actually a special form of INPUT#
which is always set for keyboard input.
• Features like REDO FROM START and EXTRA IGNORED
warning messages are not available with INPUT#. If IN­
PUT# is expecting a numeric variable and gets characters,
BASIC stops with a FILE DATA error. There's no warning if
extra information is available. Also, INPUT# does not sup­
port an optional prompt string.
44
 Chapter 3

• These features are useful only when input is coming from

the keyboard. Since INPUT# may get data from another de­
vice, it does not support these features.
• To make PRINT send output to a device other than the
screen, use PRINT# followed by a file number, a comma,
and then the information that is to be sent. No space is al­
lowed between PRINT and # , and the ? abbreviation cannot
be used.
• PRINT# to a file which has been opened to the screen is no
different from using PRINT.
• Attempting to communicate with a file that's not been cre­
ated by an OPEN causes the FILE NOT OPEN error.
Attempting to open a file using a file number that is already
in use causes the FILE OPEN error.
• When the computer is finished communicating with a device
and the file is no longer needed, use the CLOSE statement to
terminate the file. The syntax for this statement is the
keyword CLOSE, followed by the file number.
• Once a file has been closed, it can be opened again for use
with a different device.
• All files are automatically closed as part of CLR.
• The NOT OUTPUT FILE error occurs when you try to use
PRINT# with a device that cannot handle output, such as the
keyboard. The NOT INPUT FILE error occurs when you try
to use INPUT# with a device that's not capable of generating
input, such as the printer.
• The DEVICE NOT PRESENT error occurs when the com­
puter tries to communicate with a peripheral that's either not
hooked up or not turned on.

The Printer and the CMD Statement

A printer is an important part of a complete computer system
because it can give you a permanent copy of information.
Sending program output to a printer is as easy as using two
statements.
10 OPEN 1,4 : REM PRINTER
20 PRINT#1,"MUSIC FILE LISTING"

All information being output by PRINT# 1 will be sent to

the printer. Of course, just plain PRINT will still print to the
screen.

45
Chapter 3

10 PRINT "TURN ON THE PRINTER"

20 PRINT "AND HIT ANY KEY"
30 GET K $ :IF K$="" GOTO 30
40 OPEN 1,4 : REM PRINTER
50 PRINT#1,"MUSIC FILE LISTING"
60 PRINT "PRINTER IS WORKING"

You can also use a variable for the device number in the
OPEN statement and let the person running the program de­
cide where the information will be sent. This technique is
demonstrated by the next program.
10 INPUT "OUTPUT DEVICE NUMBER"?DN
20 OPEN 1, DN
30 PRINT#1,"MUSIC FILE LISTING"
The program user could enter either 4 for printer output
or 3 for the screen. Using the OPEN statement like this means
that you don't have to worry about where the printing will be
sent. You can write the program just like any other, and as
long as you use PRINT# wherever you would normally use
PRINT, it will have the ability to send output to the printer,
screen, or any other device.
There are just a few minor differences between printing
on the screen and printing on paper. One obvious difference is
that the printer will not know what to do with special CHR$
codes which move the cursor, change the current character
color, or clear the screen. Printers usually do not have
backspacing capability and cannot erase anything that's al­
ready been printed.
A more subtle difference has to do with the print format­
ting functions, POS and TAB. Both of these depend on the
current location of the screen cursor. The POS function returns
that value, and TAB uses it to determine how many spaces the
cursor should be moved to the right. Since the screen cursor
does not move when information is sent to the printer, these
functions will not work correctly with printer output. This is
not a major inconvenience, though, because the SPC function
will still work and can be used to simulate TAB. The comma
used for far spacing and printing in columns will also work
differently for printer output.
The combination of OPEN and PRINT# can be very
powerful. Nevertheless, there are some instances when it
would be nice to send output to the printer which is not

46
 Chapter 3

program-generated. For example, it would be handy to be able

to send a program listing to the printer. A program is much
easier to read and debug when you can see it on paper, rather
than just a screen at a time. For situations like this, the CMD
statement is available.
CMD file number
The CMD statement causes all output normally sent to
the screen to be sent to the designated file. This includes out­
put from normal PRINT statements, INPUT prompt messages,
disk and tape SEARCHING and LOADING messages, pro­
gram listings, and even the READY, prompt. The file must, of
course, be open when CMD is executed, or a FILE NOT OPEN
error will occur. By using CMD, you can list a program on the
printer by entering only three lines in immediate mode.
OPEN 1,4
CMD 1
LIST
This could also be used to print a disk directory. (Remem­
ber to load the directory before opening the file because LOAD
closes all open files.) Any printing that defaults to the screen
will now be sent to the file.
The syntax for CMD allows an optional comma and string
to be placed after the file number. The string will be the first
thing sent to the file when the CMD statement is executed.
This is useful for such things as titling program listings.
LOAD "POEM"
OPEN 1,4:CMD l,"POEM":LIST
CMD does not have to be used with just the printer. It
can be used to send normal screen output to any device, such
as the modem. Remember, CMD sends the output to a file; the
device to which the information is sent depends on how the
file was opened.
CMD stays in effect until the file is closed or an error oc­
curs, in which case printing reverts back to the screen.
It's recommended that you send an empty print line before
closing a CMD file, to help the computer terminate the I/O .
OPEN 1,4:CMD 1:REM START CMD
PRINT#l:CLOSE 1:REM STOP CMD
When CMD is used in a program, in effect it changes
every PRINT into a PRINT#. This is useful when you have a

47
Chapter 3

program which uses PRINT statements, but you want the out­
put to be sent to a device different from the screen.
You might wonder why PRINT# has to be used at all if
CMD is available. As it turns out, there are some reasons why
it's better to use PRINT#. The major reason applies when you
want your program to communicate with more than one de­
vice. If you use CMD to send output to one device and then
switch to another, output may in some cases end up going to
both. Also, CMD can sometimes turn itself off even when the
file has not been closed.
PRINT# is more reliable and is usually the better choice.
CMD is best used in the immediate mode when you want to
do something that can't be done with PRINT#, such as listing
a program to the printer. When using CMD in a program,
make sure the program is sending output to only one device.
The remaining topics concerning the printer have to do
with special modes of operation.
The file number in OPEN should normally be in the
range 1-127. File numbers greater than 127 have a special
meaning when used with the printer, because they instruct the
computer to send a linefeed character after every carriage re­
turn. The linefeed character makes the printer advance the pa­
per one line. Most printers do this automatically when they
receive a carriage return. A printer which does not have this
feature will keep printing on the same line. If your printer
doesn't have the automatic linefeed feature, or if it does and
you want the printer to use double-spacing, use a file number
from 128 to 255.
If you're using a Commodore printer, the third parameter
of the OPEN statement, the command number, can be used to
select a character set. When no command is specified, the
printer assumes that the command number is 0, which means
that the uppercase and graphics character set will be used.
OPEN 1,4 : REM UPPERCASE/GRAPHICS
or
OPEN 1,4,0 : REM UPPERCASE/GRAPHICS
If you want the printer to use the uppercase/lowercase
set, use 7 as the command number.
OPEN 1,4,7 : REM UPPERCASE/LOWERCASE
Remember, this applies only to Commodore printers.

48
 Chapter 3

Some printers support special operations modes. These

may allow double-width printing, underlining, bold print, dif­
ferent type styles, dot graphics, and other features. They're in­
voked after a file has been opened by sending control codes to
it. Control codes are sent as ASCII characters. For example,
the statement PRINT#1,CHR$(14) makes a Commodore
printer select the double-width mode, which means that
characters are expanded to twice their normal width. Printing
CHR$(15) turns the mode off. Other printers may use different
numbers, so consult your manual for more information.
Sometimes printers require an escape character, abbre­
viated ESC, to be sent before the control code. The ESC code
is character 27, so you would have to use PRINT#1,CHR$(27);
CHR$(control code) to select the desired mode.

Summary
• To send program output to the printer, open a file to device 4
and use PRINT#.
• When sending output to the printer, the formatting functions
POS and TAB, and comma spacing, will not work correctly.
• To send computer-generated output (such as a program list­
ing) to the printer, open a file to device 4 and use the CMD
statement. The statement's syntax is the keyword CMD, the
file number, and an optional comma and string.
• The file must already be open, or the FILE NOT OPEN error
will occur.
• If a string is included with the CMD statement, it will be sent
to the file. A typical use of this feature is to title a program
listing.
• When executed, CMD redirects all output that normally de­
faults to the screen to go to the file instead. This includes
output from PRINT, as well as messages generated by the
computer, such as the READY, prompt.
• CMD has no effect on printing sent to a file by PRINT#,
even if the device associated with the file is the screen.
• When CMD is being used with a device other than the key­
board or screen, it's a good practice to send an empty print
line to the file before closing it.
• CMD stays in effect until the file is closed or an error occurs.
In either case, printing reverts back to the screen.
• It's best to use CMD only in situations where PRINT#

49
Chapter 3

cannot be used, for it's not always reliable. This is especially

true when the program uses multiple devices.
• File numbers greater than 127 make the computer send a
linefeed after every carriage return. This is necessary if your
printer does not automatically advance the paper. If your
printer does, use a file number from 128 to 255 for double­
spacing.
• When using a Commodore printer, the third parameter of the
OPEN statement, the command number, can be used to se­
lect a character set. Use 0 for the uppercase/graphics set,
which is the default set. Use 7 to switch to the uppercase/
lowercase character set.
• Some printers support special modes of operation, such as
double-width printing. These modes are enabled by sending
control codes to the printer, either by printing a string or by
using the CHR$ function. Sometimes a control code may
have to be preceded by the ESC (escape) character,
CHR$(27).

Files on Tape
Thus far you've probably used the Datassette only for storing
and retrieving programs. This storage and retrieval is nec­
essary because the computer can hold only one program in
memory at a time— anything in memory is erased when the
computer is turned off. It's much easier to load a program
than it is to retype it every time you want to use it!
When a program is saved to tape, it's stored as a file
consisting of program lines. That doesn't mean tape files can
contain only program lines. They can contain other infor­
mation, such as numbers and character strings, just as easily.
Just as a program is lost when the computer is turned off, so is
the data maintained by that program. You may want a pro­
gram to save this data to tape for future reference.
An example is a word processing program which saves a
document on tape for later changes and reprinting. Or a game
might maintain a high-score file that would have to be peri­
odically updated. A mailing list program is of little value if it
can't save the names and addresses on tape or disk. A long
and complex adventure game may have an option to stop play
and continue later, in which case the current character status
would have to be saved. These are all excellent applications of
data files on tape.

50
 Chapter 3

The Datassette differs from other devices such as the key­

board and printer, since it can be used for both input and out­
put. However, the Datassette can handle only one direction at
a time, because the user controls the pressing of the RECORD
button. So the direction has to be specified by the program
when the file is opened. Another aspect of tape I/O is that
filenames can be used. Both of these things can be handled by
the OPEN statement.
OPEN file number, device number, command number, filename
This is the complete syntax of OPEN. The file number can
range from 1 to 127. The device number for the Datassette is
1, which is the default value if none is specified. The com­
mand number tells the direction.
Number Command
0 Input (read from Datassette)
1 Output (write to Datassette)
If no command number is given, the computer opens the file
for input.
Finally, a filename, up to 16 characters long, can be speci­
fied. As when saving a program, a filename does not have to
be specified. However, if none is given when opening a file for
output, none can be specified when the file is later opened for
input.
Here's an example of a file being opened for tape output.
OPEN 1,1,1/TAPE FILE"
The file can later be opened for input by the following
statement.
OPEN 1,1,0,"TAPE FILE"
Let's examine just how the information is stored and re­
trieved. The following program creates a tape file containing
two items of information.
10 REM GAME HI SCORE DEMONSTRATION
20 N$=”CHRIS":SC=12345
30 OPEN 1,1,1,"HI SCORE":REM TAPE OUTPUT
40 PRINT#1,N$:REM NAME
50 PRINT#1,SC:REM SCORE
60 CLOSE 1
70 END

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Chapter 3

When this program ends, a new file exists on tape. You

can't load it as a program, but its contents can be retrieved by
a program like this:
10 REM GAME HI SCORE DEMONSTRATION
20 OPEN 1,1,0,"HI SCORE":REM TAPE INPUT
30 INPUT#1,N$,SC:REM NAME AND SCORE
40 CLOSE 1
50 PRINT N$ " HAD A HIGH SCORE OF" SC
60 END
This is a rather simple example, but even so, it dem­
onstrates a couple of important things. First, notice that the
program which created the tape file used two PRINT# state­
ments, instead of only one followed by a variable list. To
understand why, let's consider exactly what's stored on the
tape when PRINT# is used.
The first PRINT# writes the character string "CH RIS" to
the file. Then, because there is no comma or semicolon at the
end of the statement, a carriage return is written to the file. A
carriage return is character 13, or CHR$(13). The second
PRINT# writes the number 12345 to the file. Because BASIC
prints positive numbers with one leading space and one trail­
ing space, a total of seven characters will be written. The
CHR$(13) for the second PRINT# would be the last character.
The resulting file could be represented like this:
CHRISCHR$(13)(space)12345(space)CHR$( 13)
Think of what happens when you use PRINT to print two
values. The statement PRINT N$,SC will print the name
CHRIS, then print a few spaces because of the comma, print
the number 12345, and finally print the ending CHR$(13).
Only one carriage return has been printed, but a lot of extra
spaces have been inserted. This kind of file could be repre­
sented as follows:
CHRISfseveral spaces)(another space)12345(space)CHR$(13)
Now think of what happens when INPUT is used to get
two values. The statement INPUT N$,SC waits for the charac­
ters to be entered, then waits for either a comma or a carriage
return, and finally waits for a number. (Remember that if you
type only one value and press RETURN, the computer will
print a ?? prompt and wait for the second value.) The same is
true for PRINT# and INPUT#. The statement INPUT#1,N$,SC

52
 Chapter 3

expects either a comma or a CHR$(13) between the two val­

ues. The problem is that when the two values are printed with
PRINT# 1,N$,SC there won't be a comma or carriage return
between the two values, just a whole lot of spaces. Here's
what will happen:
1. INPUT#1,N$,SC will read all the characters up to the first
CHR$(13) or comma. This means that N$ would be as­
signed the value "CHRIS 12345."
2. INPUT# 1,N$,SC will then try to read a number to assign to
SC. But since there's nothing more in the file, BASIC will
stop with an error.
The description of the problem may be long, but the solu­
tion is simple. Either avoid using a variable list after PRINT#
or put a CHR$(13) between each item. Each of the examples
below sends the same characters to the file.
PRINT#1,N$:PRINT#1,SC (original example)
PRINT#1,N$;CHR$(13);SC
or
PRINT#1,N$ CHR$(13) SC
If you have a long list, it may be easier to assign the
CHR$(13) to a string and use the string between each item,
like this:
CR$= CHR$(13):PRINT#1,N$ CR$ SC CR$ A$ CR$ B$ CR$ C
These values can be retrieved by INPUT# 1,N$,SC,A$,B$,C
without any trouble.
The preceding examples have illustrated one other im­
portant point. The program reading the file must know how
many values are to be read. An error such as STRING TOO
LONG will occur when a program tries to read more data than
is contained in a file. Furthermore, the program must know
the order in which the values were written. If the first pro­
gram had written the values with PRINT#1,SC:PRINT#1,N$
and the second program read them with INPUT#1,N$,SC (the
variables are switched), there would definitely be a problem.
The INPUT# would read the digits and assign " 12345 " to
N$, and then stop with a FILE DATA error when it tried to
read a number for SC and found characters instead.
In some cases, such as a game which keeps track of the
top ten scores, the number of items never changes. However,

53
Chapter 3

other files, like those maintained by a telephone directory pro­

gram, may change size. How to know when to stop requesting
input will be dealt with first.
There are three methods you can use to avoid running off
the end of a file. One is to have the first item in the file, a
number, indicate how many values follow. The example pro­
grams below use this technique. The first writes the names
and scores to tape, while the second reads them from tape and
displays them on the screen. Type in the first and run it; then
enter the second and run it. (You need to rewind the tape to
the beginning of the first file before pressing PLAY.)

100 OPEN 1,1,1,"HI SCORES"

110 PRINT#1,3:REM ITEM COUNT
120 PRINT#1,"BOB" CHR$(13) 14000
130 PRINT#1,"KEVIN" CHR$(13) 12000
140 PRINT#1,"ERIC" CHR$(13) 11000
150 CLOSE 1
160 END

100 OPEN 1,1,0,"HI SCORES"

110 INPUT#1,N :REM ITEM COUNT
120 FOR K=1 TO N
130 INPUT#1,N $ ,SC
140 PRINT N $ ,SC
150 NEXT K
160 CLOSE 1
170 END

(These programs only demonstrate the method, and are not in­
tended to be practical applications.)

In some cases, a program may not know how many val­

ues will eventually be printed when the file is opened. Since
no length number can be printed at the beginning of the file,
the program must have another way to detect the file's end.
This is similar to the problem of indicating the end of values
read from DATA statements. You can use the same trick here
as you would with READ and DATA— a flag. This write-and-
read example uses END as a flag. Enter the first and run it;
then type in and run the second.

54
 Chapter 3

100 OPEN 1,1,1,"HI SCORES"

110 PRINT#1,"MARK" CHR$(13) 504
120 PRINT#1,"JEAN" CHR$(13) 915
130 PRINT#1,"MARYBETH" CHR$(13) 412
140 PRINT#1,"KEN" CHR$(13) 755
150 PRINT#1,"END" CHR$(13) 0
160 CLOSE 1
170 END

100 OPEN 1,1,0,"HI SCORES”

110 INPUT#1,N$,SC
120 IF N$ <>"END" THEN PRINT N$,SC:GOTO 110
130 CLOSE 1
140 END

The third method is to have the program monitor the

value of ST, a reserved variable which holds status infor­
mation. ST usually holds zero, but may contain another value
when an error occurs or something important has happened.
Bit 6 of ST will be set when the end of a file has been
reached. The value associated with bit 6 is 64, so when a pro­
gram sees that ST has the value 64 (or any nonzero value), it
can stop requesting input. Take a look at this example for the
technique's application. Enter and run these short programs as
you did with the previous write/read samples.

100 OPEN 1,1,1,"HI SCORES"

110 PRINT#1,"MATTHEW" CHR$(13) 9
120 PRINT#1,"ANDREA" CHR$(13) 10
130 PRINT#1,"TODD" CHR$(13) 9
140 PRINT#1,"JEFFREY" CHR$(13) 8
150 CLOSE 1
160 END

100 OPEN 1,1,0,"HI SCORES"

110 INPUT#1,N$, SC
120 PRINT N $ ,SC
130 IF ST=0 GOTO 110
140 CLOSE 1
150 END

Notice that the end-of-file check was done before the

printing in the previous method, but is done after the printing
here.
Getting the correct values into the correct variables is
simply a matter of taking care when writing the program.
55
Chapter 3

Make sure that the variables in the PRINT# and INPUT#

statements line up. The only thing that can cause trouble is
when a null string is printed by PRINT#. The INPUT# state­
ment will skip past a null string and read the next value
instead.
For instance, the second program stops with an error at
line 130.
100 N1$="GAIL":N3$="MAX":REM MISSING N2$
110 OPEN 1,1,1,"TAPE FILE"
120 PRINT#1,N1$
130 PRINT#1,N2$
140 PRINT#1,N3$
150 CLOSE 1
160 END

100 OPEN 1,1,0,"TAPE FILE"

110 INPUT#1,N1$:PRINT Nl$
120 INPUT#1,N2$SPRINT N2$
130 INPUT#1,N3$SPRINT N3$
140 CLOSE 1
150 END

The program stopped because the null string was ig­

nored— thus, N2$ was assigned the value intended for N3$.
When INPUT# went looking for N3$, the file was empty. To
avoid this potential pitfall, never print a null string. If you
want INPUT# to retrieve a null string, have PRINT# print a
space. INPUT# will not ignore the space, but when assigning
the string variable, it will skip past all leading spaces. The ef­
fect is that the variable is assigned a null string.

An advanced feature of tape files is to use a command

number of 2 in the OPEN statement. This has the same effect
as using command 1, and prepares the file for output. The dif­
ference is that when the file is closed, it will be specially
marked to indicate that it's the last file on the tape. This guar­
antees that when searching for a tape file, the computer will
not look past the last file. Instead, the computer stops with a
DEVICE NOT PRESENT error, which is equivalent to FILE
NOT FOUND on the disk drive.
The direction of a tape file cannot be changed as long as
it's open. If a tape file is opened for input and PRINT# is
used, the NOT OUTPUT FILE error occurs. Likewise, the NOT

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INPUT FILE error appears when INPUT# is used with a file

that has been opened for output.
Before ending this section, it would be a good idea to
stress the importance of using CLOSE. This statement is not so
important when working with the keyboard or screen, but it's
required when using tape or disk files. The Datassette can read
only one file at a time. If a tape file opened for input is not
closed, no other files can be opened until CLOSE is executed.
Much worse is when a CLOSE is accidentally omitted for
a tape file that has been used for output. It's possible that
some of the data will not be sent if the CLOSE is not per­
formed. The file will be incomplete and the data lost— a pro­
gram which later opens the file for input will be able to read
only the first part, and may even crash because of an error.
In other words, a program should always perform CLOSE
when communication with a tape file is completed.

Summary
• A tape file is not limited to storing only the lines of a pro­
gram. Tape files can also contain data, in the form of num­
bers and strings, which can be used by a program.
• The Datassette can be used for both input and output, but
can handle only one direction at a time. The direction (input
or output) must be specified when the file is opened.
• Opening a tape file uses the full syntax of the OPEN state­
ment: OPEN file number, device number, command number,
filename.
• The device number for the Datassette is 1.
• A command number of 0 opens the file for input; 1 opens
the file for output. Using 2 also opens the file for output, but
marks the file as the last on the tape when it's closed. The
command number is optional— by default, the file will be
opened for input.
• A filename is optional but recommended. If none is specified
when the file is created, none can later be used when the file
is opened for reading.
• It's a good idea not to use a variable list after PRINT#. Com­
mas in PRINT statements are used to format the screen dis­
play into columns, which is not necessary with tape files.
Instead, output the items one at a time so that a carriage re­
turn will be printed after each. If you do use a variable list,
print a CHR$(13) between each item.
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Chapter 3

• It is acceptable to use a variable list with INPUT#.

• A program should input variables in the same order they
were written.
• The FILE DATA error occurs when a program tries to read
character data into a numeric variable.
• If a program is expecting a string variable and a number is
read instead, the string representation of the number, like
that produced by the STR$ function, will be assigned to the
variable.
• An error such as STRING TOO LONG appears when a pro­
gram tries to read more information from a file than was
written in the first place.
• There are three methods to avoid reading more data than ex­
ists in a file. One way is to use the first number to indicate
how many items are in the file. This number can then be
used to control a loop which reads the data.
• The other two methods work by detecting the end of the file
while it's read. One way, often used with READ and DATA
statements, is to use a flag, such as the word END or the
number —999, as the last item written to the file.
• The third method is to stop when bit 6 of the status variable
(ST) is set. ST has a value of 64 when the end of the file is
reached, and has other nonzero values when I/O errors
occur.
• INPUT# ignores null strings. If it reads a null string, it goes
to the next item. To print a string so that it will be read as a
null, print a single space.
• It's very important that CLOSE be executed when the com­
puter is finished communicating with a tape file. An output
file may not be written completely if this is not done.
• Only one file can be opened to the Datassette at a time.
Once a file has been opened, its direction (input or output)
cannot be changed.
• If a file is opened for input and PRINT# is used, the NOT
OUTPUT FILE error occurs. If a file is opened for output and
INPUT# is used, the NOT INPUT FILE error will occur.

Disk Files
The type of file just described for cassette is often referred to
as a sequential file, one in which the information can be read
back only in the order it was written. It's not possible to re­
read just one item in the file; you have to use OPEN again
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 Chapter 3

and start at the beginning. With a sequential file it's also not
possible to skip some items to read one later on. If a file has
just been opened and you want to read only its last item, you
have to read past all the other items first.
Sequential files are the simplest and most commonly used
type of file. They are well-suited to the Datassette, because the
computer cannot control the REWIND and F.FWD buttons.
The nature of tape means that the Datassette can handle only
sequential files.
But sequential files can also be used with the disk drive.
There are a couple of differences in the OPEN statement, but
otherwise the procedure is the same.
OPEN file number, device number, secondary address, string
Any file number from 1 to 127 is acceptable. The device
number for the disk drive is usually 8, although it can be
changed to 9 when a second drive is used. The command
number, also called the secondary address, serves a different
purpose when using disk files. It will be explained in a mo­
ment. For now, just use 2. The string is required, and indicates
the filename, type of file, and direction. The filename can be
up to 16 characters, and is sometimes followed by the type of
file (indicated by an S representing sequential) and perhaps a
letter R or W, reading or writing. Commas are necessary to
separate the filename, the type, and the direction. You must
specify the type of file if you're writing to the disk— if you're
only reading the file, you can omit the S designation. If no
direction is indicated, the computer will open the file for read­
ing. Here are some examples.
OPEN 1,8,2,"DOODLE,R" : REM READING, NO TYPE NEEDED
OPEN l,8,2,"POEM,S,W" : REM WRITING, TYPE SPECIFIED
OPEN 1,8,2,"GAME" : REM READING ASSUMED
With minor changes, the high-score demonstration from
the "Files on Tape" section can be used with a disk file. Type
in both programs below. Load and run the first (make sure
there's a disk in the drive). This creates a sequential file on
disk. Now load and run the second. It reads the file from disk
and displays the items on the screen.
100 OPEN 1,8,2,"HI SCORES,S,W"
110 PRINT#1,"KEVIN" CHR$(13) 80
120 PRINT#1,"CHRISTINE" CHR$(13) 90
130 PRINT#1,"ALISDAIR" CHR$(13) 91

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140 PRINT#1,"LISA" CHR$(13) 87

150 CLOSE 1
160 END

100 OPEN 1,8,2,"HI SCORES"

110 INPUT#1,N $ ,SC
120 PRINT N $ ,SC
130 IF ST=0 GOTO 110
140 CLOSE 1
150 END

Examine the directory of the disk you just used. You'll no­
tice that beside the filename HI SCORES is a three-letter code,
normally PRG for a program file, but now SEQ. This is to re­
mind you that it's a sequential file, contains data, and should
not be loaded as a program.
The method of reading and writing a sequential file is
pretty much the same for both tape and disk. A major dif­
ference between these two devices, though, is in the number
of files that can be open at one time. While the Datassette can
read or write only one file at a time, the disk drive can handle
several files simultaneously. Files 1 and 2 could be open for
reading, while file 3 would be open for writing. The only
restriction when using multiple disk files is that each file must
have a different secondary address. Secondary address num­
bers can range from 2 to 14.
100 REM PAYROLL PROGRAM
110 OPEN 1,8,2,"EMPLOYEES,R"
120 OPEN 2,8,3,"HOURS,R"
130 OPEN 3,8,4,"PAYCHECKS,S,W"
This program might read an employee's name and Social
Security number from the first file, get the hours and wage
information from the second, do whatever processing is nec­
essary, and then send the results to the third. This last file
would be used later to print paychecks. The example may not
be practical, but it does illustrate how several disk files can be
managed. Most applications don't require as many files open
at the same time.
Another capability of the disk drive is that it can allow
two open files to read from the same disk file.

100 OPEN 1,8,2,"WEATHER DATA"

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(later in the program, when file 1 may still be open)

650 OPEN 2,8,3,"WEATHER DATA"

This will not work when a disk file is written. Once a disk
file has been opened for output, it cannot be opened by a dif­
ferent file number for either input or output until it's closed.
A complication when using multiple files is that the status
variable (ST) must serve for all files. ST always reflects the sta­
tus of the most recently accessed file. This means that if a pro­
gram reads from file 1, then from file 2, ST indicates the status
of file 2— file l's status information is lost. The solution is to
assign ST to a temporary variable before accessing file 2. This
variable can then be used to determine the first file's status.
This next program illustrates the procedure.
100 REM READ ONE FILE TO ANOTHER
110 OPEN 1,8,2,"SOURCE,R"
120 OPEN 2,8,3,"DESTINATION,S,W"
130 INPUT#1,S$
140 A=ST
150 PRINT#2,S$
160 IF A=0 GOTO 130:REM BASED ON FILE 1 STATUS
170 CLOSE 1
180 CLOSE 2
190 END

There's another problem that you'll encounter when a

disk file must be periodically updated. A file which maintains
high scores, for instance, may be read when a game is finished
to compare the current score against the high score. If the
player did well and the high score file has to be modified, the
old file has to be erased and a new one written using the same
filename. This poses no problem with tape files since the tape
can be positioned to start at the beginning of the old file. The
disk drive, however, won't let you write a file with a filename
already in use. A different solution must be found.
Secondary addresses from 2 to 14 are available for normal
disk file handling. Addresses 0 and 1 are reserved for LOAD
and SAVE format files. The number 15 is used to send com­
mands to the disk drive. One of these commands is called
Scratch, and informs the drive that it should erase a file on
the disk. For example, the file "POEM " could be erased by
entering this line in immediate mode.
OPEN 1,8,15:PRINT #1,"SO:POEM":CLOSE 1
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This is one case where no string has to be included as

part of the OPEN statement. The secondary address (15) in­
dicates that the command channel will be referenced, so no
filename or type of file is needed. The command is sent as a
one-letter code, followed by a zero for the drive number, a
colon, and then the filename. You can also scratch files with
this procedure from within a program.
If a program is going to open a disk file for output, and
there's a chance the filename may already exist, the program
should first send the Scratch command. (No error occurs if an
attempt to scratch a nonexistent file is made.) Here's an ex­
ample of scratching a file before writing a revised version of it
to disk.
100 OPEN 1,8,15
110 PRINT#1,"S0:HI SCORES"
120 CLOSE 1
130 OPEN 1,8,2,"HI SCORES,S,W"
140 REM CONTINUE WITH REST OF PROGRAM
Perhaps you've used the at (@) character to save and re­
place a file. Assuming there's a file on disk named GAME, the
statement SAVE "@ 0:G A M E",8 scratches the old file GAME,
then saves the current BASIC program using that filename.
This replaces the file on the disk with the one in memory.
Do not use the (a) character. This feature may not always
work correctly. In some cases, the disk drive may even tamper
with other files on the disk. Even though using the @ charac­
ter to save and replace may seem very convenient, my advice
is to avoid it. Use the Scratch (SO:) method instead.
Other useful disk drive commands are New, Rename,
and Validate. New is used to format a disk and clear its direc­
tory. The full format of the command is "NO\disknamer identi­
fication", where the disk name is up to 16 characters and the
disk identification 2 characters long. Make sure that no two
disks are given the same disk identification. This precaution
insures that there's no confusion between the source and
destination disks when copying files from one to the other.
If the identification is omitted, all the files will be erased
and the new disk name will be used, but the disk will not be
reformatted. This can come in handy when you want to use
the disk for a new project, but it's already been formatted.
Formatting really needs to be done just once. Skipping the

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process saves time. Take a look at the following lines; they

show how to format a disk, as well as how to create a new
directory only.
OPEN 1,8,15
PRINT#1,"N0:GAMES,01" (format disk and create new directory)
or
PRINT#1,"N0:GAMES" (create new directory only)
CLOSE 1
Rename lets you change the name of a file without
disturbing its contents. Here's the proper syntax:
PRINT#l,"RO:«ein filename = old filename"
This example shows how a file named DOODLE can be
renamed as POEM (assuming the OPEN has already been
executed).
PRINT #1,"RO:POEM= DOODLE"
When using Rename, make sure the new filename is not
already in use on the disk.
Validate is used to recalculate the number of free blocks
on a disk. If some blocks have been allocated for files, but
have not been used, they'll be made available after the Vali­
date command is sent. This command also deletes any files
which were never properly closed. Such files are marked in
the directory with an asterisk (*) before the three-letter file
type. Validate does not alter any properly closed files. If you
validate periodically, you may be able to get a few more free
blocks, letting you squeeze more on the disk.
The secondary address of 15 refers to the command chan­
nel when PRINT# is used. INPUT# can be used with this
channel to get error messages. However, BASIC reports only a
few I/O error messages, such as FILE NOT FOUND and DE­
VICE NOT PRESENT. When an error occurs, the disk drive
can provide more information if you run the following short
program.
10 OPEN 1,8,15
20 INPUT#1 ,A,B$,C,D
30 CLOSE 1
40 PRINT A;B$;C;D
Normally, the message 0 OK 0 0 will appear, indicating all is
well.
If you tried to save a program using a filename already in

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use, BASIC would not print an error message, but the drive
light would flash. Run the above program, and you'll see the
message 63 FILE EXISTS 0 0. Error number 63 tells you that
an attempt was made to create a new disk file with an existing
filename. Other error numbers and their descriptions can be
found in the disk drive user's manual.
(The status numbers returned in variables C and D are for
advanced applications, and can be ignored.)
There are a couple of differences between normal disk
files (which use secondary addresses 2-14) and a file opened
to the command/error channel (secondary address of 15). No
direction is specified when the file is opened, and it's possible
to use both PRINT# and INPUT# without having to close and
reopen the file.
The other difference is that when the command/error
channel is closed, the disk drive closes all the other disk files
as well. BASIC may think that the files are still open, but an
error will occur when the program tries to read from them.
Thus, if a program is going to use the command/error channel
while other disk files are open, it's best to open the channel
during initialization and leave it open until the program ends.
Many people set aside file 15 for this purpose.
Sometimes it would be handy if a program could read the
disk directory. This is easy to do, but several things must be
done differently. First, the OPEN statement should use “$0:"
(or just "$ ") as the filename. Also, because of the structure of
the directory file, INPUT# cannot be used. The file has to be
read a character at a time. Fortunately, this can be done by the
GET# statement.
GET#'s syntax is the keyword GET#, followed by a file
number, a comma, and then a variable list. Something like
GET#1,A$ retrieves the next character from the file and as­
signs it to A$. Only string variables should be used with
GET# to avoid the FILE DATA error.
The following demonstration shows how to read a
sequential file character by character.
10 OPEN 1,8,2,"HI SCORES"
20 GET#1,A$SPRINT A$;:IF ST=0 GOTO 20
30 CLOSE 1
The directory file contains characters for block lengths
and filenames. The first two characters in the file can be ig­

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nored. The first line in the file is the directory header, giving
the disk name, identification, and DOS (Disk Operating Sys­
tem) version. Several lines follow, one for each entry. Again,
the first two characters of each line can be ignored. The next
two form the low-byte and high-byte number which indicates
the file's block length. A few spaces precede the opening
quotation mark, which begins the filename. After the filename
and the closing quotation mark, there are several more spaces
and then the three-letter file type. Each line ends with a
CHR$(0), interpreted by GET# as a null string. This format re­
peats for each line in the directory. The block length for the
last line shows the number of free blocks on the disk, with the
filename BLOCKS FREE.
The end of the directory file is detected by checking ST
after reading the block length. This program illustrates how
it's done.

Program 3-1. Directory Reader

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

10 OPEN 1,8,0,"$":GET#1,S$,S$ srem 204

20 GET#1,S$,S$,L$,H$:IF ST THEN CLOSE 1 ;END
:rem 103
30 PRINT ASC(L$+CHR$(0))+2 56*ASC(H$+CHR$(0));
:rem 163
40 GET#1,S$ :IF S$>"" THEN PRINT S$;:GOTO 40: rem 66
50 PRINT:GOTO 20 :rem 199

The directory file can only be read and cannot be opened for
output.
A handy trick with reading the directory is to put a
filename after the $0:, as in "$0:POEM ". This makes the disk
drive search the directory for the filename POEM and list it if
it's on the disk. If there's no file named POEM, there'll be no
directory lines read after the header. This is useful when you
want a program to check if a file already exists. If the directory
is opened with the filename after the $0: and no filename lines
are read, the file isn't on the disk.
A variation on this technique is to use wild cards in the
filename. If you use a question mark (?) as one of the charac­
ters in the filename, the disk drive will ignore that character
position when searching for filenames. Let's say a disk con­
tains the following files.

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DOODLE
GAME1PLAYER
GAME2PLAYER
POEM
GMINUET
AMINUET
SONATA1
SONATA22
SONATINA1
SONATINA3
DMINUET

Using the string “$0:?MINUET'' would read only the three

minuet files, since the ? forces the disk to ignore the G, A, and
D characters in the files. If you used the string
//$0:GAME?PLAYER", both GAME1PLAYER and
GAME2PLAYER would be read. If necessary, several question
marks can be used in the same filename.
A second wild card is the asterisk (*). While the question
mark can take the place of only one character, the asterisk can
be substituted for several. An asterisk at the end of a filename
makes the disk drive search for all filenames which begin with
the letters up to the asterisk. All characters at the position of
the asterisk and after are ignored.
In the example directory, if “$0:SON*“ were used as the
filename, all files starting with the letters SON would be re­
turned in the directory, four altogether. With “$0:SONATA*“,
only the filenames SONATA1 and SONATA22 would be read.
A combination of the ? and * wild card characters can be
used in the same filename.
When loading a program or opening a file for reading,
wild cards within the filename make the computer access the
first file on the disk which matches. This can come in handy if
you can't remember or don't want to type the full name of a
program. LOAD “PRO G*'',8, for instance, loads the first
filename on the disk which has PROG as its first four
characters.
Wild cards can be very powerful if you choose filenames
to accommodate them. Just be careful that the filenames ref­
erenced with wild cards are the ones you wanted. This is
especially true when using wild cards with the Scratch com­
mand. It's quite easy to erase too many files— more filenames
may fit the wild card pattern than expected. In fact, it may be

66
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best to avoid using wild cards with Scratch. At least check

which files will be scratched beforehand by reading the direc­
tory with the wild card pattern.
As you've seen, sequential files are identified in the direc­
tory by the letters SEQ. The disk drive also supports another
three-letter code, USR, for the same type of file. A USR file is
handled just like a sequential file; the only difference is in the
directory listing. Since some system utilities such as the Editor
use SEQ files, you may want to use the USR type in your pro­
grams to help distinguish program data files from system files.
The full syntax for the string in the disk OPEN statement
is:
filename, optional type, optional mode
The type can be SEQ, USR, PRG, or REL. These last two
types will be discussed in a moment. If no type is specified,
the default SEQ is used. (Remember that the type is not op­
tional if you're writing. It must be included.) The mode tells
the direction, and can be Read or Write. Default is Read.
Both the type and mode permit single-letter abbreviations;
the type can be designated by S, U, P, or R, and the mode can
be R or W. A file identified by the letters USR in the directory
could be opened for output with:
OPEN 1,8,2,"HIGH SCORES,U,W"
From there, the handling would be just as if the file were of
the type SEQ.
File type PRG is reserved for programs stored and re­
trieved using the SAVE and LOAD commands. It's possible to
open these files and read them, but the reading has to be done
one character at a time. Another problem is that due to the
way the program is stored, the file may contain several non­
printing characters. The best way to examine a program file is
to print the ASCII value of each character with something like
this routine.
10 OPEN 1,8,2,"PROGRAM,P":REM DEFAULTS TO READING
20 GET#1,S$
30 PRINT ASC(S$+CHR$(0))
40 IF ST=0 GOTO 20
50 CLOSE 1
The +CH R$(0) in the ASC function (line 30 above) is
needed because the file may contain several CHR$(0) charac­
ters. A CHR$(0) is interpreted by GET# as a null string, which
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when used as the argument of the ASC function makes BASIC

stop with an error. This can be averted by appending a
CHR$(0) to the argument. If the string does contain characters,
the extra CHR$(0) at the end won't affect the ASC function
because ASC looks only at the first character. If the string is
null, it becomes CHR$(0), which makes ASC return the 0, the
correct value.
Reading a PRG file is useful only for advanced applica­
tions, such as programs which search for all variable names in
a program, renumber a program, or compact a program by
removing extra spaces and combining lines.
The one remaining type of file supported by the disk
drive is the REL, or relative, file. Unlike a sequential file, this
type of file makes it possible to back up to an earlier part of
the file without having to use OPEN again, and to skip past
items in the file without reading or writing them. A relative
file is also known as a random access file because the reading
or writing of items can be done arbitrarily, without having to
follow any order.
Such a file structure is useful when a file contains several
entries, only a few of which may have to be changed at any
time. If it's necessary to read an account for a customer near
the end of the file, and update the account of a customer near
the beginning, these read and write operations can be per­
formed quickly without disturbing the rest. REL files make it
easy to handle large amounts of information. In fact, it's pos­
sible for a REL file to contain more data than could be held in
memory at one time.
Unfortunately, Commodore 64 BASIC does not directly
support relative files; it's a very complicated subject, far be­
yond even the nature of these discussions of advanced BASIC.

Summary
• In a sequential file, data must be read in the same order as it
was written. It's not possible for reading to back up or skip
ahead.
• With a few changes to the OPEN statement, sequential files
can be used with disks. The syntax to open a disk file is
OPEN file number, device number, secondary address, string.
• File numbers should range from 1 to 127. The device number
for the disk drive is usually 8, but can be 9. Secondary ad­

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dresses 0 and 1 are reserved for use by the LOAD and SAVE
commands. The numbers 2-14 are used for data files. Each
open file must have a different secondary address. A second­
ary address of 15 is used to access the command and error
channel of the disk drive.
• The string consists of a filename, a file type, and a direction.
The filename is required and can be up to 16 characters. The
file type is optional when reading, mandatory when writing.
File type can be SEQ, USR, PRG, or REL (abbreviated as S,
U, P, and R, respectively). If no file type is specified, SEQ is
assumed. The direction is optional, and can be reading or
writing (or R or W). If no direction is given, the file is
opened for reading.
• Unlike the Datassette, several different files can be opened to
the disk drive simultaneously. Some can be set for input,
others for output.
• Two or more files can be opened for input from the same
disk file at the same time. However, once a disk file has been
opened for output, it cannot be read or written by any other
file until it is closed.
• The disk drive command and error channel is accessed by
opening a file with a secondary address of 15 and no string,
as in OPEN 1,8,15. No filename or direction has to be
specified.
• While the file is open, PRINT# can be used to send com­
mands to the drive, and INPUT# can be used to get status
information. Unlike normal disk files, the file does not have
to be closed and reopened to switch between input and
output.
• The Scratch command is used to erase one or more files on a
disk. The command string is "SO-.filename". The S represents
the Scratch command, the 0 is the drive number, and the
filename indicates which file is to be erased. If the filename
contains wild card characters, more than one file may be erased.
• Do not use the @ character in the filename of an OPEN or
SAVE to replace and save a file on a disk. This feature is not
reliable and can damage the contents of a disk.
• The New command is used to format a disk and clear the
directory. The command string is "NO:diskname,id”.
• The Rename command is used to change the name of a file.
The command string is "RO:new filen am e= old filenam e”. The
contents of the file are not altered in any way.

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• Validate is used to make previously allocated blocks not used

by files available on the disk. Files that were never properly
closed (indicated by an asterisk before the file type) will be
erased. Properly closed files will be left alone. After the disk
has been validated, there may be a few more free blocks.
• BASIC reports only the errors FILE NOT FOUND and
DEVICE NOT PRESENT, and sometimes doesn't report an
error at all. A flashing light on the disk drive may be the
only clue that an error has occurred. More specific error
messages are available from the disk drive. Assuming that
file 1 has been opened to the error channel, the statement
INPUT#1,A,B$,C,D will read the error number into A, the
error message into B$, and other values for advanced
applications into C and D. When no error has occurred, the
error channel will return the values 0, OK, 0, 0.
• The GET# statement is used to input single characters from a
file. The syntax is the keyword GET#, the file number, a
comma, and a variable list. Only string variables should be
used with GET#.
• The directory can be read by a program by using OPEN with
the filename "$ 0 :" and no file type or direction. The format
of the directory file requires that it be read one character at a
time, using GET#.
• The directory file will contain all the filenames on the disk
when the string used with OPEN is $0:. To make the disk
drive search for a specific filename in the directory, put the
filename at the end of the string, as in "$0:DOODLE". The
corresponding filename line will be read if the file exists. If
not, the directory file will contain only the disk header and
free blocks lines.
• The wild card characters (? and *) can be used in the
filename after $0: to list all filenames which match a certain
pattern.
• When wild cards are used with LOAD or OPEN for input,
the computer will access the first file on the disk that has a
filename matching the wild card pattern.
• The file type USR is identical to the file type SEQ. The dif­
ferent name can be useful to help distinguish between
sequential files used for different purposes.
• The file type PRG is used for LOAD and SAVE type files,
including BASIC and machine language programs. In ad-

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vanced applications, a PRG file can be read or written one

character at a time.
• Another type of file is the relative file, identified as REL. In a
relative file, reading or writing can jump back or ahead. No
particular order must be followed. Relative files, although
supported by the disk drive, are not supported by Com­
modore 64 BASIC.

The Modem and Other R S-232 Devices

RS-232 refers to an agreement among manufacturers of elec­
tronic equipment (Electronic Industries Association) which de­
fines how devices communicate. Its specifications include such
things as power levels, which connector pins serve which
functions, and so on. This insures that products from different
manufacturers will be more or less compatible. Like ASCII, it's
one of the few standards in the computer industry.
The RS-232 standard applies to serial communication. The
usual method of transfer is parallel communication, in which
information is sent a byte at a time. All eight bits of each byte
are sent simultaneously. In serial communication, however,
information is sent a bit at a time. To send a full byte, the
eight bits have to be sent separately, one after another. De­
vices which communicate serially include modems and some
printers.
A modem converts bits into tones which can be sent over
telephone lines to another computer. The receiving computer
must also be connected to a modem, which then converts the
tones back into bits. The general term for this is telecommuni­
cations. The process of changing bits into tones is called
modulation, and the process of converting the tones back into
bits is called demodulation. In fact, the word modem is derived
from the words M odulate and DEModulate.
In telecommunications, transmit is often used to mean
send. The modem is different from most other devices because
it can both transmit and receive information at the same time.
But a computer can handle only one character at a time. If a
character comes in while the computer is busy sending an­
other, the computer must remember that incoming character
and deal with it later. It's also possible for the computer to
output characters faster than the modem can transmit them.
To avoid losing incoming characters or to hold outgoing
characters until the modem can take them, a buffer has to be

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used. A buffer is a temporary holding place for characters.

When using the modem, the computer needs two buffers, one
for input and another for output.
To better understand the concept of a buffer, let's consider
an example using an input buffer. Characters received are first
stored in the input buffer, in the order in which they are re­
ceived. Every time GET# executes, it retrieves the next charac­
ter from the buffer. If the buffer is empty, GET# returns with
the null string. The process could be illustrated like this:

Figure 3-1. Buffer

M o d em ~ ^ In p u t — ► G e t#
B u ffer

P rin t# — O u tp u t ► M od em
B uffer

The following steps show how the method might work in

practice.
1. The buffer starts out empty.

2. The modem receives an M character and places it in the

buffer.
M ________
3. The GET# statement retrieves the first character from the
buffer (M). The buffer is emptied.

4. The modem receives the character A and places it in the

buffer.
A ________
5. The modem receives another letter, R, before the computer
has retrieved the previous character. That's okay, since the
R can be placed in the buffer after the A.
A R _____
6. GET# draws off the first character in the buffer (A). The R
is now the first character in the buffer.
R ________
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7. GET# gets the R and the buffer is once again empty.

8. GET# tries to get another character, but since the buffer is

now empty, GET# returns a null string. The program
keeps looping until it gets something other than a null
string.
9. The modem eventually receives a letter K and puts it in
the buffer.
K ______
10. The next time GET# executes, it returns with K instead of
a null string. The buffer is empty.

Two important observations should be made. The modem

received the characters in the order M -A -R-K, and the pro­
gram (with GET#) retrieved the characters in that order. Even
though the computer wasn't always able to retrieve each
character as it came in, the buffer insured that no characters
were lost.
The output buffer works in much the same way. Charac­
ters sent by PRINT# are held in the buffer until the modem is
ready to transmit them.
Here's the syntax for the OPEN statement when used
with an RS-232 device.
OPEN file number, device number, secondary address, string
File numbers can range from 1 to 127. Numbers from
128 to 255 cause the computer to send a linefeed (CHR$(10))
after every carriage return. The linefeed character is required
for printers which do not automatically advance the paper.
The device number for an RS-232 device is 2. The secondary
address is not used and should be 0. The string can be one or
two characters. The first character is a control value, and the
second is an optional command value.
The control character sets the number of stop bits, the
word length, and the baud rate. Remember that each character
is sent as a sequence of bits. Stop bits help the receiving
modem detect the end of each character. The Commodore 64
can support either one or two stop bits, depending on the
value of bit 7 in the control character.

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Bit 7 Value Effect

0 0 1 stop bit
1 128 2 stop bits
The word length determines how many bits are transmit­
ted for each character, and can range from five to eight bits.
Bits 6 and 5 of the control character establish the word length.
For most purposes, eight bits will be just fine. When commu­
nicating with some modems or printers, especially older ones,
fewer bits may be required. The device owner's manual should
tell you if less than eight bits are to be used.
6 5 Value Effect
0 0 0 8-bit word
0 1 32 7-bit word
1 0 64 6-bit word
1 1 96 5-bit word
The baud rate determines how quickly the bits are
transmitted. The most common rate is 300 baud (roughly 300
bits per second), which is equivalent to about 30 characters
per second. Faster baud rates (600 or 1200, for instance) re­
quire higher quality circuitry and make devices which are
capable of such rates more expensive. Older printers and
modems may even operate at 110 baud. Bits 3 through 0 of
the control character should be set according to the baud rate
of the device.
Bits 3 2 1 0 Value Effect
0 0 0 1 1 50 baud
0 0 1 0 2 75 baud
0 0 1 1 3 110 baud
0 1 0 0 4 134.5 baud
0 1 0 1 5 150 baud
0 1 1 0 6 300 baud
0 1 1 1 7 600 baud
1 0 0 0 8 1200 baud
Here's the formula for calculating the value of the control
character. Place the bit values from the tables above in the
appropriate places in the formula.
Control character = CHR$(stop bits + word length + baud rate)
A typical setting is one stop bit, eight-bit word length, and 300
baud.
Control character = CHR$(0 + 0 + 6) = CHR$(6)

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The result would be used in the OPEN statement like this:

OPEN 1,2,0,CHR$(6)
The command character sets the parity, duplex, and
handshaking. Parity is used to check for errors in transmission.
If there's considerable static on the telephone line, a bit may
be accidentally switched in value, resulting in garbled commu­
nications. Parity checking can detect an error like this. When
parity checking is selected, it can be odd or even. The correct
setting depends on the setting of the device at the other end of
the link. Bits 7 through 5 control the parity.
Bits 7 6 5Value Effect
0 0 0 0 No parity
0 0 1 32 Odd parity
0 1 1 96 Even parity
When using a word length of eight bits, parity checking is not
available— no parity should be selected.
Duplex determines whether both modems can transmit at
the same time or if they have to take turns. The usual value is
full duplex. The other setting, half duplex, is rarely used.
Again, this setting depends on the receiving modem. If half
duplex is desired, bit 4 of the command character should be
set (to 1). In most cases, especially with newer modems, full
duplex is available, so bit 4 should be clear, or 0.
Bit 4 Value Effect
0 0 Full duplex
1 16 Half duplex
Handshaking refers to how the transmitting and receiving
devices recognize and establish communication between each
other. Handshaking is controlled by bit 0, which for most
applications should be clear, or 0.
As you can see, the command character is not as im­
portant as the control character. If the sum of the command
values is zero, the command character does not have to be
used. If a different value is needed, the command character is
concatenated to the control character.
This next OPEN statement shows how that's done to se­
lect half duplex (bit value of 16).
Command character = CHR$(16)
OPEN 1,2,0,CHR$(6)+ CHR$(16) : REM SELECT HALF DUPLEX

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When the OPEN statement is executed, it creates input

and output buffers of 256 bytes each. This allotment of 512
bytes comes from free memory. It forces an automatic CLR,
which erases all previous variables and closes all other open
files. Thus, if a program is going to use an RS-232 device, the
OPEN should come before any variable assignments, array
dimensions, function definitions, or other OPEN statements.
The 512 bytes are restored when the RS-232 file is closed.
CLOSE causes another CLR, so the CLOSE should be the last
thing in the program.
The variable ST has a different meaning when used with
an RS-232 device. The last three bits are set to indicate errors.
Bit Value (set) Error when bit set
0 1 Parity error
1 2 Framing error
2 4 Receiver buffer overflowed
A parity error occurs when a bit has been switched in
value, probably due to a bad connection. Don't bother to
check this bit when using a word length of eight bits.
IF ST AND1 THEN parity error
(Note: Due to a quirk in BASIC, there must be a space be­
tween ST and AND.)
A framing error also indicates a problem in receiving a
character.
IF ST AND2 THEN framing error
The buffer OVERFLOW error occurs when the input
buffer is full (contains 256 bytes) and another character is re­
ceived before the program retrieves a character. This can hap­
pen when the program handling the input and output is too
slow for the baud rate used. A BASIC program can run only
so fast. If the program has to do a lot of processing and a fast
baud rate such as 600 or 1200 is used, this error may occur.
The solution is to write the program in machine language.
IF ST AND4 THEN buffer overflowed
Another point about the ST variable is that it can be read
only once after an input/output statement. After it's read, it's
automatically set to zero. If you need to read it more than
once, assign it to a temporary variable.
RS-232 communication may seem complicated in its
description, but it can be very easy to implement. To show just
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how easy it is, take a look at Program 3-2, “Modem.” It's a

simple program which makes your computer and modem act
as a terminal, allowing you to communicate with another com­
puter, perhaps one running a bulletin board system. The pro­
gram is set for 300 baud and cannot handle faster rates. To use
this program, you must have a modem connected to your
Commodore 64 (and another computer with a modem to re­
ceive your transmission).
After typing in and running Program 3-2, make sure your
modem is properly connected. Access the receiving computer
as you would normally, by dialing its telephone number. Al­
though the program establishes full duplex, you can switch
your modem to half duplex (if it has that feature) to see what
you type on the screen.

Program 3-2. Modem

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.
10 OPEN 1,2,0,CHR$(6):POKE 56577,0 srem 5
20 DIM T%(255),R%(255) :FOR 10=1 TO 255:T%(K)=K:R%(K
)=K:NEXT :rem 112
30 FOR K=65 TO 90:T%(K)=K+32:R%(K)=K+128:NEXT:FOR
{SPACElK=97 TO 122:R%(K)=K-32:NEXT srem 245
40 FOR K=193 TO 218:T%(K)=K-128sNEXT:T%(20)— 127sR%
(127)=20:PRINT "{CLR}{n }" s rem 234
50 GET A $ :IF A$>"" THEN PRINT#1,CHR$(T%(ASC(A$)));
:rem 122
60 GET#1,A$:IF A$>"" THEN PRINT CHR$(R%(ASC(A$)));
:rem 121
70 GOTO 50 srem 5

A few comments about this program might be helpful.

Lowercase is obtained by using the second character set. Un­
fortunately, this means that some character translation has to
be done to convert between ASCII codes and character set
numbers. The translation process works like this:
Receive Print on screen as
0-64 0-64 (punctuation)
65-90 193-218(uppercase)
91-96 91-96
97-122 65-90 (lowercase)
123-126 123-126
127 148(backspace)

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Keyboard Transmit
0-64 0-64 (punctuation)
65-90 97-122 (lowercase)
91-96 91-96
148 127 (backspace)
193-218 65-90 (uppercase)
The fastest way to translate is with arrays. Arrays T% and
R% have been set up for this purpose (line 20 in Program 3-2).
There are a couple of restrictions in using an RS-232 de­
vice. First, only one such device can be used at a time. Sec­
ond, an RS-232 device should not be used while another
peripheral, such as the Datassette or disk drive, is in use.
The last topic concerns receiving a CHR$(0). If the
modem receives a CHR$(0), it stores it in the buffer properly,
but the GET# statement interprets it as a null string. This
means a null string can indicate either that the input buffer is
empty or that the character is a zero character. To determine
which, check bit 3 of ST after the GET# is executed. If the bit
is set (has a value of 8), the input buffer is empty. If the bit is
clear (value of 0), the character is a CHR$(0).
IF ST AND8 THEN input buffer is empty
IF (ST AND8) = 0 THEN it's a CHR$(0)
The CHR$(0) normally is not used in ASCII communica­
tion and can just be ignored. It's important, though, in such
activities as transferring a program file by modem, in which
case every character is important.

Summary
• RS-232, like ASCII, is one of the few standards in the com­
puter industry. It specifies how computers and devices
communicate.
• The RS-232 convention applies to serial communication,
where bits of a byte are sent one at a time. Parallel commu­
nication, the other method of data transmission, transfers all
eight bits at the same time.
• The modem is used to convert bits into tones that can be car­
ried by telephone lines to another computer which converts
the tones back into bits. This process is called modulation
and demodulation.
• The modem can transmit and receive at the same time. No
direction has to be specified as part of the OPEN statement.

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• A buffer is a temporary character-holding place. An input

buffer insures that no incoming characters will be lost if
some come in too fast for the computer to process. An output
buffer holds characters until the modem is ready to transmit
them.
• The syntax for OPEN to open an RS-232 file is the standard
OPEN file number, device number, secondary address, string.
• File numbers from 1 to 127 are most frequently used. File
numbers from 128 to 255 can be used with a serial printer
which needs linefeed characters. The device number for an
RS-232 device is 2. The secondary address is not used and
should be set to 0. The string is one or two characters. The
first character is a control character which sets the number of
stop bits, the word length, and the baud rate. The second
character is optional and is rarely used. It sets the parity, du­
plex, and handshaking.
• When an RS-232 OPEN is executed, 512 bytes are taken
from free memory and are used for buffers. If there are not
512 bytes available, the end of the program is overwritten.
• The OPEN performs a CLR, which erases all variables, ar­
rays, and defined functions, and closes all open files. An
OPEN to an RS-232 device should be done as part of the
program's initialization, before the assignments, dimensions,
definitions, and OPENs. A CLR is also performed when a file
to an RS-232 device is closed.
• Only one file to an RS-232 device can be open at any time.
Communication with other devices is not allowed when an
RS-232 file is open.
• With RS-232 communication, the status variable, ST, in­
dicates errors.
• Translation is required to convert between ASCII and Com­
modore 64 character codes.

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The End of BASIC

Using Commands in Programs

Normally, commands such as RUN, NEW, LIST, CONT,
LOAD, and SAVE are used only in the immediate mode, with­
out line numbers. But commands can also be used in pro­
grams, some with better results than others.
RUN. The RUN command can be used to make a program
automatically rerun when it's done. Just place RUN where the
END statement would normally go. RUN first performs a CLR,
erasing all variables, arrays, and defined functions before start­
ing execution at the program's first line. If a line number is
placed after RUN, execution begins with that line.
NEW. Another way to end a program is to use NEW. The
NEW command both ends a program and erases it. (This isn't
recommended when you're still debugging a program, for
you'll have to continually reload it.)
LIST. The LIST command is not very useful in a program.
When executed, all or some of the program lines will be listed,
depending on the optional line number range after the
keyword. Execution then ends. If there are statements after the
command, they won't be executed.
CONT. When used in the program mode, the CONT
command puts BASIC in an infinite loop, and no processing is
done. To break out of the loop, press the RUN/STOP key.
CONT is best used only in the immediate mode.
LOAD. Using LOAD in program mode is somewhat com­
plicated, so let's first examine what happens when programs
are saved and loaded. A BASIC program is stored in memory
as a sequence of bytes. The address of the program is usually
2049, but it can be different for nonstandard system configura­
tions (such as those with special device handlers). Whatever
the address, the SAVE command will start at that address and
send the bytes which form the program to the disk or tape
file. When LOAD is executed, the bytes in the file are read into
memory starting at the address of BASIC memory.
LOAD'S full syntax is:
LOAD, a filename (optional for tape), a device number (optional),
and a secondary address (optional).

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If no device number is given, device 1 (the Datassette) is

assumed. If no secondary address is given, the default of zero
is used.
A secondary address of 0 means that a relocating LOAD
should be performed. The program will be loaded starting at
the current address of BASIC's free memory. This insures that
a file which was saved at one address can be loaded when
BASIC memory starts at a different address. Relocating
LOADs are used mainly when loading BASIC programs. The
BASIC program that is loaded replaces the one currently in
memory.
Another type of program is one written in machine lan­
guage. In most cases, a machine language cannot be relocated.
It must be loaded at the same address from which it was
saved. A secondary address of 1 tells the computer to ignore
the current address of BASIC memory and to use the address
which was used for saving the file. Keep in mind that
nonrelocating LOADs are most often used when loading ma­
chine language programs.
Here are the secondary addresses used with LOAD and
their effects:
Secondary
Address Effect
0 Relocating LOAD
1 Nonrelocating LOAD
Let's take a look at what happens with LOAD in program
mode. When executed, the command loads the requested pro­
gram and performs a RUN. This is handy since it makes it
possible to run a series of programs, one after another. This is
called chaining.
There's one important difference between the normal
RUN command and what's automatically performed after a
LOAD, however. The automatic RUN after a LOAD does not
include a CLR. None of the variables, arrays, and functions
are erased. This doesn't mean that their values are preserved.
All function definitions are overwritten when the new pro­
gram is loaded. Calling a defined function when no
corresponding DEF has been executed will not cause an
UNDEF'D FUNCTION error, but it will probably force some
sort of error because the definition is no longer intact. Nu­
meric variables and arrays will be preserved if the new pro­
gram is shorter than the old one; however, string variables
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may or may not be preserved, depending on how they were

assigned.
It would be nice if it were possible to pass variables be­
tween chained BASIC programs, but there are so many restric­
tions that in most cases it isn't worth the trouble. Just have the
chained programs start with a CLR statement and there
shouldn't be any problems.
The problem of passing variables doesn't apply when
LOAD is used with a machine language program. In these
situations, the original program is not replaced, so the vari­
ables, arrays, and function definitions should not be disturbed.
This is often used when a BASIC program loads and executes
a machine language routine or program. In the lines below,
the SYS statement, introduced in a later section, starts the
execution of the machine language.
10 IF A=0 THEN A=1:LOAD "EDIT.C64",8,1:REM LOADS M
ACHINE CODE
20 SYS 49152:REM EXECUTES MACHINE CODE

Since you started the program with the normal RUN com­
mand, the variable A is 0, and the condition is true. Variable
A is set to 1, and the machine language program is loaded
from disk. After the LOAD is complete, BASIC automatically
does another RUN, this time without clearing the variables.
Variable A keeps the value of 1, so this second time the sec­
tion after the THEN is not executed. Execution falls through to
line 20, the SYS statement, which starts the machine language
program.
SAVE. Last but not least, the SAVE command, when
used in a program, saves the current BASIC program to tape
or disk. This could be useful if you want a program to make a
copy of itself when it runs.

Summary
• RUN can be used as a substitute for the END statement to
make a program rerun when it ends.
• NEW, when used in a program, ends and erases the
program.
• If LIST is included in a program, execution stops after the
LIST is executed, even if there are lines yet unexecuted.
• CONT causes BASIC processing to enter an infinite loop

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which can be stopped by pressing the RUN/STOP key.

• The full syntax for LOAD is: LOAD filename, device number,
secondary address.
• The secondary address should be 0 for a relocating LOAD,
which indicates that the program will start loading at the
current address of BASIC memory, replacing the program al­
ready in memory. Zero is the default secondary address.
• Relocating LOADs are usually used with BASIC programs.
• The secondary address should be 1 for a nonrelocating
LOAD. The program will be loaded at the same address from
which it was saved. This usually leaves the current BASIC
program intact.
• Nonrelocating LOADs are most often used for machine lan­
guage programs.
• When LOAD executes in a program, the LOAD is performed
and BASIC goes to the first line of the current BASIC pro­
gram. This is like performing a RUN without a CLR.
• All variables, arrays, and function definitions are preserved
during a nonrelocating LOAD. This fact can be used to make
a BASIC program load and begin executing a machine lan­
guage program.
• After a relocating LOAD, BASIC starts to execute the pro­
gram which replaced the one in memory. String variables, ar­
rays, and function definitions will still exist but their values
will be incorrect because they were overwritten by the new
program. Numeric variables will be preserved only if the
new program is shorter than the old one. In most cases, it's
best to simply have the new program start with a CLR.
• The process of having one program load and run another is
called chaining. Commodore 64 BASIC allows any number of
programs to be chained.
• A SAVE used in a program makes the program copy itself to
tape or disk. Execution will continue with the first statement
after the command SAVE.

The W AIT Statement

The WAIT statement is an advanced topic because it uses bi­
nary values and, compared with other statements, is seldom
used. But WAIT does have a few applications and can help
you tighten a program by saving lines.
WAIT makes BASIC stop all processing until a designated
bit has a specified value.

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As an example, let's use location 56320, the second joy­

stick port. Bits 0-3 of this location report the direction of the
joystick; bit 4 reflects the status of the joystick button. To
monitor a specific bit, you can use the AND operator and the
number which corresponds with the bit. The chart below gives
the values associated with each bit.
Bit Value
0 1
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
5 32
6 64
7 128
The following line shows the relationship between bit 4
and the joystick button. Note: Plug a joystick into port 2.
10 PRINT PEEK(56320)AND16:GOTO 10
Normally, 16 is printed, which means that the bit is set.
When the button is pressed, the bit is cleared, meaning a 0 is
printed. The WAIT statement uses this process to decide when
to halt execution, as well as when to continue. Make sure the
above program line is still in memory, and enter this line in
immediate mode:
WAIT 56320,16
It seems as if nothing happened. That's because the state­
ment told BASIC to wait until bit 4 (value of 16) in location
56320 was set. Since you weren't pressing the joystick button
when you entered the statement, the bit was already set, and
no WAIT was executed.
Enter WAIT 56320,16 again, but this time press down on
the button before hitting RETURN. The cursor will disappear,
and nothing will be printed. In fact, BASIC will be concentrat­
ing so hard on waiting for bit 4 to become set that it will not
notice if you press RUN/STOP. Now release the button. The
READY, prompt will appear and BASIC will be functioning as
normal.
The 16 in the last example is a bit mask which tells WAIT
to freeze execution until bit 4 goes from clear to set.
Sometimes, however, you might want to reverse the

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condition and have the WAIT statement delay BASIC until a

selected bit goes from set to clear. Consider the following pro­
gram, which waits until the button is pressed (bit 4 is cleared)
and then prints a message.
10 IF PEEK(56320)AND16 GOTO 10:REM LOOP WHILE NOT
{SPACE}PRESSED
20 PRINT "FIRE I"

To make WAIT halt execution until a bit is cleared, you

need to add another bit mask to the statement. In the line be­
low, the first 16 indicates that bit 4 of location 56320 is to be
monitored; the second 16 says that the condition to be fulfilled
is that the bit must go from set to clear, instead of the normal
change from clear to set.
10 WAIT 56320,16,16 SPRINT "FIRE!"
This does the same thing as the two-line program above,
but in only one line.
Now let's extend the example so that it waits repeatedly
for the joystick button to be pressed.
10 WAIT 56320,16,16 SPRINT "FIRE!";sREM NOTE THE SE
MICOLON
20 GOTO 10
When you run this program, you'll quickly notice a prob­
lem. Each press of the button is detected more than once. This
problem, called bounce, can also happen with the keyboard.
Sometimes you hit one key, but it's actually read more than
once. To eliminate the bounce, make the program wait for the
button to be released before relooping. Just substitute this line
20 for that above.
20 WAIT 56320,16sGOTO 10
In fact, the whole program could be written in one line:
10 WAIT 56320,16,16sPRINT "FIRE 1";sWAIT 56320,16sG
OTO 10
If the WAIT statement was not available, this program
would have had to be written in three or four lines, depending
on whether the ON-GOTO technique was used. Notice that in
both the programs below the RUN/STOP key operates, unlike
when you use the WAIT statement.

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10 IF PEEK(56320)AND16 GOTO 10
20 PRINT "FIRE 1";
30 IF (PEEK(56320)AND16)=0 GOTO 30
40 GOTO 10
or
10 IF PEEK(56320)AND16 GOTO 10
20 PRINT "FIRE 1";
30 ON (PEEK(56320)AND16)/16+1 GOTO 30,10

WAIT can even monitor several bits at a time. Location

198 counts the number of keypresses (0-10) in the keyboard
buffer. It takes four bits to represent a number in that range,
so bits 0-3 have to be watched. The value 0 indicates that the
buffer is empty, so when the first four bits in location 198 are
all clear, no key has been pressed. To make a program wait
until a key is pressed, you can use the standard method:
10 GET K $ :IF K$="" GOTO 10
20 PRINT "GOT A KEY"

Or you can use WAIT to stop program execution until location

198 contains a nonzero value (when any bit from 0 to 3 is set).
With WAIT, the program would look like:
10 WAIT 198,15 sGET K$SPRINT "GOT A KEY"

The value 15 was calculated from 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 , the values

associated with bits 0-3.
Another common application for WAIT is to wait until the
PLAY button on the Datassette is pressed. Bit 4 of location 1
goes from set to clear when a button on the Datassette is
pressed.
10 PRINT PEEK(1)AND16:GOTO 10
Type in and run this program. You'll see 16 appear on the
screen when the PLAY button is not pressed, 0 when it is.
When a program opens a tape file, the computer prints
the message PRESS PLAY ON TAPE. However, the message
does not appear if the PLAY button is already pressed. The
computer just proceeds with the open processing. If you don't
want the prompt message, perhaps because it might disrupt
your screen display, put a WAIT statement before the OPEN.
It would look like this:
10 WAIT 1,16,16:OPEN 1,1,0,"TAPE FILE"

87
Chapter 4

The file TAPE FILE is still opened, but the prompt fails to
appear.

Summary
• The WAIT statement makes BASIC halt execution until se­
lected bits in a designated location are set or cleared.
• The syntax is WAIT, location number, comma, mask, and op­
tional comma and mask.
• The bit set in the first mask tells which bit is to be mon­
itored. For instance, if BASIC is to monitor bit 4, then 16
(that bit's value) would be used as the mask number.
• The second bit mask tells whether BASIC is to wait for the
selected bit to go from clear to set, or from set to clear. If
there is no second bit mask, BASIC will wait until the bit
goes from clear to set. To reverse the condition, the value
associated with the bit should be used for the second bit
mask.
• More than one bit can be monitored in the same location. To
make BASIC monitor both bits 4 and 5, the associated values
of 16 and 32 would be added and used as the first mask
number. BASIC would then wait until either bit 4 or bit 5
went from clear to set.
• The second bit mask can also be used with several bits. The
statement WAIT 1,164-32,16 makes BASIC wait until either
bit 4 of location 1 goes from set to clear, or bit 5 goes from
clear to set.
• While BASIC is waiting, it does not check the RUN/STOP
key, so RUN/STOP-RESTORE has to be used to stop
execution.
• Here are several example applications of WAIT: Halt execu­
tion until the joystick button is pressed or released; force a
program to wait until the PLAY button on the Datassette is
pressed so that no PRESS PLAY ON TAPE message appears;
and freeze a program until a key is pressed.

Machine Language and the SYS Statement

The SYS statement is used to execute machine language
routines and programs. In order to understand what this
means, let's take a moment to explain machine language.
Inside your Commodore 64, there are several computer
chips. One of them, the VIC chip, handles the video display.

88
 Chapter 4

Another, the SID, is in charge of audio output. These are sup­

port chips, and give the Commodore 64 its excellent sound
and graphics capabilities. But they don't give the 64 any
computing ability. That's what the CPU (Central Processing
Unit), the heart of the computer, does. It's the CPU which
really runs the show, doing everything from reading the key­
board to processing all calculations and decisions and telling
the VIC chip what to display on the screen. Even if the VIC
and SID chips were not working, the computer could still run
programs. You just wouldn't see or hear any output. The com­
puter could not function, however, if there were no CPU.
All computers, from micros to mainframes, must have a
CPU. Some even have more than one. In microcomputers, the
CPU is called a microprocessor. The type of microprocessor
used in the Commodore 64 is the 6510, which is practically
identical to the 6502 found in many other home computers.
Some other popular microprocessors are the Z80 and the 8088.
Machine language is the native language of the
microprocessor. It's quite different from BASIC. Just as a
BASIC program contains statements, a machine language pro­
gram consists of instructions which are executed by the
microprocessor. The difference is that each instruction can do
only a very small task, so many are necessary to get anything
done. It takes several instructions just to add two numbers to­
gether. However, machine language instructions can be exe­
cuted very quickly. It's quite common for a machine language
program to run a hundred times faster than a comparable
BASIC program. A BASIC program is not machine language
and cannot be directly executed by the microprocessor. Rather,
the BASIC language itself is one huge machine language pro­
gram. It's a collection of machine language routines, one for
each operation, function, statement, and command in BASIC.
For instance, there's a routine to add two numbers, a routine
which calculates the absolute value of a number, and a routine
to print something on the screen. There are also routines to
find the value associated with a variable, search for a line
number, check syntax, and so on, and so on.
When BASIC is told to run a program, it looks at the first
statement, executes the necessary machine language routines
to process the statement, and then moves on to the next state­
ment. Thus, a BASIC program is really a kind of data file. It
cannot stand on its own, but instead is treated as data for a

89
Chapter 4

machine language program called BASIC. The end result may

appear to the user as though BASIC statements have comput­
ing power, but the real processing is being done in machine
language.
The process of reading data from a program file and selec­
tively executing some routines is called interpreting. The inter­
preting process is what makes BASIC programs run slower
than equivalent machine language programs. It takes time to
read statements, look up values for variables, search for pro­
gram lines, and check for correct syntax. An alternative is to
convert a BASIC program to machine language with a process
known as compiling. After a program has been written, it's
compiled before it's executed. Compiled programs are actual
machine language programs that can stand on their own, pro­
grams which don't need BASIC. This can significantly increase
the speed of the program. However, program development is
less interactive, because every time the program is changed in
even the smallest way, it has to be recompiled.
The BASIC language, whether its programs are inter­
preted or compiled, is called a high-level language because
each statement is rather general and can do a lot. If you think
about it, the PRINT statement is extremely versatile. It can
print numbers and characters, call functions and operations,
and control cursor positioning. Machine language, on the
other hand, is a low-level language, because each instruction is
limited and specific. Most people without computer experience
learn BASIC first. However, if you want to tap the full poten­
tial of your computer and want to know what computing is
really about, machine language is the way to go.
The SYS statement instructs BASIC to stop executing and
to transfer control to a machine language routine which starts
at a specified address. Thus, SYS is to a machine language
program what RUN is to a BASIC program. If you're using a
machine language routine published in a book or magazine,
the address will be given in the article or documentation. Care
must be taken that the address is correct, because if the
microprocessor is told to execute machine language instruc­
tions at memory locations where there are no instructions, it
will "hang” and the computer will crash. This does no perma­
nent damage to the computer, but it does mean that you'll
have to turn the computer off and back on again to regain
control. Anything in memory will be lost.
90
 Chapter 4

To demonstrate the speed of machine language and to

show how the SYS statement is used, the doodling program
from All About the Commodore 64, Volume One has been rewrit­
ten in machine language. Here's the original BASIC program.
Plug a joystick into port 2. Push the joystick to draw in all
eight directions, and press the button to change the color.

Program 4-1. BASIC Doodle

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

10 PRINT CHR$(147):POKE 53280,0:POKE 53281,0:S=500

:C=1 :rem 181
20 DIM JS(15):FOR K=5 TO 14:READ JS(K):NEXT
srem 126
30 POKE 55296+S,C:POKE 1024+S,81 :rem 205
40 S=S+JS(PEEK(56320) AND 15) srem 15
50 IF S<0 THEN S=S+1000 :rem 177
60 IF S>999 THEN S=S-1000 :rem 49
70 IF (PEEK( 56320) AND 16)=0 THEN C=C+1;IF 0 1 5 TH
EN C=1 :rem 66
80 GOTO 30 srem 4
90 DATA 41,-39,1,0,39,-41,-1,0,40,-40 :rem 239

Now, let's try the machine language version. The instruc­

tions have been stored as numbers in DATA statements, which
is the most convenient form for short programs or routines.
The instructions are read and POKEd into free memory, and
then SYS is used to begin executing the code. Just lightly tap
the joystick left or right at first, so you can see that the draw­
ing is done a pixel at a time. You'll notice that the machine
language version is so fast that even if you just lightly hit the
joystick, most of the screen fills up.

Program 4-2. Machine Language Doodle

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

300 FOR K=4096 TO 4290:READ P:POKE K,P:NEXT

:rem 150
310 SYS 4096 :rem 102
320 END :rem 108
800 DATA 169,147,32,210,255,169,0,141,32,208,141,3
3,208,169,244,141,193,16,169 :rem 9
801 DATA 1,141,194,16,169,1,141,192,16,169,0,24,10
9,193,16,133,251,169,216,109 :rem 3
802 DATA 194,16,133,252,173,192,16,160,0,145,251,1
69,0,24,109,193,16,133,251 :rem 155

91
Chapter 4

803 DATA 169,4,109,194,16,133,252,169,81,145,251,1

73.0. 220.41.15.170.189.165 :rem 171
804 DATA 16,24,109,193,16,141,193,16,189,176,16,10
9,194,16,141,194,16,173,194 srem 237
805 DATA 16,16,17,173,193,16,24,105,232,141,193,16
,173,194,16,105,3,141,194,16 :rem 1
806 DATA 169,231,205,193,16,169,3,237,194,16,176,1
7,173,193,16,56,233,232,141 :rem 234
807 DATA 193,16,173,194,16,233,3,141,194,16,173,0,
220,41,16,208,15,238,192,16 :rem 210
808 DATA 169,15,205,192,16,176,5,169,1,141,192,16,
76.28.16.41.217.1.0. 39.215 :rem 169
809 DATA 255,0,40,216,0,0,255,0,0,0,255,255,0,0,25
5.0.0.0.0 :rem 28

BASIC always checks for the RUN/STOP key before it

processes each statement. Since BASIC is not in control,
RUN/STOP won't work, and you'll have to use the
RUN/STOP-RESTORE combination to halt the program.
It's possible to pass information between BASIC and ma­
chine language programs. In many of the programs later in
this book, you'll see a line like the following:
120 SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783
Locations 780-783 can be POKEd before a SYS call. This
area of memory is called the Register Storage Area and is used
to store the values held by the Accumulator, the X register, the
Y register, and the status register. The Register Storage Area is
used by the BASIC SYS command to load each of the registers
from the corresponding storage address. The values POKEd
can then be used by the machine language routine. That's
what this next line does.
130 POKE SA,1SPOKE SX,8:P0KE SY,0:SYS 65466
When the machine language routine ends and control is
returned to the BASIC interpreter, any new values held by the
registers are stored in the appropriate memory locations. Pro­
gram execution will continue with the first statement after
SYS. This may be a PEEK to one of the locations to get infor­
mation inserted by the machine language program or routine.
140 SYS 65493:IF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 700
These variable names (SA, SX, SY, and SP) are used
consistently in the later programs.
There's one other feature of BASIC related to machine

92
 Chapter 4

language. The USR function is an alternative method of

executing machine language, and allows one floating-point
value to be passed back and forth. However, this technique is
less convenient than SYS, so it's not used very often. Calling
the USR function without some special setup results in an IL­
LEGAL QUANTITY error.
The USR function is not related in any way to the USR disk
file type.

Summary
• Of all the parts of a computer, the one that provides the real
"brains" is the CPU, or central processing unit. In micro­
computers, the CPU is called a microprocessor. The Com­
modore 64's microprocessor is the 6510, which for all
practical purposes is identical to the 6502.
• Machine language is the language of the microprocessor. Ma­
chine language consists of instructions (rather than state­
ments) which are directly executed by the microprocessor.
• Each machine language instruction is very simple and limited
in what it can accomplish. But though it takes a number of
them to get anything done, each instruction can be executed
very quickly.
• The BASIC language on the Commodore 64 is one large ma­
chine language program.
• A BASIC program is not machine language and cannot be di­
rectly executed by the microprocessor. Rather, it's treated as
data read by the BASIC interpreter program.
• The process of BASIC reading statements and executing the
appropriate machine language routines is called interpreting.
Interpreted BASIC programs are relatively slow because
things like syntax checking are done as the program is
running.
• A BASIC program can be compiled into machine language,
which can then be directly executed by the microprocessor.
The advantage of compiling is that things like syntax check­
ing are done as part of the compiling step, so the program
runs much faster. The disadvantage is that a program has to
be recompiled every time it's changed.
• BASIC is a high-level language because each statement can
do a lot. Machine language is a low-level language.
• The SYS statement is used to start the execution of machine

93
Chapter 4

language at a specified address. If the address is wrong, the

computer may crash.
• Information from a BASIC program can be made available to
the machine language code by POKEing the information into
locations 780 through 783 before the SYS is executed.
• If the machine language program ends and returns control to
BASIC, execution will continue with the first statement after
the SYS.
• Locations 780 to 783 can be PEEKed when the machine lan­
guage program is finished to get values returned.
• The USR function offers a means of executing machine lan­
guage and passing one floating-point value back and forth,
but in most cases it's less convenient to use than SYS.

94
Part 2
Bitmapped
Graphics
Chapter 5

The Bitmapped Graphics

Introduction to the Bitmapped Graphics Utility

Bitmapped graphics lets you cover the whole screen with
graphics. There are no size limitations as there are with re­
defined characters and sprites. When redefining a character,
you are confined to working in an 8 X 8 grid. Even with
sprites, the 24 X 21 grid restricts the size of an object. But
with bitmapped graphics, the whole screen is one big grid.
You can control any point on the screen. You can draw lines
to create things like line graphs and three-dimensional pic­
tures. Or you can fill in areas to create pie charts or back­
ground scenes.
The Commodore 64's bitmapped graphics capabilities are
very good, but difficult to use from BASIC. As a result,
bitmapped graphics is often the most overlooked and under­
used feature of the computer.
Since the goal of this book is to help you get the most out
of your computer, the first major utility is designed to open up
the world of bitmapped graphics. The utility consists of a
collection of machine language routines which make bitmapped
graphics easier to use. The routines can plot points, draw
lines, fill in areas, and draw whole shapes. Because the
routines are written in machine language, they're fast. That
leaves only one problem— how will the routines be called by a
BASIC program?
One method would be to use the SYS statement. A slightly
more elaborate method, and the one used for this utility, is to
add new statements to BASIC. This method is a good choice
because it offers the speed of machine language and the con­
venience of BASIC.

The New Statements

The new statements work just like standard BASIC statements.
They can be used in program lines, they can be listed, and
they can cause errors if their syntax is wrong or their values
are out of range. A program containing these new statements

97
Chapter 5

can be saved to tape or disk just like any other program.

Besides these statements, we've added a new function and
a new command. Here's a list of the additions to BASIC:
Statements
GRAPHICS DRAW SETPEN
CLS MODE TEXT
FILL LFILL RFILL
SHAPE PEN
Function
LOOK
Command
KILL
To install the BASIC extensions, two files must be created.
One file contains the machine language routines which per­
form all the graphics work. The other is a BASIC program that
loads the machine language file and merges it with BASIC, ac­
tually adding the new statements.
First, enter and save either Program 5-1 (for disk) or Pro­
gram 5-2 (for tape) to disk or tape. Make sure you use the
filename BMGLOADER.
Next, type in the machine language file (Program 5-3),
using the "Machine Language Editor: MLX" program found in
Appendix C, and save it using the filename BMG.OBJ. If
you're using tape, be sure to save the file immediately after
the "BMGLOADER" program.
(Please read the article in Appendix C before typing in
Program 5-3. You'll need to use MLX to enter other files in
this book, so be sure to save a copy. If you have a copy of
MLX from another COMPUTE! publication and you're using
tape, change line 763 of your copy so that it matches line 763
as listed in this book. Tape users who have a copy of MLX
which does not have a line 763 must use the version of MLX
from this book.)
After loading and running MLX, you'll be asked for two
prompts. Respond to these with:
Starting address: 51200
Ending address: 53245
Save this file as BMG.OBJ
Once you have these two files on disk or tape, you're
ready to start using bitmapped graphics. Load and run the
BMGLOADER program, which in turn loads and executes the
98
 Chapter 5

machine language file. After the BASIC extensions are in­

stalled, the READY, prompt will appear.
For a short demonstration of what the new graphics state­
ments can do, enter and run Program 5-4. It draws a rectan­
gular kaleidoscope. To stop the drawing, press the RUN/STOP
key. To reset the screen to text mode, hit RESTORE while
holding down RUN/STOP.
One very important word of caution: The bitmapped
graphics extensions require memory from 50176 to 53247
(hexadecimal $C400 to $CFFF). The extensions cannot be used
in conjunction with any other utility which uses these same
memory locations, including the popular DOS wedge. Remove
all such utilities before loading the bitmapped graphics exten­
sions. The easiest way to do this is to turn the computer off
and back on.
The bitmapped graphics extensions stay in effect until the
computer is turned off, so there's no need to run the
BMGLOADER program more than once as long as the com­
puter is on. The next time you turn on the computer, though,
you will have to run the BMGLOADER program before using
any graphics statements. Programs containing graphics state­
ments will not list properly and will not work if the BMGLOADER
program has not been run earlier.
If you're finished using the bitmapped graphics BASIC
extensions and want to use another utility that requires the
same memory locations, use the KILL command. This removes
the extensions and frees up the memory. The graphics state­
ments can later be reinstalled by running BMGLOADER again.
All the program examples in this chapter and in Chapter 6
require that the BASIC extensions be active when the programs
are typed in, run, or loaded. This is extremely important. You
must run BMGLOADER each time you turn on your computer
and after the KILL command is used if you wish to use any
program containing the BASIC extensions.

Program 5-1. BMGLOADER Disk Version

10 IF A THEN SYS 52506:NEW
20 A=1:L0AD "BMG.OBJ",8,1

99
 Program 5-2. BMGLOADER Tape Version 51332 :096,072, 138 ,072,152,072,222

100
51338 :165,001, 009 ,002,133,001,193
10 IF A THEN SYS 52506sNEW 51344 :169,200, 072 ,169,157,072,215
20 A=1:LOAD "BMG.OBJ",1,1 51350 :008,072, 072 ,072,108,020,246
Chapter 5

51356 5003,165, 001 ,041,253,133,240

Program 5-3. BMG.OBJ 51362 5001,104, 168 ,104,170,104,045
To enter this program you must use "The Machine Language
, 51368 5064,169, 000 ,072,173,252,130
Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C.
51374 5204,133, 076 ,169,000,133,121
51380 5075,162, 002 ,157,000,205,013
51200 :072,173,252,204,010,010,209 51386 5157,015, 205 ,202,016,247,004
51206 :010,173, 253,204,144,002,024 51392 5168,162, 031 ,032,225,200,242
51212 :009,002, 010,010,072,173,032 51398 sl60,064, 032 ,219,200,104,209
51218 s002,221, 009,003,141,002,140 51404 sl41,033, 208 ,174,253,204,193
51224 5221,173, 000,221,041,252,164 51410 5134,076, 162 ,003,032,225,074
51230 s013,250, 204,141,000,221,091 51416 5200,160, 232 ,136,145,075,140
51236 :104,141, 024,208,173,017,191 51422 5208,251, 096 ,145,075,200,173
51242 :208,009, 032,141,017,208,145 51428 5208,251, 230 ,076,202,208,123
51248 :162,001, 142,255,204,189,233 51434 5246,096, 173 ,017,208,041,247
51254 :193,204, 157,250,255,189,022 51440 5032,240, 237 ,173,002,221,121
51260 :195,204, 157,254,255,202,047 51446 5 009,003, 141 ,002,221,173,027
51266 s016,241, 162,002,189,197,105 51452 5000,221, 009 ,003,141,000,114
51272 :204,157, 009,205,202,016,097 51458 5221,076, 129 ,255,169,128,212
51278 :247,104, 141,254,204,170,174 51464 5142,000, 205 ,170,169,000,182
51284 :074,168, 189,200,204,141,036 51470 5042,141, 002 ,205,140,001,033
51290 s004,205, 185,208,204,141,013 51476 5205,138, 048 ,035,045,003,238
51296 :007,205, 173,022,208,041,240 51482 5205,141, 255 ,204,240,022,069
51302 :239,162, 001,160,255,144,039 51488 5170,189, 008 ,205,041,015,148
51308 :005,009, 016,162,003,200,247 51494 5202,208, 004 ,010,010,010,226
51314 :141,022, 208,142,003,205,067 51500 5010,141, 008 ,205,173,006,075
51320 s140,006, 205,162,003,138,006 51506 5205,029, 2 12 ,204,141,005,078
51326 :157,021, 205,202,016,249,208 51512 s205,169, 000 ,133,082,173,050
51518 :001, 205, 133,,079,173,254,139 51704 :002,205, 141 ,002,205,173,208
51524 :204,074, 208,,019,173,000,234 51710 s005,205, 172 ,007,205,145,225
51530 :205,133, 080,,173,002,205,104 51716 :075,136, 016 ,251,048,034,052
51536 :133 ,081, 144,,023,006,080,035 51722 :037,077, 197 ,078,056,208,151
51542 :038,081, 076,,105,201,170,245 51728 :097,165, 077 ,073,255,133,048
51548 :173 ,000, 205 ,006,079,010,053 51734 :077,073, 255 ,045,005,205,170
51554 :202, 208, 250 ,133,080,038,241 51740 :133,078, 172 ,007,205,177,032
51560 5081,165, 081 ,041,001,133,094 51746 :075,037, 077 ,005,078,145,195
51566 :081,240, 006 ,165,080,201,115 51752 :075,136, 016 ,245,138,174,056
51572 :064,176, 006 ,165,079,201,039 51758 5255,204, 024 ,240,063,041,105
51578 :200,144, 001 ,096,170,041,006 51764 5248,133, 075 ,010,038,076,120
51584 :248,010, 010 ,010,133,075,102 51770 5010,038, 076 ,024,101,075,126
51590 s138,074, 074 ,074,133,076,191 51776 5133,075, 165 ,076,041,003,045
51596 :074,074, 024 ,101,076,133,110 51782 5105,000, 133 ,076,165,081,118
51602 :076,138, 069 ,080,041,007,045 51788 5074,165, 080 ,106,074,074,137
51608 5069,080, 101 ,075,133,075,173 51794 5168,165, 076 ,224,003,208,158
51614 5165,081, 101 ,076,109,252,174 51800 5010,009, 216 ,133,076,173,193
51620 5204,133, 076 ,165,001,133,108 51806 5008,205, 024 ,144,013,013,245
51626 5085,045, 251 ,204,133,001,121 51812 5253,204, 133 ,076,177,075,250
51632 5165,080, 041 ,007,109,004,070 51818 5061,229, 204 ,013,008,205,058
51638 s205,168, 185 ,215,204,164,043 51824 5145,075, 165 ,085,133,001,204
51644 5082,240, 086 ,016,021,133,254 51830 5096,133, 086 ,038,077,152,188
51650 5077,160, 000 ,177,075,070,241 51836 5160,001, 056 ,237,001,205,016
51656 5077,144, 003 ,074,016,249,251 51842 5176,005, 073 ,255,105,001,233
51662 5166,085, 134 ,001,045,003,128 51848 5136,133, 076 ,208,001,136,058
51668 5205,096, 073 ,255,133,077,027 51854 5132,088, 138 ,056,237,000,025
51674 5045,012, 205 ,133,078,160,083 51860 5205,133, 075 ,165,077,041,076
51680 5000,177, 075 ,205,012,205,130 51866 5001,237, 002 ,205,133,077,041
51686 5208,034, 165 ,100,240,017,226 51872 sl60,000, 132 ,078,132,089,239
51692 5016,001, 136 ,024,109,000,010 51878 5010,144, 015 ,152,229,075,023
Chapter 5

51698 5205,141, 000 ,205,152,109,030 51884 5133,075, 152 ,229,077,133,203

 51890 :077,198, 089 ,136,048,005,219 52076 :096,133, 082 ,174,000,205,030

102
51896 :005,075, 240 ,001,200,132,069 52082 :134,101, 174 ,002,205,134,096
51902 :087,162, 001 ,160,000,132,220 52088 :102,172, 254 ,204,190,232,250
51908 .-091,165, 075 ,197,076,165,197 52094 :204,134, 100 ,041,001,240,078
Chapter 5

51914 2077,233, 000 ,144,016,202,106 52100 :031,238, 000 ,205,208,003,049

51920 :200,165 ,077 ,074,165,075,196 52106 :238,002, 205 ,032,061,201,109
51926 :176,003, 208 ,007,096,240,176 52112 :144,243, 165 ,086,041,002,057
51932 2004,132, 091 ,181,075,133,068 52118 :240,033, 165 ,101,141,000,062
51938 2090,185, 075 ,000,010,153,227 52124 :205,165, 102 ,141,002,205,208
51944 2075,000, 072 ,185,077,000,129 52130 :169,000, 056 ,229,100,133,081
51950 2042,153, 077 ,000,104,056,158 52136 :100,173 ,000 ,205,208,003,089
51956 .-245,075, 133 ,092,185,077,027 52142 :206,002, 205 ,206,000,205,230
51962 2000,245, 077 ,133,093,022,052 52148 :032,061, 201 ,144,240,165,255
51968 2075,054, 077 ,185,075,000,210 52154 :101,141, 000 ,205,165,102,132
51974 2133,094, 056 ,245,075,133,230 52160 5141,002, 205 ,024,144,158,098
51980 2095,185, 077 ,000,133,096,086 52166 5133,107, 169 ,000,141,025,005
51986 2245,077, 133 ,097,134,098,034 52172 5205,141, 012 ,205,141,018,158
51992 2132,099, 162 ,000,165,093,163 52178 5205,141, 019 ,205,141,020,173
51998 2048,024, 232 ,164,099,185,014 52184 5205,173, 013 ,205,133,105,026
52004 2000,205, 024 ,121,087,000,217 52190 5173,014, 205 ,133,106,208,037
52010 2153,000, 205 ,152,208,008,000 52196 5110,074, 176 ,003,073,255,151
52016 2173,002, 205 ,101,089,141,247 52202 5136,109, 015 ,205,141,015,087
52022 2002,205, 165 ,092,024,117,147 52208 5205,152, 109 ,016,205,141,044
52028 .-094,133, 092 ,165,093,117,242 52214 5016,205, 024 ,144,088,074,029
52034 2096,133, 093 ,166,098,189,073 52220 5176,002, 073 ,255,109,017,116
52040 2000,205, 024 ,117,087,157,150 52226 s205,141, 017 ,205,024,144,226
52046 .-000,205, 138 ,208,008,173,042 52232 5074,072, 101 ,107,041,007,154
52052 2002,205, 101 ,089,141,002,112 52238 5170,189, 242 ,204,016,001,068
52058 2205,032, 057 ,201,176,012,005 52244 5136,024, 109 ,015,205,141,138
52064 2165,086, 208 ,009,198,090,084 52250 5015,205, 152 ,109,016,205,216
52070 2208,178, 198 ,091,240,174,167 52256 5141,016, 205 ,189,240,204,003
52262 5024,109, 017 ,205,141,017,039 52448 :015,207, 000 ,243,240,252,157
52268 :205,168, 104 ,041,024,074,148 52454 :015,240, 007 ,003,003,003,245
52274 :074,074, 170 ,240,013,173,026 52460 s001,001, 000 ,000,255,255,236
52280 5025,205, 016 ,008,041,015,110 52466 2000,001, 001 ,001,000,255,244
52286 s141,025, 205 ,157,008,205,035 52472 :255,255, 000 ,253,224,196,151
52292 5173,016, 205 ,074,189,021,234 52478 :000,000, 000 ,000,000,000,254
52298 2205,174, 015 ,205,032,008,201 52484 :000,000, 000 ,000,000,000,004
52304 5201,176, 037 ,160,000,177,063 52490 :000,000, 000 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,000,010
52310 2105,230, 105 ,208,002,230,198 52496 :000,000, 000 ,000,000,000,016
52316 5106,074, 144 ,133,074,144,255 52502 s000,000, 000 ,000,173,004,199
52322 5152,074, 144 ,163,074,144,081 52508 :003,201, 233 ,208,007,173,085
52328 2016,074, 144 ,020,074,144,064 52514 5005,003, 201 ,206,240,027,204
52334 5032,162, 002 ,074,144,045,057 52520 5162,011, 189 ,000,003,157,050
52340 5074,144, 066 ,024,096,009,017 52526 5167,002, 189 ,068,205,157,066
52346 5128,141, 025 ,205,144,211,208 52532 5000,003, 202 ,016,241,169,171
52352 5074,170, 240 ,006,173,006,029 52538 5235,141, 024 ,003,169,207,069
52358 5205,029, 2 1 1 ,204,141,012,168 52544 5141,025, 003 ,096,221,206,244
52364 2205,144, 196 ,170,173,016,020 52550 5131,164, 233 ,206,119,207,106
52370 5205,074, 138 ,174,015,205,189 52556 5172,207, 206 ,207,071,082,253
52376 5172,017, 205 ,032,119,202,131 52562 5065,080, 072 ,073,067,211,138
52382 2144,179, 096 ,208,011,189,217 52568 5068,082, 065 ,215,082,070,158
52388 2015,205, 157 ,018,205,202,198 52574 5073,076, 204 ,076,070,073,154
52394 5016,247, 144 ,165,189,018,181 52580 5076,204, 070 ,073,076,204,035
52400 5205,157, 015 ,205,202,016,208 52586 5084,069, 088 ,212,067,076,190
52406 5247,144, 154 ,157,015,205,080 52592 5211,077, 079 ,068,197,083,059
52412 5202,016, 250 ,144,146,168,090 52598 5069,084, 080 ,069,206,083,197
52418 5200,133, 200 ,013,010,006,244 52604 5072,065, 080 ,197,080,069,175
52424 5000,008, 008 ,008,009,009,242 52610 5206,075, 073 ,076,204,076,072
52430 2011,011, 000 ,001,003,007,239 52616 5079,079, 203 ,000,199,205,133
52436 5085,170, 255 ,127,191,223,239 52622 5000,206, 003 ,206,006,206,001
52442 5239,247, 251 ,253,254,063,245 52628 5009,206, 235 ,200,214,205,193
Chapter 5
 52634 :208,205, 158 ,206,093,206,206 52820 :211,204, 141 ,012,205,174,007

104
52640 :178,206, 198 ,206,032,115,071 52826 :231,206, 208 ,226,032,138,107
52646 s000,032, 250 ,174,032,235,121 52832 :173,032, 247 ,183,140,013,116
52652 :183,142, 232 ,206,032,247,190 52838 :205,141, 014 ,205,032,121,052
Chapter 5

52658 :174,032, 227 ,205,032,006,086 52844 :000,240, 040 ,032,253,174,079

52664 s201,176, 055 ,168,076,162,254 52850 :032,138, 173 ,032,247,183,151
52670 5179,032, 158 ,183,138,201,057 52856 :166,020, 032 ,121,000,240,187
52676 5008,176, 043 ,096,032,169,208 52862 :022,142, 015 ,205,165,021,184
52682 ;200,032, 191 ,205,076,000,138 52868 :141,016, 205 ,032,241,183,182
52688 5200,032, 191 ,205,076,080,224 52874 :142,017, 205 ,032,121,000,143
52694 5200,240, 005 ,032,158,183,008 52880 :240,005, 032 ,241,183,138,215
52700 5138,044, 169 ,000,076,171,050 52886 :044,169, 000 ,032,198,203,028
52706 5200,165, 021 ,074,208,010,136 52892 :176,168, 096 ,032,158,183,201
52712 sl72,232, 206 ,138,166,020,142 52898 :138,041, 003 ,133,020,032,017
52718 5096,076, 008 ,175,076,072,229 52904 :241,183, 138 ,166,020,240,132
52724 5178,032, 1 2 1 ,000,240,244,035 52910 :003,157, 008 ,205,096,032,163
52730 ;201,164, 240 ,240,076,241,132 52916 :158,183, 138 ,041,003,133,068
52736 5183,160, 000 ,044,160,001,036 52922 :020,032, 241 ,183,138,041,073
52742 5044,160, 002 ,044,160,003,163 52928 :003,166, 020 ,157,021,205,252
52748 5140,231, 206 ,201,164,240,170 52934 :096,162, 011 ,189,167,002,057
52754 5020,032, 235 ,183,142,232,094 52940 s157,000, 003 ,202,016,247,061
52760 s206,174, 255 ,204,032,245,116 52946 :169,071, 141 ,024,003,169,019
52766 s205,032, 227 ,205,032,008,227 52952 :254,141, 025 ,003,096,138,105
52772 s201,176, 203 ,032,121,000,001 52958 :072,032, 236 ,200,104,170,012
52778 s240,194, 201 ,164,208,191,216 52964 :108,167, 002 ,000,000,173,166
52784 5032,115, 000 ,032,235,183,133 52970 s171,002, 133 ,085,173,172,202
52790 5142,232, 206 ,162,000,236,008 52976 s002,133, 086 ,032,084,000,065
52796 5231,206, 208 ,010,032,227,206 52982 s162,000, 160 ,004,132,015,207
52802 s205,032, 119 ,202,176,170,202 52988 :189,000, 002 ,133,008,201,017
52808 5144,221, 032 ,245,205,138,033 52994 :034,240, 079 ,036,015,112,006
52814 5240,006, 173 ,006,205,029,225 53000 :038,201, 065 ,144,034,201,179
53006 2091,17£, 030 ,132,113,160,204 53192 :032,226,207,108,175,002,182
53012 s096, 132, 011 ,160,255,134,040 53198 :169,000,133,013,032,115,156
53018 :122,202, 200 ,232,189,000,203 53204 s000,201,236,208,003,076,168
53024 :002,056, 249 ,080,205,240,096 53210 s164,205,032,226,207,108,136
53030 :245,201, 128 ,208,048,005,105 53216 2 177,002,165,122,208,002,132
53036 .-011,164, 113 ,232,200,153,149 53222 :198,123,198,122,096,072,015
53042 :251,001, 185 ,251,001,240,211 53228 2138,072,152,072,032,188,122
53048 :054,056, 233 ,058,240,004,189 53234 2246,032,225,255,240,003,219
53054 :201,073, 208 ,002,133,015,182 53240 2076,076,254,076,105,254,065
53060 :056,233, 085 ,208,179,133,194
53066 s008,189, 000 ,002,240,223,224
53072 :197,008, 240 ,219,200,153,073
53078 :251,001, 232 ,208,240,166,160
53084 s122,230, 011 ,200,185,079,151
53090 :205,016, 250 ,185,080,205,015
53096 :208,180, 189 ,000,002,016,187
53102 :190,153, 253 ,001,169,255,107
53108 :133,122 ,096 ,016,042,201,214
53114 ;255,240, 038 ,036,015,048,242
53120 s034,201, 224 ,144,036,056,055
53126 s233,223, 170 ,132*073,160*101
53132 2255,202, 240 ,008,200,185,206
53138 2080,205, 016 ,250,048,245,222
53144 2200,185, 080 ,205,048,008,110
53150 2032,071, 171 ,208,245,076,193
53156 2243,166, 076 ,239,166,108,138
53162 2173,002, 032 ,115,000,201,181
53168 2224,144, 021 ,032,185,207,221
53174 2076,174, 167 ,233,224,010,042
53180 2168,185, 141 ,205,072,185,120
Chapter 5

53186 2140,205, 072 ,076,115,000,034

Chapter 5

Program 5-4. BMG Demonstration

10 GRAPHICS 6:POKE 53280,0:FOR 1=1 TO 12:F0R J=12
{SPACE}TO 0 STEP -1:K=I+J
20 SETPEN 1,RND(0)*16 sDRAW 6+K,J,l TO 6+K,24-J:DRA
W 32-K,J TO 32-K,24-J
30 DRAW 7+J,25-K TO 31-J,25-KsDRAW 7+J,K-l TO 31-J
,K-1 .-NEXT: NEXT: GOTO 10

Graphics Modes and Point Plotting

There are two major problems when using bitmapped graphics
from BASIC— clearing the bitmap screen takes too long, and
plotting of individual points is too slow.
To clear the screen in BASIC, the 8000 memory locations
for the bitmap have to be POKEd to zero. Plotting in BASIC is
slow because it involves some very complicated calculations.
To solve the first problem, the GRAPHICS statement is
available.
GRAPHICS m ode n u m b er
This statement turns on the bitmapping mode of the VIC-II
chip, clears the bitmap screen, and sets the background to
black. The purpose of the mode number will be explained in a
moment.
The screen is now all set for high-resolution plotting. That
is done by the DRAW statement.
DRAW X co o rd in a te, Y co o rd in a te
Plotting is done by using the standard coordinate system
of X and Y coordinates. The columns (the X coordinate) are
numbered from 0 to 319, starting at the left edge of the screen.
The rows (the Y coordinate) are numbered from 0 to 199. Un­
like standard mathematics, the numbering of rows starts at the
top and works down. The point is plotted where the column
and row intersect. Take a look at Figure 5-1 for an illustration
of this coordinate system.
The position 0,0 is at the intersection of the first column
and the first row, which is the upper-left corner of the screen.
This particular position is of special importance and is called
the home position.

106
 Chapter 5

Figure 5-1. Bitmap Coordinate System

. Home (0,0)

199
0-"------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ *-319

To see the GRAPHICS and DRAW statements in action,

enter and run the program below.
10 GRAPHICS 0
20 DRAW 5,5
30 DRAW 35,5
40 DRAW 35,20
50 DRAW 5,20
60 GOTO 60

Four points are plotted, at the four corners of a rectangle.

The infinite loop at line 60 is needed to prevent the program
from ending. The screen automatically reverts back to text
mode when the READY, prompt is printed. Since the screen
switches to the text mode whenever READY, appears, the
graphics statements cannot be used in the immediate mode.
Graphics statements should be used only in a program.
As shown by the example, the DRAW statement is a fast
and convenient way to plot points. The two major problems of
using bitmapped graphics from BASIC have now been solved.
Unfortunately, the previous program reveals a new prob­
lem. The points are very small. To make the points more vis­
ible, they have to be made larger. That's where the mode
number comes in. The term resolution is used to describe how
many points are displayed on a bitmap screen. The more
107
Chapter 5

points that are displayed, the higher the resolution and the
smaller each point is.
Mode 0, used in the demonstration above, supports the
highest resolution (320 X 200 points). Mode 2 cuts that
resolution in half in each direction (only 160 X 100 points),
but each point is four times the size as before. Change the
mode number in the demonstration from 0 to 2, and run it
again to see this effect.
There are a total of four different resolutions available.
Here's a list showing the number of columns and rows in each
mode.
MODE RESOLUTION
0 320 X 200
2 160 X 100
4 80 X 50
6 40 X 25
There are four other modes, numbered 1, 3, 5, and 7,
which are reserved for special purposes. These will be ex­
plained later. Using a mode number outside the range 0 -7 will
result in an ILLEGAL QUANTITY error.
The following program may not be very exciting, but it
does show how plotting with the DRAW statement is much
faster than using the old method of POKEing data to create
something on the bitmap screen.

10 GRAPHICS 4
20 DRAW RND(1)*80,RND(1)*50:GOTO 20

These next two examples use trigonometric functions to

draw a sine curve and a circle. Change the values for RX and
RY in the second program to make the circle into an oval.

10 GRAPHICS 0
20 FOR X=0 TO 319
30 DRAW X ,100+20*SIN(X/10)
40 NEXT X

10 GRAPHICS 0
20 RX=55:RY=40
30 FOR A=0 TO 2*t_ STEP ] V 180
40 DRAW 160+RX*COS(A),100+RY*SIN(A)
50 NEXT A

108
 Chapter 5

If you make the values for RX and RY too large, the co­
ordinates for plotting will be off the screen. The program will
stop, the screen will change back to text mode, and an IL­
LEGAL QUANTITY error message will be printed. This error
indicates that the coordinates used in a DRAW statement are
out of range for the current graphics mode. For example, try­
ing to plot a point at —1, —1 causes this error.
A useful analogy to help understand bitmapped graphics
is to imagine that the drawing is done by a pen. The co­
ordinates position the pen on the screen, and the DRAW state­
ment tells the pen to press down and make a dot. The color of
the ink is light green. A pen with a fine point draws thin lines
and is used for detailed drawing; this is similar to a high-
resolution screen mode. A dull point creates broad strokes
which cover more area, something similar to low-resolution
modes.
In modes 0, 2, 4, and 6, there are actually two pens avail­
able. Pen 1 is used for plotting. It's the default pen and has
been used in all the previous examples. Pen 0 is used for
unplotting. This erases points plotted by pen 1. When a point
is erased, the color of the background shows through.
The DRAW statement supports an optional third number
that's used to change the current pen number.
DRAW X coordinate, Y coordinate, pen number
When the GRAPHICS statement is used to switch from
text to graphics mode, the current pen number is set to 1. The
statement DRAW 5,6,1 is thus the same as DRAW 5,6. Both
statements plot a point at position 5,6. To erase the point, just
use pen 0. DRAW 5,6,0 erases the previously drawn point.
Once you've switched to pen 0, all future drawing is done
with that pen, at least until you change it back to pen 1.
The following program plots three points, waits for a
keypress, erases the points, waits for another keypress, and
then plots one more point. Type it in and try it out.

100 GRAPHICS 4
110 DRAW 3,4:REM DEFAULTS TO PEN 1
120 DRAW 7,9
130 DRAW 4,20
140 WAIT 198,15 :GET K$ :RF.M WAIT FOR KEYPRESS
150 DRAW 3,4,0:REM NOW IN PEN 0
160 DRAW 7,9:REM STILL PEN 0

109
Chapter 5

170 DRAW 4,20

180 WAIT 198,15 :GET K$
190 DRAW 5,11,1:REM BACK TO PEN 1
200 GOTO 200

The classic example of plotting and erasing is the bounc­

ing ball program. A point is plotted at one position, then it's
erased and plotted at an adjacent position. The direction of
travel is reversed whenever the ball hits the edge of the
screen. This next example does just that.

10 GRAPHICS 4
20 X=INT(RND(1)* 78)+1:Y=INT(RND(1)* 48)+1:DX=1:DY=1
30 DRAW X,Y,0 :X=X+DX:Y=Y+DY:DRAW X,Y,1
40 IF X=0 OR X=79 THEN DX=-DX
50 IF Y=0 OR Y=49 THEN DY=-DY
60 GOTO 30

Changing Colors
Thus far, plotting has always been done in light green (color
13). With a normal pen, you can change the color by replacing
the ink with a different refill. Likewise, the color associated
with a graphics drawing pen can be changed to any of the 16
colors available on the Commodore 64. The format for altering
colors is:
SETPEN pen number, color number
When using modes 0, 2, 4, and 6, only pen 1 should be
used with SETPEN. The color number can range from 0 to 15.
(Refer to the Commodore 64 User's Guide for the color values.)
Of course, if the pen is changed to color 0 (black), the plotting
won't be visible because it then matches the background color.
The next program is a modified version of the bouncing
ball program. The points are never erased, so the ball leaves a
trail. Pressing any key makes the program restart with a dif­
ferent color for pen 1.

10 GRAPHICS 4
20 X=INT(RND(1)*78)+1:Y=INT(RND(1)*48)+l:DX=1:DY=1
30 SETPEN 1,RND(1)*15+1
40 X=X+DX:Y=Y+DY:DRAW X,Y
50 IF X=0 OR X=79 THEN DX=-DX
60 IF Y=0 OR Y=49 THEN DY=-DY
70 GET K $ :IF K$="“ GOTO 40
80 GOTO 10

110
 Chapter 5

Because of the GRAPHICS statement, the program clears

the screen before using a new color for pen 1. Pen 1 can be
used to draw in more than one color on the same screen, pro­
vided that points plotted in different colors are separated from
one another. For example, let's say that some points are plot­
ted while pen 1 has the color red, then SETPEN is used to
change the pen color to blue. Points plotted now will be
drawn in blue, and the earlier points will retain their red color.
However, if some blue points are plotted too close to the red
points, the color of the latter will be affected. Try changing the
GOTO 10 in the previous program to GOTO 30.
Every time you press a key, the drawing continues as
before, but a different color is used. All appears as it should,
except at those places where two different colored lines cross
each other. You'll see that sometimes the color of one line
interferes with the color of the other. That's the restriction in
using modes 0, 2, and 4. Drawing can be done in 16 different
colors on the same screen, but colors have to be kept apart
from each other. The problem doesn't occur in mode 6.
Pen 0 should not be used with the SETPEN statement.
Remember, pen 0 is used for erasing, not for plotting, so the
idea of an ink color doesn't apply. The only color associated
with pen 0 is the background color, which is set to black
(color 0) by the GRAPHICS statement when the screen is
cleared. To clear the screen and set the background to a dif­
ferent color, use the CLS statement.
CLS color number
When CLS is executed, the screen clears and the back­
ground is set to the specified color. The current graphics
mode, however, stays the same. The statement CLS 2, for in­
stance, clears the bitmap and sets the background to red with­
out affecting the current resolution.

10 GRAPHICS 4
20 CLS 2
30 FOR K=5 TO 40
40 DRAW K,K
50 NEXT K
60 GOTO 60

The number after the keyword CLS is optional. If no

number is specified, zero is assumed, so CLS alone sets the
background to black.

Ill
Chapter 5

You can even change the graphics mode from within a

program, mixing modes on the screen. The MODE statement
format is:
MODE mode number
This changes the graphics mode without clearing the screen.
You can then draw in one resolution, change the mode, and
continue drawing in another resolution.
10 GRAPHICS 6:FOR X=1 TO 36 STEP 6:Y=RND(1)*21sGOS
UB 60:NEXT
20 MODE 4:FOR Y=1 TO 46 STEP 3 :X=RND(1)*76:GOSUB 6
0 :NEXT
30 MODE 2 :FOR K=1 TO 32:X=RND(1 )* 156:Y=RND(1 )*96:G
OSUB 60:NEXT
40 WAIT 198,15:GET K$:GOTO 10
60 DRAW X+l,Y+l:DRAW X,Y:DRAW X+2,Y:DRAW X+2,Y+2:D
RAW X,Y+2:RETURN

The MODE statement cannot be used in place of the

GRAPHICS statement. MODE depends on the GRAPHICS
statement having been executed beforehand. Statements like
DRAW, CLS, and MODE should be used only when the
screen is already in a graphics mode. The only graphics state­
ment that should be used when the screen is in the text mode
is GRAPHICS.
To make the screen go back to text mode while a program
is running, use the TEXT statement.
TEXT
When executed, TEXT turns off the bitmap mode, sets the
border and background colors to their default values, and
clears the screen. After the screen has been changed to the
text mode by TEXT, it can be returned to the graphics mode
by the GRAPHICS statement.

Line Drawing
Given a starting point and an ending point, the DRAW state­
ment draws a straight line by plotting all the points between
them. All you have to do is use the keyword TO.
10 GRAPHICS 2
20 DRAW 10,10 TO 70,40
30 GOTO 30

In the example above, the starting point is 10,10 and the

112
 Chapter 5

destination point is 70,40. The DRAW statement first plots a

point at 10,10. The drawing then continues in the direction of
the point 70,40, and stops when that point is reached. The ef­
fect is one of moving the pen to the new position without ever
lifting it off the screen.
Depending on the angle at which the line is drawn, the
line may appear slightly jagged. (Try 50,40 as the destination
point.) With some angles, the computer can only approximate
a straight line. When the line is not vertical or horizontal or
does not fall on a perfect diagonal, a jagged appearance re­
sults. Change the graphics mode to 4 and run the program
one more time to get a better look at what's happening.
In extreme cases, a line may appear to be drawn in long
segments. The line in the next example is broken into three
parts because there's only one row between the two endpoints.
10 GRAPHICS 4
20 DRAW 10,10 TO 60,12
30 GOTO 30

Using a higher resolution often helps to minimize the

problem.
The next program draws lines at all sorts of angles, then
erases them for a shooting star effect.

10 GRAPHICS 0:POKE 53280,0:SETPEN 1,1

20 X1=RND(1)*320:Y1=RND(1)*200
30 X2=RND(1)*320:Y2=RND(1)*200
40 DRAW X I ,Y 1 ,1 TO X2,Y2
50 DRAW X I ,Y 1 ,0 TO X2,Y2
60 GOTO 20

You cannot change the current drawing pen when drawing

a line this way. The point after the keyword TO consists only
of the X and Y coordinates. A third number for the drawing
pen is not allowed. Remember, once the pen is placed on the
screen by DRAW, it stays on the screen while it draws a line.
On the other hand, a nice feature of the DRAW statement
is that destination points can be chained together. A statement
like DRAW X,Y TO XI,Y1 TO X2,Y2 is perfectly legal. The
statement draws a line from X,Y to XI, Y l, and then draws a
line from X I,Y l to X2,Y2. Try this:

10 GRAPHICS 6
20 DRAW 10,10 TO 30,10 TO 30,20 TO 10,20 TO 10,10

113
Chapter 5

30 GOTO 30

Here's another demonstration. This program uses trigo­

nometry to create a picture.
10 GRAPHICS 0:POKE 53280,0sSETPEN 1,15:CX=160:CY=1
00
20 FOR A=0 TO T/2 STEP t/180:Y=65*SIN(5*A)*SIN(A ) :
X=150*SIN(Aj*COS(A)
30 DRAW X+CX,Y+CY TO CX,CY TO CX-X,Y+CY:NEXT
40 FOR A=15*f/36 TO f/2 STEP J790 :Y=-30*COS (4*A) *S
IN(A):X=40*COS(2*A)*COS(A)
50 DRAW X+CX,Y+CY TO CX,CY TO CX-X,Y+CY:NEXT
60 DRAW CX-30,CY-70 TO CX,CY-30 TO CX+30,CY~70
70 GOTO 70

When DRAW is used with a destination point, the starting

point is optional. If a point has already been plotted at X,Y,
the statement DRAW TO X1,Y1 will draw from X,Y to X I,Y l.
In effect, the last position of the pen has been remembered.
This allows chaining of more destination points than can fit on
one BASIC line.
10 GRAPHICS 2
20 DRAW 80,10 TO 111,82 TO 30,38
30 DRAWTO 130,38 TO 49,82 TO 80,10
40 GOTO 40
The pen position is remembered after the DRAW state­
ment has been executed. That's how the DRAW statement on
line 30 can pick up the drawing where the DRAW of line 20
left off. Notice that when the starting point is omitted, it's okay
to contract the keywords DRAW and TO to form DRAWTO.
Another application of DRAWTO is to use it in a loop.
The same DRAWTO statement can be used to draw a long
chain of lines when it's executed repeatedly.
100 PRINT CHR?(147);CHR$(155):POKE 53280,0:POKE 53
281,0
110 PRINT "SPIRALS":PRINT "BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN":P
RINT
200 X=0.085:Y=0.105:M=1000:N=_t/180:R=360:DIM S(R),
C (R)
210 FOR K=0 TO 9 0 :A=M*SIN(K*N):B=A*X:C=A*Y:S(K)=B:
S(180-K)=B
220 S(180+K)=-B:S(R-K)=-B:C(270+K)=C:C(90+K)=-C:C(
90-K)=C:C(270-K)=-C:NEXT
230 X=160:Y=100:K=RND(-RND(0)):M=0:N=0:H=100
114
 Chapter 5

300 GRAPHICS 0:A=H*RND(1):B=H*RND(1)sSETPEN 1,RND(

1)* 15 + 1 :DRAW X ,Y
320 FOR K=1 TO 180:N=N+A:IF N>R THEN N=N-R
330 M=M+B sIF M>R THEN M=M-R
340 0=S(N)/H sDRAWTO C(M)*0+160,S(M)*0+H sNEXT
360 FOR K=1 TO 1000:NEXTsGOTO 300
Remember, the pen color cannot be changed while the
drawing pen is drawing lines. In the following program, the
effect of the SETPEN statement is not seen until DRAW is
used to plot a starting point.
10 GRAPHICS 6
20 DRAW 10,10 TO 20,20:REM DISPLAYED IN DEFAULT LI
GHT GREEN
30 SETPEN 1,8
40 DRAWTO 30,10:REM STILL IN GREEN
50 DRAW 30,5 TO 10,5:REM NOW IN ORANGE
60 GOTO 60
Whenever the screen is cleared with a CLS, the pen is set
to the home position (0,0). If DRAWTO is used after CLS and
no previous point has been plotted, the drawing will start
from the home position.

Area Filling
The next logical step after plotting points to draw a line is to
plot points that fill in an area. That is done by the statement
FILL.
The syntax for the FILL statement works the same as
DRAW'S.
FILL X coordinate, Y coordinate
In fact, FILL X,Y plots one point at X,Y, just like DRAW
X,Y. The difference is when a destination point is used. The
statement FILL X,Y TO X I,Y l, after plotting an initial point at
X,Y, starts drawing a line to X I,Y l. But as each point of the
line is plotted, all points on the same row, to the left and right
of the line, are also plotted.
10 GRAPHICS 6
20 DRAW 10,10 TO 30,10 TO 30,20 TO 10,20 TO 10,10
30 FILL 20,10 TO 20,20
40 GOTO 40

With FILL, the drawing pen behaves more like a paint­

brush that takes a swipe to the left and right on each row

115
Chapter 5

that's filled. The brush fills in the background and stops when
it comes to a point that's already been plotted. This is why the
fill stayed inside the rectangle; the brush stopped when it hit
the left or right side of the shape.
FILL is normally used to fill in an area that's been out­
lined by DRAW. If nothing has been previously drawn to stop
a fill, the filling continues until it reaches the edge of the
screen. There it stops, without causing a range error. Remove
line 20 of the previous example and run it again to see this
happen.
Notice that the fill does not begin at the starting point.
Rather, it begins on the next row.
The FILL statement is handy because it can cover large
areas quickly. FILL can also be used to erase a large area.
There's an optional third number after the X and Y co­
ordinates for the destination point in a FILL statement. This
number identifies the drawing pen that's to be covered up
when the fill is performed. When no pen number is given, pen
0 is assumed. Since pen 0 corresponds to the background, this
means that the area to be filled in is the background, and the
filling should stop as soon as it hits anything else (pen 1 or
the screen edge). Here are some examples.
FILL X,Y,1 TO XI,Y1
or
FILL X,Y,1 TO X1,Y1,0
Both of these statements indicate that pen 1 should be used to
fill in the background.
However, this statement specifies that pen 0 should be
used to erase all points plotted in pen 1.
FILL X,Y,0 TO X1,Y1,1
Keep in mind the fact that the pen number in a destina­
tion point has a different meaning than the pen number for a
starting point. In a starting point, the pen number is used to
change the current pen, to determine whether the pen will be
used for drawing (pen 1) or for erasing (pen 0). If the number
is omitted, the current pen is used.
The pen number in the destination point specifies which
points are to be covered up by the fill. If no number is given,

116
 Chapter 5

it's assumed that the background is to be filled in. For a

demonstration, the following program draws several concen­
tric ovals, fills them, and then erases them.
300 GRAPHICS 0 :POKE 53280,0
305 FOR R=90 TO 10 STEP -10 sREAD A(R/10)sSETPEN 1,
A(R/10)
310 A=160:B=100:PH=0:Y=0:X=R
320 IY=PH+Y+Y+1:XY=IY—X-X+l
330 DRAW A+X,B+Y:DRAW A-X,B+Y
340 DRAW A+X,B-Y:DRAW A-X,B-Y
350 DRAW A+Y,B+X:DRAW A-Y,B+X
360 DRAW A+Y,B-X:DRAW A-Y,B-X
370 PH=IY:Y=Y+1:IF ABS(XY)<ABS(IY) THEN PH=XY:X=X-
1
380 IF X>=Y GOTO 320
390 NEXT R
400 FOR R=10 TO 90 STEP 10:SETPEN 1,A(R/10)
410 FILL A,B-R,1 TO A,B+R,0:FILL A,B+R+1,0 TO A,B-
R—1 , 1 sNEXT R
420 END
800 DATA 5,8,4,6,2,7,14,13,1

The DRAW and FILL statements are closely related. When

the FILL statement fills in an area, it is still drawing a line.
The filling is done just to each side of the line.
Filling can be limited, however, to only one side of the
line. The statements LFILL and RFILL work like FILL except
that they fill only to the left or the right. In some applications,
they can be more convenient than using FILL. The next pro­
gram shows an easier way to fill in a box.
10 g r a p h i c s 6
20 DRAW 10,20 TO 10,10 TO 30,10
30 LFILLTO 30,20
40 GOTO 40

As a final demonstration of line drawing and area filling,

here's an example which uses the DRAW, FILL, LFILL, and
RFILL statements to draw the flags of various nations. (Since
"Flags" is a longer program than the previous examples,
we've included rem statements at the end of each line. Don't
type in these rems; they're used with "The Automatic Proof­
reader." Refer to the Automatic Proofreader article in Appen­
dix D, and have a copy of the Proofreader program saved and
loaded before entering the following.)

117
Chapter 5

Program 5-5. Flags

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR?(147):PRINT " FLAGS OF N A T I O N S P R I N

T " BY BOB RETELLE"SPRINT srem 130
110 FOR K=1 TO 7:READ S$:PRINT " " S$sNEXT:PRINT
:rem 155
120 PRINT " PRESS ANY KEY"sPRINT " TO DISPLAY THE
{SPACE}NEXT FLAG"sGOSUB 600 :rem 16
300 REM SWEDEN :rem 61
302 GRAPHICS 0:CLS 7:POKE 53280,0:SETPEN 1,14
srem 251
304 LFILL 0,76 TO 90,76 TO90,0:RFILL 319,76 TO 15
0,76 TO 150,0 srem 48
306 LFILL 0,122 TO 90,122 TO 90,199sRFILL 319,122
{SPACEjTO 150,122 TO 150,199 srem 184
308 GOSUB 600 srem 177
310 REM FRANCE srem 39
312 CLS 1 sSETPEN l,6sLFILL 0,0 TO 106,0 TO 106,199
srem 29
314 SETPEN 1,2s RFILL 319,0 TO 213,0 TO 213,199sGOS
UB 600 srem 143
320 REM HUNGARY srem 151
322 CLS 1 sSETPEN l,2sLFILL 0,66 TO 319,66 TO 319,0
srem 43
324 SETPEN l,5sLFILL 0,134 TO 319,134 TO 319,199sG
OSUB 600 srem 254
330 REM CZECHOSLOVAKIA srem 144
332 CLS 6 sSETPEN l,lsRFILL 319,95 TO 140,95 TO 0,0
srem 50
334 SETPEN l,2sRFILL 319,96 TO 140,96 TO 0,199sGOS
UB 600 srem 168
340 REM SWITZERLAND srem 210
342 CLS 2 sSETPEN l,lsDRAW 80,88 TO80,112 srem 123
344 DRAW 180,166 TO 180,113s DRAW 240,112 TO 240,88
sDRAW 180,87 TO 180,32 srem 36
346 RFILLTO 140,32 TO 140,87sFILLTO 140,112sRFILLT
O 140,166sGOSUB 600 srem 15
350 REM JAPAN srem 230
352 CLS 1 sSETPEN 1,2 sCX=160 sCY=100 sRX=80 sRY=60 sDRA
W CX+RX-1,CY srem 161
354 FOR A=0 TO 2*t_ STEP JV30sDRAWTO CX+RX*COS (A) ,C
Y+RY*SIN(A)sNEXT srem 213
356 FILL CX,CY-RY TO C X ,CY+RY-1sGOSUB 600 srem 138
360 REM GREAT BRITAIN srem 249
362 CLS 1 sSETPEN l,2sDRAW 136,0 TO 136,88sDRAW 136
,112 TO 136,199 srem 75
364 LFILLTO 184,199 TO184,112sFILLTO184,88sLFILL
TO 184,0 srem 165

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 Chapter 5

370 DRAW 319,3 TO 216,80 TO 200,80:RFILLTO 307,0

:rem 169
372 DRAW 319,196 TO 216,120 TO 200,120:RFILLTO 307
,199 :rem 225
374 DRAW 0,196 TO 104,120 TO 120,120:LFILLTO 12,19
9 :rem 54
376 DRAW 0,3 TO 104,80 TO 120,80:LFILLTO 12,0
:rem 2
380 SETPEN 1,6:DRAW 200,0 TO 200,60:LFILLTO 280,0:
RFILL 319,20 TO 240,80 :rem 11
382 RFILL 319,179 TO 240,120:DRAW 200,199 TO 200,1
40:LFILLTO 280,199 :rem 240
384 DRAW 120,199 TO 120,140:RFILLTO 40,199:LFILL 0
,180 TO 80,120 :rem 27
386 LFILL 0,20 TO 80,80:DRAW 120,0 TO 120,60:RFILL
TO 40,0:GOSUB 600:END :rem 7
600 WAIT 198,15:GET K $ :RETURN :rem 162
800 DATA SWEDEN,FRANCE,HUNGARY,CZECHOSLOVAKIA,SWIT
ZERLAND,JAPAN,GREAT BRITAIN :rem 160

Multicolor Modes
What happens when two lines of different colors cross each
other? This presents a problem. In modes 0, 2, and 4, when
pen 1 is used to plot points in several colors, if the points in
one color come too close to the points in another color, the
colors interfere with each other. The following program illus­
trates this problem.
10 GRAPHICS 4
20 DRAW 25,5:D=15
30 FOR Y=10 TO 40 STEP 5
40 DRAWTO 40+D,Y
50 D=-D:NEXT
60 SETPEN 1,2:DRAW 43,5 TO 43,40
70 GOTO 70
The cause of the problem is that no matter which bitmap
resolution is used, the color resolution is always 40 X 25. The
bitmap portion of the screen may allow 320 X 200 points, but
the color portion is always divided into 40 X 25 “color
squares." Each color square is the same size as a text charac­
ter, and all the points in a square have to share the same
color. If the first color square on the screen is red, then all
points plotted in that area will appear red. Points drawn in the
next color square could have a different color, but again they

119
Chapter 5

would all have to be the same color. This next program gives
a better view of what actually happens when two colors come
too close to each other.
10 GRAPHICS 4
20 DRAW 20,40 TO 20,10 TO 60,10:LFILLTO 60,40
30 SETPEN 1,2:DRAW 19,5 TO 59,45
40 GOTO 40

The parts of the line outside the box appear in the correct
resolution. Inside the box, though, you get a perfect picture of
the color squares. As the points forming the line were plotted,
the color squares for those points were changed to red, the
new pen color. The problem is that the color squares were also
used by other points not in the line, and those points changed
to red as well.
To help get around this limitation, the VIC-II chip sup­
ports a multicolor bitmap mode. This mode allows three colors
in each color square, not just one. Now, when three points are
plotted in the same color square, each can have a different
color.
The multicolor mode has been implemented in the BASIC
extensions as graphics modes 1, 3, 5, and 7. They are prac­
tically the same as modes 0, 2, 4, and 6, except that there are
now three drawing pens (pens 1, 2, and 3) for plotting, not
just one. You can use pen 1 to draw a line in one color, then
use pen 2 to draw a line with a different color crossing the
first line. There will be no conflict at the intersection.
10 GRAPHICS 5
20 DRAW 25,5:D=15
30 FOR Y=10 TO 40 STEP 5
40 DRAWTO 40+D,Y
50 D=-D:NEXT
60 SETPEN 2,2:DRAW 43,5,2 TO 43,40
70 GOTO 70

The program with the line passing through the box has
been modified to use all three drawing pens.
10 GRAPHICS 5
20 DRAW 20,40 TO 20,10 TO 60,10:LFILLTO 60,40
30 SETPEN 2,2:DRAW 19,5,2 TO 59,45
40 GOTO 40

120
 Chapter 5

As shown by the last example, the default colors for pens

2 and 3 are light red (color 10) and blue (color 6), respectively.
These colors were chosen because they have different lumi­
nance values, so they'll appear as different shades of gray on a
black-and-white television. Pen l's default remains light green
(color 13).
The colors for pens 1, 2, and 3 are set back to the default
values every time the GRAPHICS statement is executed.
The multicolor modes 1, 3, 5, and 7 are identical in
resolution to modes 0, 2, 4, and 6, with one exception. The
VIC-II chip does not support a horizontal resolution of 320
points in multicolor mode. Therefore, mode 1 has a resolution
of 200 points vertically, but only 160 across.
Mode Resolution Mode Resolution
0 320 X 200 1 160 X 200
2 160 X 100 3 160 X 100
4 80 X 50 5 80 X 50
6 40 X 25 7 40 X 25
It's not possible to mix normal and multicolor modes on
the same screen. The MODE statement can be used to switch
to any mode, but it's recommended that you switch only
among modes 0, 2, 4, and 6, or modes 1, 3, 5, and 7. If you
cross between a normal mode and a multicolor mode, the pic­
ture will appear to be distorted.
Since modes 3, 5, and 7 can do everything that modes 2,
4, and 6 can do, with the added convenience of two more
drawing pens, you might wonder why modes 2, 4, and 6 are
even needed. The fact that normal and multicolor modes can­
not be mixed explains why the multicolor modes are not used
exclusively. For most applications, the convenience of three
drawing pens makes the multicolor modes preferable. How­
ever, if you want to use the highest resolution, 320 X 200, the
multicolor modes cannot be used. If you want to mix other
resolutions with the 320 X 200 mode, you need to use modes
2, 4, and 6.
Multicolor modes are used when you need up to three
colors next to each other. The following program, which draws
some three-dimensional cubes, could not be written in a nor­
mal graphics mode.
10 GRAPHICS 1:POKE 53280,0
20 FOR X=8 TO 140 STEP 30:FOR Y=20 TO 170 STEP 37:

121
Chapter 5

A=INT(RND(0)*15)+1
30 B=INT(RND(0)*15)+1:IF B=A GOTO 30
40 C=INT(RND(0)*15)+1:IF C=A OR C=B GOTO 40
50 SETPEN 1,A :DRAW X,Y,1 TO X,Y+20 TO X+15,Y+20:LF
ILLTO X+l5,Y:SETPEN 2,B
60 DRAW X+16,Y-l,2 TO X+21,Y-11:LFILL X+21,Y-9 TO
{SPACE}X+21,Y+9 TO X+16,Y+19
70 SETPEN 3,C:DRAW X+20,Y-11,3 TO X+5,Y-l1 :RFILLTO
X+l,Y-l
80 NEXT:NEXT:WAIT 198,15:GET K$:GOTO 10

This program demonstrates drawing and filling in three

drawing pens. On e other possibility yet to be considered is
filling in an area that has already been filled by another pen.
If an area has been filled using pen 1 and you want to fill the
inside of the area using pen 2, the optional third number after
the destination point in the FILL statement has to be used.
The following program draws some concentric diamond
shapes to show h o w the pen number is used.
10 GRAPHICS 3
20 DRAW 80,0 TO 159,49 TO 80,99:RFILLTO 0,49 TO 79
,1
30 DRAW 80,20,2 TO 139,49 TO 80,79:RFILLTO 20,49,1
TO 80,20,1
40 DRAW 80,30,3 TO 119,49 TO 80,69:RFILLTO 40,49,2
TO 80,30,2
50 DRAW 80,45,0 TO 99,49 TO 80,54:RFILLTO 60,49,3
{SPACElTO 80,45,3
60 GOTO 60
The first diamond is drawn normally. N o third number is
used in the destination points because it's the background
that's being filled. O n the second diamond, the drawing pen is
changed to pen 2. Because this diamond is drawn inside the
first one, the destination points in the RFILL statement in­
dicate that points plotted in pen 1 are to be covered by the
filling. Notice that the third number has to be used in both
destination points. For the third diamond, pen 3 is used, and
the filling covers up pen 2. The last diamond is drawn by
erasing part of the previous diamond. Points plotted in pen 3
are erased by pen 0.
O n e other difference between the multicolor modes and
the normal modes is that in multicolor modes, the background
color can be changed by POKEing location 53281. This allows
you to change the background color without clearing the
screen.
122
Chapter 6

Shapedit

Introduction to Shape Tables

Statements like GRAPHICS and DRAW certainly make
bitmapped graphics easy to use. In fact, bitmapped graphics
would hardly even be feasible without them. These statements
become less convenient, however, when they're used to draw
detailed shapes. Drawing a rectangle or a box is easy enough,
but drawing something like the outline of a person may re­
quire much more complicated plotting. It can take a lot of
work to get all the coordinates in DRAW statements set prop­
erly. Also, the speed advantage of the machine language
diminishes when several statements have to be executed.
The best way to handle shape drawing is to use a graph­
ics utility commonly known as a shape table. A shape table is a
sequence of instructions which tell the drawing pen where to
plot points. Each instruction moves the pen one position, such
as up, down, left, or right. After the pen moves to the new po­
sition, a point is plotted. Several instructions in the proper or­
der can make the drawing pen trace a path to draw a shape.
To complete the collection of machine language graphics
routines, we've provided a routine which uses shape tables to
draw. Instructions in this implementation can move the pen in
eight directions and plot points using pens 0 to 3. There are
also advanced instructions to change the pen color, move the
pen to another place on the screen, draw lines, fill areas, and
so on.
The SHAPE statement is used to draw a shape. The syn­
tax for this statement is:
SHAPE address, X coordinate, Y coordinate
A shape table is stored as bytes in memory. The first
number after the keyword SHAPE is the address of the shape
table. The X and Y coordinates are the starting position of the
pen. When the SHAPE statement is executed, the pen starts at
the designated position and moves according to the instruc­
tions in the shape table.
The significance of this is that a single BASIC statement
can draw an entire shape. And because only one statement is
involved, the drawing of individual points is done much
faster. By using the SHAPE statement, you can do things with
123
Chapter 6

bitmapped graphics that otherwise cannot be done.

Let's take a look at just what the SHAPE statement can
do. The following demonstrations illustrate just some of the
things SHAPE is capable of. Remember that " BMG.OBJ" (Pro­
gram 5-3) must first be loaded into memory. Use the loader pro­
gram (Program 5-1 for disk, or Program 5-2 for tape) to load
up the BMG BASIC extensions program.
The three example programs have many lines in common.
To reduce typing, enter Program 6-1 and save it using the
filename SHP.BAS.
These lines do not form a program and will not work
properly if you try to run them. Rather, they are subroutines
which must be contained in every program that uses shapes,
whether those programs are demonstrations from this book or
programs you later write yourself. The lines have been num­
bered starting at 56500 so that they'll be out of the way of
normal program lines.
Program 6-1. SHP.BAS
For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

56500 POKE SA,1:POKE SX,DN:POKE SY,0:SYS 65466:F$=

F$+ ".SHP"sGOSUB 59000 :rem 50
56510 POKE SA,0:POKE SX,LA-256*INT(LA/256):POKE SY
,INT(LA/256) :rem 76
56520 SYS 65493:IF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 59100 :rem 42
56530 NS=PEEK(LA):DIM AS(NS):LA=LA+1 :rem 107
56540 FOR K=0 TO N S :A S (K)=LA+2:LA=LA+2+PEEK(LA)+25
6*PEEK(LA+1):NEXT:RETURN :rem 120
59000 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$)sPOKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K)
)sNEXT srem 88
59010 POKE SA,LEN(F$):POKE SX,73:POKE SY,2:SYS 654
69:RETURN srem 6
59100 P=PEEK(SA)SPRINT " ERROR: ";:IF p=4 THEN PRI
NT "FILE NOT FOUND"sEND srem 200
59110 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT"SEND
srem 36
59120 PRINT ST SEND srem 70

Now that you've created the "SHP.BAS" file, you're

ready to enter the demonstrations. As you type in each ex­
ample program, start with the SHP.BAS file already in mem­
ory. In other words, instead of typing NEW before entering
each program, enter LOAD"SHP.BAS",8 for disk, or
LOAD"SHP.BAS" for tape. Then begin typing the lines in the

124
 Chapter 6

demonstration program. The result merges the SHP.BAS lines

with those from the demonstration file to create a complete
program.
One more thing must be done before a demonstration will
work. Shape tables are stored as data files on tape or disk. Use
the "M LX" program from Appendix C (this is the same pro­
gram you used to create BMG.OBJ in Chapter 5) to enter the
shape file which corresponds with the demonstration program.
If you're using tape, save the shape file immediately after the
demonstration program.
All demonstration programs as listed are set for use with
the disk drive. To make a demonstration work with the
Datassette, change the assignment of variable DN (the device
number) from 8 to 1 in line 110.
Program 6-2 is the first demonstration. Merge it with the
SHP.BAS (Program 6-1) and save the program with the
filename MUNCHKINS.

Program 6-2. MUNCHKINS

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147)SPRINT ” MUNCHKINS”sPRINT " BY

{SPACE}CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN"SPRINT srem 176
110 DN=8sSA=780sSX=781sSY=782sSP=783 srem 133
120 F$="MUNCHKIN"s LA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50)+1000 sGO
SUB 56500sREM LOAD SHAPES srem 55
300 GRAPHICS 3 SPOKE 53280,0 srem 222
310 M=AS(0)sSHAPE M,110,10sSHAPE M,70,20sSHAPE M,4
0,35 srem 171
320 MODE 1 sSHAPE M, 30,35 sSHAPE M, 110,65 .-SHAPE M,35
,125 srem 163
330 MODE 5 sSHAPE M,45,25 srem 16
340 WAIT 198,15 sGET K$ srem 137
350 GRAPHICS 7sSHAPE M,15,3 srem 9
360 WAIT 198,15 sGET K$ srem 139
370 END srem 113

Program 6-3 is the shape file for the "MUNCHKINS”

program. Save this file using the filename MUNCHKIN.SHP.
All shape files (shape filenames always end with .SHP) must
be entered and saved using the MLX program found in
Appendix C. Each of these files requires a starting and ending
address, as well as a filename, when prompted by MLX. Be
sure to read the accompanying article in Appendix C before
going on.

125
Chapter 6

Program 6-3. MUNCHKIN.SHP

To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MIX)," a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49295
Filename: MUNCHKIN.SHP
4915 2 :000,139,000,087,083,083,136
49158 :083,083,083,083,099,115,040
49164 :115,099,115,067,115,115,126
49170 :115,115,091,115,115,115,172
49176 :107,083,083,083,083,083,034
49182 :083,083,083,083,083,083,016
49188 :067,067,083,099,099,075,014
49194 :083,107,083,083,091,115,092
49200 :115,115,115,115,115,115,226
49206 :115,115,115,115,115,115,232
49212 :115,115,115,115,039,163,210
49218 5063,171,163,171,171,171,208
49224 5171,179,179,191,083,083,190
49230 5083,119,211,063,227,235,248
49236 s227,235,227,235,235,235,198
49242 5243,191,083,083,083,103,108
49248 5147,063,163,163,171,163,198
49254 5163,171,163,155,155,191,076
49260 5083,083,083,135,211,063,254
49266 5227,219,227,235,227,219,188
49272 5219,227,227,235,191,083,022
49278 5083,083,083,071,147,063,144
49284 sl63,163,163,155,155,155,062
49290 s163,155,155,255,013,013,124

This first demonstration uses several SHAPE statements

to draw the same shape at different positions and in different
resolutions. Notice that the legs of the Munchkin shape consist
of many points that would require a lot of DRAW statements
if a shape table wasn't used. Also notice that the shapes are
drawn very quickly.
In the second demonstration, the illusion of more than
four shapes is created by drawing the shapes with different
color combinations. Type in and save Program 6-4 using the
filename BROTHERHOOD (don't forget to first load SHP.BAS
before typing what you see below). You'll also need to enter
(with MLX) the shape file (Program 6-5).

126
 Chapter 6

Program 6-4. BROTHERHOOD

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147):PRINT "BROTHERHOOD";PRINT " B

Y MARK DAVIDS"SPRINT :rem 170
110 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783 :rem 133
120 F$="FAMILY":LA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50)+1000sGOSU
B 56500:REM LOAD SHAPES :rem 156
300 GRAPHICS 3:POKE 53280,11:POKE 53281,12 srem 11
310 FOR K=20 TO 80 STEP 30:GOSUB 600:SHAPE AS(4*RN
D(0)),10,K srem 182
320 FOR J=1 TO 10 sGOSUB 600:SHAPE A S (4*RND(0)) :NEX
T J,K srem 21
330 WAIT 198,15 :GET K$:CLS 12:GOTO 310 srem 14
600 N=3*RND(0)sSETPEN 1,9+NsSETPEN 3,7*RND(0)+1:ON
N GOTO 620,630 srem 64
610 SETPEN 2,7*INT(2*RND(0)):RETURN srem 60
620 N=INT(3*RND(0))sSETPEN 2,-7*(N=1)-9*(N=2):RETU
RN srem 219
630 SETPEN 2,0:RETURN srem 16

Program 6-5. FAMILY.SHP

To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MLX)," a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49445
Filename: FAMILY.SHP
49152 5003,070,000,083,115,139,154
49158 :139,131,139,131,147,022,203
49164 :031,163,155,163,155,099,010
49170 5083,008,179,033,031,000,096
49176 s001,115,115,123,067,083,016
49182 :083,083,099,115,115,123,136
49188 :179,139,147,147,147,155,182
49194 5016,002,021,179,029,095,128
49200 s227,018,031,061,031,163,067
49206 s179,195,049,031,012,195,203
49212 :013,095,227,037,031,155,106
49218 :179,203,033,031,030,017,047
49224 :255,046,000,083,091,091,126
492 30 si 55,147,147,147,147,075,128
49236 :075,075,016,021,067,123,205
49242 s083,083,067,115,115,179,220
49248 :139,147,147,155,012,021,205
49254 :155,147,147,227,243,243,240
49260 :227,211,211,227,227,099,030
49266 :051,115,195,195,022,049,229
49272 s255,103,000,083,083,067,199
127
Chapter 6

49278 5067,083,067,083,067,211,192
49284 5083,067,091,067,075,067,070
49290 5115,115,115,099,083,083,236
49296 5075,131,179,179,179,171,034
49302 5163,163,147,014,017,163,049
49308 5163,163,179,227,083,099,046
49314 5083,099,083,099,099,083,196
49320 5012,025,227,243,243,243,137
49326 5227,211,211,211,219,243,216
49332 5243,243,243,243,227,211,054
49338 5211,211,211,211,219,243,212
49344 5243,243,243,243,243,243,114
49350 5227,211,211,211,211,211,200
49356 5211,211,227,024,031,018,158
49362 5099,029,031,163,179,179,122
49368 s179,006,067,115,115,025,211
49374 5095,026,025,255,061,000,172
49380 5083,219,211,203,203,211,078
49386 5067,123,083,083,067,115,004
49392 5115,179,139,147,147,155,098
49398 5000,013,227,219,219,211,111
49404 s075,008,243,243,243,227,011
49410 5211,211,211,243,243,243,084
49416 5243,219,211,211,163,179,210
49422 5179,163,147,147,163,163,208
49428 5163,163,227,051,243,131,230
49434 5131,131,131,147,018,033,105
49440 ;.255,013.013,013,013,013,096

The final demonstration draws a background scene and

then uses fast shape-table plotting to make some tulips grow.
As before, make sure both the following programs are on the
same disk. If you're using tape, place the shape file (Program
6-7), immediately after Program 6-6. Remember to place the
lines from SHP.BAS, Program 6-1, in memory before starting
to type Program 6-6.

Program 6-6. TULIPS

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147)SPRINT " TULIPS"sPRINT " BY MAR

K DAVIDS"SPRINT srem 75
110 DN=8sSA=780sSX=781sSY=782sSP=783 srem 133
120 F$="TULIPS"sLA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50)+ 1000 sGOSU
B 56500sREM LOAD SHAPES srem 187
200 DIM X(14),Y(14),TX(14),TY(14) srem 210
210 FOR C=1 TO 14sTX(C)=10*C+INT(5*RND(0))sTY(C)=7
0+INT(10*RND(0))sNEXT srem 210

128
 Chapter 6

220 FOR C=1 TO 14:R=C+INT((15-C)*RND(0))sX(C )=TX(R

)sY(C)=TY(R) srem 195
230 TX(R)=TX(C)sTY(R)=TY(C)sNEXT :rem 226
300 GRAPHICS 1:POKE 53280,6:SETPEN 1,14:LFILL 0,90
TO 159,90 TO 159,0 srem 148
310 SETPEN 2,9:DRAW 0,75,2 TO 50,35 TO 100,60 TO 1
20,40 TO 159,70 srem 133
320 FILL 0,90 TO 50,90,1 TO50,36,lsFILL 120,61 TO
120,41,1 srem 32
330 MODE 5sSETPEN 1,5sDRAW 0,22,1 TO 79,22srem 179
340 MODE 3 sFOR C=1 TO 75sDRAW 150*RND(0),43sNEXT
srem 105
400 FOR K=0 TO 9 sFOR C=1 TO 14sSHAPE A S (K ),X (C ),Y(
C)sNEXTsNEXT srem 231
410 WAIT 198,15 sGET K$ srem 135
420 END srem 109

Program 6*7. TULIPS.SHP

To enter this program, you must use “The Machine Language Editor (MIX)/' a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49283
Filename: TULIPS.SHP

49152 s010,007,000,067,115,075,018
49158 s067,091,099,255,006,000,012
49164 s067,123,067,075,091,255,178
49170 s008,000,067,033,099,067,036
49176 5099,091,083,255,013,000,053
49182 5067,004,009,075,115,099,143
49188 5006,017,067,067,006,021,220
49194 s255,014,000,067,008,017,147
49200 s075,107,018,001,083,115,191
49206 5004,017,067,067,255,011,219
49212 s000,067,008,017,067,115,078
49218 5067,014,025,067,067,255,049
49224 s008,000,081,067,115,067,154
49230 s083,083,099,255,007,000,093
49236 s067,089,119,187,147,147,072
49242 s255,016,000,119,000,105,073
49248 s147,179,147,147,026,109,083
49254 s024,097,179,147,179,179,139
49260 s255,015,000,067,004,105,042
49266 s119,163,163,131,131,155,208
49272 s139,155,139,163,163,255,110
49278 s001,000,255,013,013,013,165

129
Chapter 6

T h e Shapedit Program
Now that you've seen a small sampling of what the SHAPE
statement can do, you ought to try creating a few shapes of
your own. You'll be glad to know that making a shape is as
easy as using a joystick. "Shapedit,” Program 6-8, simplifies
the task of defining a shape table. This program makes it easy
to create and edit up to 100 shapes in any graphics mode. It
also has options to save shape files to tape or disk. Shapedit
has been carefully designed to make shape creation as simple
as possible.
Shapedit uses graphics statements, so be sure that
the BASIC extensions have been installed (by running
"BMGLOADER") before you enter, save, load, or run the
program.
It's set to use the disk drive. Again, to make it work with
the Datassette, change the statement DN = 8 in the first line to
D N = 1.
Save the program using the filename SHAPEDIT before
you run it. This is a wise precaution whenever you run a pro­
gram for the first time, in case the computer crashes due to a
typing mistake.
Plug a joystick into port 2 and type RUN. The program
takes a moment to initialize and then displays a black screen
with a five-line text window at the bottom. The first line re­
ports status information, including the current drawing pen,
the current origin, and the current pen position. The next four
rows have items which are accessible by moving the joystick.
Items are selected by pressing the joystick button. The screen
above the text window is graphics mode 7.

Program 6-8. Shapedit

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.
This program requires that BMG.OBJ (Program 5-3) be loaded into your computer before it
is entered, saved, loaded, or run.

100 DN=8:X=0:Y=0:XX=0:YY=0:JS=56320:SA=780:SX=781:
SY=782:SP=783:GOTO 800 srem 82
110 POKE 214,19:PRINT:F$=STR$(X):PRINT TAB(31) RIG
HT$(F?,LEN(F$)-1) ","? :rem 219
120 F?=STR?fY):PRINT RIGHT?(F ? ,LEN(F ? )-1) LEFT?(BL
?,39-POS(0)):K=FRE(0):RETURN :rem 13
130 SYS 49345:T1=MX(MD):T2=MY(MD) :rem 164
140 SYS 49391,X,Y:GOSUB 110 :rem 243

130
 Chapter 6

150 N=PEEK(JS)AND15:IF N=15 THEN ON ((PEEK(J S )AND1

6 )=0)+2 GOTO 185,150 :rem 69
160 X=X+JX(N):IF X<0 OR X>T1 THEN X=-T1*(X<0)
srem 238
170 Y=Y+JY(N )sIF Y<0 OR Y>T2 THEN Y=-T2*(Y<0)
srem 248
180 GOTO 140 srem 103
185 WAIT JS,16sRETURN srem 29
190 POKE 214,20+(CN AND3)sPRINTsPRINT TAB(U(CN/4))
CHR$(N) CN$(CN);sRETURN srem 221
200 N=146 sGOSUB 190 sIF PF=0 GOTO 230 srem 166
210 PF=0sX=XXsY=YYsGOSUB 130sXX=XsYY=YsPOKE 53269,
0 sGOSUB 7 40 sPOKE 198,0 srem 112
220 GOSUB 650 sIF PEEK(SP)AND10RFNDP(52495)>MX(MD)O
RPEEK(52497)>MY(MD) GOTO 790 srem 62
230 POKE 52479,DPsIF DP THEN POKE 53280,PEEK(52488
+DP)sGOTO 240 srem 193
235 POKE 53280,CL srem 134
240 X=FNDP(52495)sY=PEEK(52497)sGOSUB 110 srem 74
245 SYS 49466sN=PEEK(SA)sIF N=255 THEN POKE 53269,
0sGET F$ sGOTO 260 srem 184
250 POKE AS+SL-1,Ns POKE AS+SL,255 sSL=SL+1sFM=FM-ls
IF FM>0 GOTO 230 srem 47
255 F$="MEMORY FULL"sGOTO 795 srem 171
260 IF F$ < >CHR$(136) GOTO 275 srem 206
265 DP=DP+lsDP=DPANDPEEK(52483)sPOKE 214,19 SPRINTs
PRINT TAB(5) CHR$(48+DP) srem 74
270 GOTO 230 srem 103
275 IF F$ <>CHR$(133) GOTO 330 srem 201
280 IF SL=1 GOTO 245 srem 10
285 SL=SL-lsFM=FM+lsPOKE AS+SL-1,255sCLS CLsIF SL>
1 GOTO 220 srem 173
290 PF=1sGOTO 320 srem 167
300 POKE AS+SL-1,Ns POKE AS+SL,255 sSL=SL+1sFM=FM-1s
IF FM<1 GOTO 255 srem 49
310 IF CN=12 GOTO 521 srem 37
320 N=146sGOSUB 190 srem 15
330 CN=8sN=18sGOSUB 190sK=FRE(0)sWAIT JS,16
srem 221
350 POKE 198,0sK=PEEK(J S )AND15 sIF K<>15 THEN N=146
sGOSUB 190sGOTO 380 srem 126
360 IF PEEK(J S )AND16 GOTO 350 srem 70
365 WAIT JS,16 sIF PF AND(CN=2 OR CN=9 OR CN=10 OR
CN>11) GOTO 350 srem 161
370 ON CN+1 GOTO 400,410,440,450,460,470,480,350,2
00,500,510,490,520 srem 33
375 N=U(CN-8)sON CN-12 GOTO 530,540,550sGOTO 560
srem 40
380 CN=CN+4*JX(K)+JY(K)sIF JY(K)=-1 AND (CN AND3)=
3 THEN CN=CN+4 srem 230

131
Chapter 6

385 IF J Y (K )=1 AND (CN AND3)=0 THEN CN=CN-4

srem 243
390 CN=CN-20*(CN<0)+20*(CN>19):IF CN=7 GOTO 380
srem 229
395 N=18 sGOSUB 190sFOR K=1 TO 50:NEXT:GOTO 350
srem 79
400 GOSUB 770 sIF F$ = "" THEN GOSUB 760sGOTO 320
srem 186
401 POKE 53269,0:PF=1sGOSUB 670:POKE SA,lsPOKE SX,
DNsPOKE SY,0 :SYS 65466 srem 159
402 F$=F$+".SHP”sGOSUB 600sPOKE SA,0 sPOKE SX,FNL(B
A)sPOKE SY,FNH(BA) srem 189
403 POKE 648,188sPOKE 214,19:PRINT srem 146
404 SYS 65493sN=(PEEK(SP)ANDl)*PEEK(SA)sPOKE 648,1
92 SPRINT srem 163
405 GOSUB 760:CLS CLsSYS 49152sIF N THEN GOSUB 730
:GOTO 420 srem 8
406 NS=PEEK(BA):AS=BA+1:FOR K=0 TO NS:SL%(K)=FNDP(
AS):AS=AS+2+SL%(K)sNEXT srem 92
407 FM=MT-AS:IF FM<0 THEN GOSUB 730:F$="NOT ENOUGH
MEMORY":GOTO 795 srem 171
408 SN=0:POKE 214,20:PRINT:PRINT TAB(15) "0 "sGOSU
B 630 sGOTO 320 srem 35
410 IF NS=0 AND SL=1 GOTO 350 srem 227
411 GOSUB 770 sIF F$="" THEN GOSUB 760sGOTO 320
srem 188
412 GOSUB 640sPOKE BA,NS:AS=BA+1:FOR K=0 TO NSsPOK
E AS,FNL(SL%(K )) srem 43
413 POKE AS+1,FNH(SL%(K )):AS=AS+2+SL%(K ) :NEXT:POKE
53269,0:GOSUB 670 srem 149
414 POKE SA,1 sPOKE SX,DN:POKE SY,0:SYS 65466:F$=F$
+ " .SHP"sGOSUB 600 srem 99
415 POKE SA,251:POKE 251,FNL(BA)sPOKE 252,FNH(BA)
srem 224
416 POKE SX,FNL(AS)sPOKE SY,FNH(A S ):POKE 648,188:P
OKE 214,19 SPRINT srem 157
417 SYS 65496:N=(PEEK(SP)AND1)*PEEK(SA)s POKE 648,1
92 SPRINT srem 170
418 GOSUB 760:SYS 49152sGOSUB 630 sIF N=0 GOTO 320
srem 157
420 IF N=4 THEN F$="FILE NOT FOUND"sGOTO 795
srem 163
422 IF N=5 THEN F$="DEVICE NOT PRESENT"sGOTO 795
srem 219
424 F?=STR$(ST)sGOTO 795 srem 110
440 SL%(SN)=SL:H=NS:GOSUB 660sIF FM<SL%(N) THEN F$
="NOT ENOUGH MEMORY"sGOTO 795 srem 157
442 S=BA+3:IF N=0 GOTO 445 srem 101
443 IF N<=SN THEN FOR K=0 TO N-l:S=S+SL%(K)+ 2 sNEXT
sGOTO 445 srem 61

132
 Chapter 6

444 S=MT+2:FOR K=N TO NS:S=S-2-SL%(K)sNEXTsrem 231

445 L=SL%(N):D=AS+SL-1sGOSUB 620:SL=SL+L-1:FM=FM-L
+ 1 sPOKE 53269,0sGOSUB 650 :rem 113
446 I F P E E K ( S P ) AND1 OR FNDP (52495 ) >MX(MD) OR P E E K (
52497)>MY(MD) GOTO 790 trem 243
447 X=FNDP(52495):Y=PEEK(52497)sGOSUB 110:GOTO 320
:rem 91
450 GOSUB 780: IF K $ o " Y " GOTO 320 :rem 213
455 GOSUB 670:POKE 648,4:POKE 51578,200:POKE SX,23
7 :POKE SY,246:SYS 49888:END :rem 111
460 SL%(SN)=SL:L=0:H=NS:N=SN:IF FM>2 AND SL%(NS)>1
AND H<MX THEN H=NS+1 :rem 86
462 GOSUB 720:PF=1:IF N=SN GOTO 320 :rem 182
464 T1=N:N=146sGOSUB 190:GOSUB 640 :rem 182
466 SN=T1:IF SN>NS THEN NS=SN:SL%(SN)=1:FM=FM-3:PO
KE AS+SL+AB+2,255 :rem 239
468 GOSUB 630:GOTO 330 :rem 196
470 N=CL:L=0:H=14 sGOSUB 720:CL=N:CLS CL:POKE 53269
,0:PF=1 :rem 42
475 POKE 53287,-(CL<>1):GOTO 320 :rem 196
480 N=MD:L=0:H=7 sGOSUB 720:MD=N:MODE MDsIF XX>MX(M
D) THEN XX=MX(MD) :rem 27
482 IF YY>MY(MD) THEN YY=MY(MD) :rem 75
484 DP=DPANDPEEK(52483):X=XX:Y=YYsGOSUB 760:POKE 5
2479,DP sPF=1sGOTO 320 srem 38
490 GOSUB 780:IF K$<>"Y" GOTO 320 srem 217
492 FM=FM+SL-1:SL=1sPOKE AS,255:CLS CL:PF=1:IF SN<
NS OR NS=0 GOTO 320 srem 227
494 NS=NS-1:FM=FM+3:SN=NSsPOKE 214,20:PRINT:PRINT
{SPACE}TAB(14) SN "{LEFT}" sGOSUB 630 srem 176
496 GOTO 320 srem 113
500 H=15 sGOSUB 660:POKE 52505,N+128:N=16*N+7sGOTO
{SPACE}300 srem 140
510 H=3 sGOSUB 660:POKE 52492,0sIF N THEN POKE 5249
2,PEEK(52486)ORPEEK(52435+N) srem 40
515 N=N*64+15 sGOTO 300 srem 159
520 TX=X:TY=YsGOSUB130:TX=X-TX:TY=Y-TY srem 78
521 IF TX=0 GOTO 524 srem 20
522 N=ABS(T X ):IF N>64 THEN N=64 srem 218
523 T1=TX:TX=SGN(TX)*(ABS(TX)-N):N=(N-l)*4-2*(T1>0
) sGOTO 300 srem 204
524 IF TY=0 THEN POKE 52495,FNL(X ):POKE 52496,FNH(
X)sPOKE 52497,YsGOTO 320 srem 133
525 N=ABS(T Y )sIF N>32 THEN N=32 srem 212
526 T1=TY:TY=SGN(T Y )*(ABS(TY)-N):N=(N-1)*8-4*(T1>0
)+lsGOTO 300 srem 53
530 POKE 52498,FNL(X)sPOKE 52499,FNH(X):POKE 52500
,YsGOTO 300 srem 159
540 X=FNDP(52498):Y=PEEK(52500)sGOTO 555 srem 7
550 X=0:Y=0 :rem 95

133
Chapter 6

555 SYS 49391,X,YsPOKE 52495,FNL(X):POKE 52496,FNH

(X)sPOKE 52497,Y :GOTO 300 srem 251
560 POKE SA,20-CN AND3sPOKE SX,FNL(X ):POKE SP,FNH(
X)sPOKE SY,Y rem 208
565 SYS 51831sGOTO 300 rem 167
600 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F?)sPOKE 584+K,ASC(MID?(F?,K ))s
NEXT srem 240
610 POKE SA,LEN(F?)sPOKE SX,73sPOKE SY,2sSYS 65469
sRETURN srem 158
620 POKE 251,FNL(S)sPOKE 252,FNH(S )sPOKE 253,FNL(D
)sPOKE 254,FNH(D) srem 2
625 POKE SX,FNL(L)sPOKE SY,FNH(L )sSYS 49777sRETURN
srem 63
630 SL=SL%(SN)sAS=BA+3 sIF SN THEN FOR K=0 TO SN-1s
AS=AS+SL%(K)+2 sNEXT srem 241
632 AB=0 sIF SN=NS THEN RETURN srem 226
634 FOR K=SN+1 TO NSsAB=AB+SL%(K )+2sNEXTsS=AS+SLsL
=ABsD=MT-LsGOTO 620 srem 121
640 SL%(SN)=SLsIF AB=0 THEN RETURN srem 244
645 L=ABsS=MT-LsD=AS+SLsGOTO 620 srem 179
650 POKE 52493,FNL(AS)sPOKE 52494,FNH(A S )sPOKE 524
95,FNL(XX)sPOKE 52496,FNH(X X ) srem 27
652 POKE 52497,YYsPOKE SA,0sPOKE52489,13sPOKE 524
90,10 sPOKE 52491,6 srem 221
654 SYS 52166sRETURN srem 188
660 N=146 sGOSUB 190sCN=7sN=18sGOSUB 190sPRINT "
{OFF} 0 sN=0sL=0sGOTO 720 srem 211
670 POKE 49321,0sFOR K=1 TO 100sNEXTsSYS 49322sRET
URN srem 9
720 K=PEEK(J S )AND15 sIF K<>15 THEN N=N+JX(K )sGOTO 7
26 srem 228
722 IF PEEK(JS)AND16 GOTO 720 srem 73
724 RETURN srem 125
726 IF N<L THEN N=H srem 6
727 IF N>H THEN N=L srem 9
728 POKE 214,20+(CN AND3)sPRINTsPRINT TAB(14) N "
{LEFT} srem 141
729 FOR K=1 TO 50sNEXTsGOTO 720 srem 207
730 NS=0 sSN=0 sAS=BA+3 sSL=1s POKE AS, 255 sFM=MT-ASsAB
=0 srem 126
732 POKE 214,20sPRINTsPRINT TAB(15) "0 "sRETURN
rem 154
740 POKE 214,19sPRINTsF?=STR?(XX)sPRINT TAB(14) RI
GHT$(F $ ,LEN(F ? )-1) srem 61
742 F?=STR?(YY)sPRINT RIGHT?(F?,LEN(F?)-1) LEFT?(B
L?,22-POS(0));sRETURN srem 131
750 POKE 214,19 sPRINT sPRINT BL?$POKE 214,19sPRINTs
RETURN srem 175
760 POKE 214,19sPRINTssPRINT " PENs" CHR?(48+DP) "
ORIGINS"sGOSUB 740 rem 58

134
 Chapter 6

762 PRINT "POSITION:":GOTO 110 :rem 36

770 GOSUB 750:PRINT TAB(9) "FILENAME? ";:F$=""
:rem 6
772 K=FRE(0):WAIT 198,15:GET K $ :IF K$<" " OR K$>"Z
" OR L E N (F$)=12 GOTO 776 :rem 14
774 F$=F$+K$:PRINT K$;:GOTO 772 :rem 209
776 IF K$=CHR$(20) AND F$>"" THEN PRINT "{LEFT}
{LEFT}";:F$=LEFT$(F $ ,L E N (F $ )-1):GOTO 772
:rem 233
778 IF K$ <>CHR$(13) GOTO 772 :rem 173
779 RETURN :rem 135
780 GOSUB 750:PRINT TAB(15) "CONFIRM?" :rem 161
785 WAIT 198,15 :GET K$:ON (K$="Y" ORK$="N")+2 GOT
O 760,785 :rem 233
790 PF=l:F$="OUT OF RANGE" :rem 195
795 GOSUB 750:PRINT TAB(9) "ERROR: " F$:WAIT 198,1
5 :GET K$:GOSUB 760:GOTO 320 :rem 230
800 POKE 648,192:PRINT "{CLR}":POKE 648,4:PRINT "
{CLR}":POKE 53280,0:POKE 53281,0 :rem 103
805 PRINT " |8iSHAPEDIT":PRINT " BY CRAIG CHAMBERL
AIN":POKE 648,192:REM VI.0 :rem 83
810 MX=99:DIM U( 11) ,CN$(19),J X (15),JY(15),MX(7),MY
(7),SL%(MX):N=146 :rem 169
815 FOR K=0 TO 11:READ U (K ):NEXT:FOR CN=0 TO 19:RE
AD CN$(C N ):GOSUB 190:NEXT :rem 232
820 FOR K=5 TO 14 :READ JX (K), JY (K ) .-NEXT: FOR K=0 TO
7:READ M X (K ),MY(K):NEXT :rem 239
825 FOR K=49152 TO 49901:READ N:POKE K,N:NEXT:DEF
{SPACE}FNDP(N)=PEEK(N)+256*PEEK(N+l) :rem 235
830 DEF FNL(N)=N-256*INT(N/256):DEF FNH(N)=INT(N/2
56):DP=1:CL=0:MD=7:PF=1 :rem 196
835 BL$="{39 SPACES}":GOSUB 760 :rem 42
840 POKE 214,21:PRINT:PRINT TAB(14) CL:PRINT TAB(1
4) MD:PRINT TAB(14) 0; :rem 63
845 BA=FNDP(49)+500:MT=FNDP(51)-500:GOSUB 730:POKE
56334,PEEK(56334)AND254 :rem 151
850 POKE 1 ,PEEK(1)AND251:S=53248:D=S:L=2048:GOSUB
{SPACE}620:POKE 1,PEEK(1)0R4 :rem 62
855 POKE 56334,PEEK(56334)OR1:POKE 657,128:POKE 50
168,254 :POKE 51192,254 :rem 135
860 POKE 53287,l:POKE 53271,0:POKE 53277,0:POKE SX
,233:POKE SY,194:SYS 49888 :rem 204
865 GRAPHICS 7:SYS 49152:POKE 51578,160:GOTO 330
:rem 168
900 DATA 1,9,19,28,34,63,191,127,31,223,159,95
:rem 226
910 DATA LOAD,SAVE,APPEND,QUIT,SHAPE,CLS,MODE,S/F/
A,EDIT,SETPEN :rem 47
920 DATA FILLPEN,ERASE,MOVE,RMEM,RSET,HOME,DRAW,FI
LL.LFILL,RFILL :rem 203

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Chapter 6

930 DATA 1,1,1,-1,1,0,0,0,-1,1,-1,-1,-1,0,0,0,0,1,

0,-1 :rem 212
940 DATA 319,159,159,159,159,79,159,79,79,39,79,39
,39,19,39,19 :rem 71
950 DATA 169,127,141,13,220,173,20,3,141,167,192,1
73.21.3.141.168.192.169.59 :rem 168
951 DATA 141,17,208,32,36,192,169,209,141,169,192,
169,1,141,26,208,96,169,251 :rem 240
952 DATA 141,18,208,169,106,141,20,3,169,192,141,2
1,3,169,133,141,254,255,169 :rem 217
953 DATA 200,141,255,255,96,72,138,72,152,72,173,2
5,208,141,25,208,162,11,202 :rem 211
954 DATA 208,253,162,27,160,4,173,22,208,41,239,23
4,142,17,208,140,24,208,141 :rem 206
955 DATA 22,208,32,36,192,104,168,104,170,104,64,1
73.25.208.141.25.208.169.59 :rem 222
956 DATA 141,17,208,169,24,141,24,208,173,254,204,
74,173,22,208,41,239,144,2 :rem 168
957 DATA 9,16,141,22,208,173,169,192,240,23,141,18
,208,169,67,141,20,3,169,192 ;rem 22
958 DATA 141,21,3,169,62,141,254,255,169,192,141,2
55,255,76,0,0,0,169,0,141,26 :rem 6
959 DATA 208,173,167,192,141,20,3,173,168,192,141,
21.3.169.129.141.13.220.96 :rem 174
960 DATA 169,128,133,251,169,255,133,252,169,0,160
,64,136,145,251,208,251,174 :rem 230
961 DATA 254,204,189,32,194,188,40,194,136,136,136
,145,251,208,249,96,162,2,181 :rem 88
962 DATA 251,157,110,194,202,16,248,48,18,32,253,1
74,32,138,173,32,247,183,132 :rem 17
963 DATA 251,133,252,32,241,183,134,253,165,252,13
3.254.165.251.174.254.204.240 :rem 56
964 DATA 9,188,47,194,10,136,208,252,38,254,24,105
,24,141,0,208,165,254,105,0 :rem 215
965 DATA 141,16,208,165,253,224,2,144,7,188,53,194
,10,136,208,252,105,50,141 srem 163
966 DATA 1,208,169,1,141,21,208,96,169,255,141,31,
194.165.198.240.3.169.255.96 srem 39
967 DATA 173,0,220,41,15,174,31,194,16,19,162,7,22
1,61,194,240,5,202,16,248,48 srem 3
968 DATA 227,32,236,193,176,222,144,43,188,69,194,
132.254.162.3.221.77.194.240 srem 39
969 DATA 9,70,254,70,254,202,16,244,48,50,165,254,
41,3,240,44,170,189,80,194 srem 182
970 DATA 24,109,31,194,41,7,170,32,236,193,176,28,
142,31,194,32,227,192,173,0 srem 217
971 DATA 220,41,16,240,22,165,162,41,7,208,250,173
,0,220,41,15,201,15,208,234 srem 177
972 DATA 173,0,220,41,16,208,142,174,255,204,173,2
5,205,16,8,41,15,141,25,205 srem 193

136
 Chapter 6

973 DATA 157,8,205,172,112,194,140,17,205,173,111,

194,141,16,205,74,138,174,110 srem 54
974 DATA 194,142,15,205,32,8,201,169,0,141,21,208,
173,255,204,10,10,10,13,31 srem 127
975 DATA 194,10,10,10,9,3,96,160,0,189,86,194,16,1
,136,24,109,15,205,133,251 :rem 158
976 DATA 152,109,16,205,133,252,189,84,194,24,109,
17,205,133,253,172,254,204 :rem 179
977 DATA 208,4,165,252,240,7,165,251,217,94,194,17
6,5,165,253,217,102,194,96 srem 197
978 DATA 0,128,192,192,192,240,240,255,255,3,3,6,6
,12,12,24,24,1,1,1,2,2,3,3 srem 122
979 DATA 1,1,2,2,3,3,14,6,7,5,13,9,11,10,120,52,39
,19,210,193,141,76,7,11,13 srem 118
980 DATA 14,1,4,255,255,255,0,1,1,1,0,255,255,255,
64,160,160,160,80,80,40,40 srem 131
981 DATA 160,160,80,80,40,40,20,20,0,0,0,142,222,1
94,140,223,194,165,253,56,229 srem 25
982 DATA 251,170,165,254,229,252,236,222,194,237,2
23,194,144,35,160,0,174,223 srem 225
983 DATA 194,240,14,177,251,145,253,200,208,249,23
0,252,230,254,202,208,242,174 srem 57
984 DATA 222,194,240,8,177,251,145,253,200,202,208
,248,96,173,223,194,168,101 srem 230
985 DATA 252,133,252,152,24,101,254,133,254,172,22
2.194.240.9.136.177.251.145 srem 218
986 DATA 253,192,0,208,247,174,223,194,240,16,198,
252.198.254.136.177.251.145 srem 251
987 DATA 253,192,0,208,247,202,208,240,96,0,0,120,
142,40,3,140,41,3,88,96,169 srem 207
988 DATA 255,201,127,96 srem 127

Once you have Shapedit entered, saved, and run, you can
begin experimenting with it. To help you familiarize yourself
with the program, take time to read through the following
explanations, trying out each feature.
EDIT. To begin, press the joystick button while on EDIT.
A white cursor appears, indicating you're in the positioning
mode. The purpose of this mode is to establish the origin.
Move the cursor by pushing the joystick. If you go past a
screen boundary, the cursor wraps around to the other side.
Once you've moved the cursor to the place where you
want the shape to start, press the button. The cursor dis­
appears, and the border changes to match the color of the cur­
rent drawing pen. You're now in the editing mode. The cursor
reappears as soon as you push the stick in any direction. By
pushing the stick in different directions, you can move the
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cursor to any of the eight positions around the origin. Press

and release the button to actually plot a point. The point
changes to the current drawing-pen color, and the cursor again
vanishes.
This procedure of pushing the joystick and pressing the
button is repeated for each point. The next time you push the
stick, the cursor hovers around the most recently plotted
point. Several points can be plotted to draw a shape.
An alternative method of drawing is to hold the trigger
down while pushing the stick. This allows the drawing of a
chain of points and is faster than point-by-point plotting. The
program won't let you draw out of bounds while in the
editing mode. Instead of wrapping around, the cursor just
stops at the screen edge.
To change the drawing pen, press the f7 key. The border
and display pen number change to reflect the color of the new
pen. Plotting is now done with pen 2. Press f7 again to change
to pen 3. The next time you press f7, pen 0 is selected. Pen 0
is used for erasing.
If you make a mistake while plotting and you want to de­
lete the last point, press fl. The screen clears and the shape is
redrawn without the last point. To fix a mistake earlier in the
shape, it's necessary to delete all the subsequent points in or­
der to back up to the mistake.
Each point that's plotted in the editing mode is one
instruction in the shape table. The more points in a shape, the
more instructions in the corresponding table. This im­
plementation also supports some special instructions, acces­
sible from the menu, for things like line drawing and area
filling.
To leave the editing mode and return to the menu, press
any key other than fl or f7. The cursor disappears, and the
word EDIT is highlighted. Now that you're in the menu, any
item can be selected with the joystick.
SETPEN. Move to the item marked SETPEN and press
the joystick button. The prompt jumps to the item marked
S /F /A , which stands for SETPEN/FILLPEN/APPEND. These
three items are not followed by numbers, so they use S /F /A
when a number has to be entered.
Push the stick left or right to change the number after
S /F /A . SETPEN supports the standard color numbers from 0
to 15. When you've chosen the color you want, press the but­

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ton. If you want to change the pen color to yellow (color 7),
for instance, keep pushing the joystick until 7 appears, then
press the button. The instruction is added to the shape table,
and the prompt jumps back to EDIT.
Return to the editing mode by pressing the button when
EDIT is highlighted. The program bypasses the positioning
mode and goes right to the editing mode, using the same ori­
gin as before. Editing continues from the last point. Use f7 to
change the current pen to the one which will have the new
color, and plot a point. The point appears in the new color
and the border color changes to match the current drawing
pen.
As with the SETPEN statement, the SETPEN instruction
must be used with a drawing pen other than pen 0. The only
color associated with pen 0 is the color of the background.
CLS. If you want to change the background color, use
the CLS command. Return to the menu, move to CLS, and
press the button. The number after CLS is the current back­
ground color number, and can be changed by pushing the
stick left or right. Press the button when you've chosen the
new color. The screen will clear, and the background is set to
the new color. As an example, the background color can be
changed to red by changing the number after CLS to 2 and
pressing the button.
The program does not let you change the background
color to 15. That's the color used for text; using that color as
the background would make the text disappear. CLS is a com­
mand used for editing purposes only, and is not an instruction
that can be included in a shape table.
Now that the screen has been cleared, press the button
while on EDIT. This time there is a positioning mode, and the
cursor appears at the old origin. If you don't want to change
the origin, just press the joystick button again. The shape is
redrawn, and editing continues from the last point.
The CLS command has another application. Perhaps
you're editing a shape, but can't complete it because it would
go out of bounds. What you need to do is change the origin to
allow more room for the drawing. Move to the CLS command
and press the button twice to clear the screen without chang­
ing the background color. Now press the button on EDIT.
You'll be in the positioning mode, and the cursor will appear
at the old origin. Move the cursor to the new origin by

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pushing the stick, and then press the button. The shape is re­
drawn, starting at the new position, and you're back in the
editing mode.
Care must be taken when choosing a new origin, because
having the origin too close to a screen edge can make the
shape drawing go out of bounds. This can happen when you
press the button to go from the positioning mode to the
editing mode. If this happens, the message ERROR: OUT OF
RANGE shows in the top line of the text window, and the
program waits until you acknowledge the error by pressing
any key. The next time you select EDIT, be sure to use a dif­
ferent origin.
MODE. Sometimes you may find that the screen is sim­
ply not big enough to draw a particular shape, and a higher
resolution is needed. Use the MODE command to change the
current graphics mode. As a demonstration, change the mode
from 7 to 5, and go back to EDIT. Like clearing the screen,
changing the mode causes a positioning mode. The cursor ap­
pears at the same coordinates as before, but it's smaller and
displays in a different position on the screen because of the
new resolution.
Once you choose the origin and press the button, the
shape is drawn. However, since MODE does not clear the
screen, the shape is drawn on top of the old one in the lower
resolution. In other words, the MODE command lets you see
the same shape in different resolutions. Sometimes you may
want to clear the screen by using CLS to get rid of old shapes.
Be aware that if you draw a shape in a high-resolution
mode, it may not fit on the screen in a low-resolution mode
and may cause the OUT OF RANGE error. Also, all points
drawn by the same drawing pen must have the same color
within the same color square. This is not a concern in modes 6
and 7, because the points are the same size as the color
squares. However, it can be a problem in the other modes.
Furthermore, the problem may not be detected until you
switch to a higher resolution mode.
If you're creating a shape that will be drawn in a high
resolution, it's more convenient to do the editing in a low-
resolution mode. Just periodically change to a higher resolu­
tion to check for color-square conflicts.
When you switch between normal and multicolor modes,

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old shapes on the screen will not be displayed correctly. You

may want to use CLS to clear the screen.
ERASE. If you've been following the examples, the cur­
rent shape may be getting rather long and cluttered. To erase
the shape altogether, use the ERASE command. When you
press the button on ERASE, the message CONFIRM? asks you
to verify that you want to erase the entire shape. Since a
shape cannot be retrieved once it's been erased, this prompt
prevents accidental erasing of a drawing. Press the Y key to
erase the shape, or the N key to cancel the command. If you
press Y, the screen clears and the shape table becomes empty.
MOVE. Shapes often develop a snakelike appearance be­
cause of the restriction that each point must be adjacent to the
previous one. To break the chain of points, use the MOVE
instruction. This changes the pen position by adding offsets to
the current X and Y coordinates. It has the effect of lifting the
drawing pen and setting it down at another position on the
screen.
Select MOVE. The cursor appears, and you're now in a
type of positioning mode. Using the joystick, move the cursor
to the new pen position. Press the joystick button to set this
position; the next time EDIT is chosen, the cursor hovers
around that location. This is called relative positioning. The po­
sition of the pen after it's moved is dependent on the old po­
sition. If the shape is drawn starting at a different origin, the
pen still moves to the same place, relative to the rest of the
shape.
DRAW. With the MOVE instruction, it's possible to use
line drawing and area filling. After displacing the cursor by
MOVE, choose the DRAW instruction. A line is drawn from
the most recently plotted point to the current position, and the
DRAW instruction is added to the shape table. This is cer­
tainly preferable to plotting individual points in a straight line
because each point requires an instruction. Not only would
that take more time to do with Shapedit, but the shape table
itself would grow tremendously.
FILL, LFILL, and RFILL. Instead of selecting DRAW for
line drawing, you can choose FILL, LFILL, or RFILL for area
filling. As the line is drawn from the last point to the current
position, filling is done to the left and/or right of the line.
FILLPEN. The fill instructions cause the background to be
filled in. If you want to fill on top of an area already filled,

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you must first use the FILLPEN instruction. This instruction

specifies the number of the pen that's to be covered up by the
fill. It's comparable to the optional third number in the
destination point of a FILL statement.
Let's say that you want to fill the background using pen
1, then fill inside that area using pen 2. The cover-up pen
number is reset to zero (for the background) at the beginning
of a shape, so the FILLPEN instruction does not have to be
used for the first fill. Before the second fill instruction is added
to the shape table, however, the instruction FILLPEN 1 should
be selected. The following fill instruction covers up points
drawn with pen 1, and stops only when any other pen is
encountered.
Once the cover-up pen number is changed by FILLPEN, it
stays in effect for the rest of the shape unless changed by an­
other FILLPEN instruction.
HOME. Absolute positioning is done by using the HOME
instruction. This instruction moves the pen to the upper-left
corner of the screen, known as the home position. The pre­
vious position of the pen has no effect on the instruction; the
pen will always be at 0,0 after the HOME instruction has been
selected.
You can absolutely position the pen at any place on the
screen by using the HOME and MOVE instructions together.
After the pen has been moved to 0,0 by the HOME instruc­
tion, use MOVE to move the pen to the desired position. Since
the movement will be done relative to a constant position, the
pen will always move to the same position, regardless of the
shape's origin.
RMEM and RSET (REMEMBER and RESET). This
method of moving the pen position is useful when you want
to repeatedly move the pen back to the same position. The
first time that the pen is at this particular position, choose the
RMEM instruction. Although nothing will appear to happen,
the computer will remember the current position as a ref­
erence point for later. Continue editing the shape. When you
want to make the pen jump back to the reference point estab­
lished by the earlier RMEM, choose the RSET instruction.
Once a reference point has been established by RMEM,
the pen can be reset to that position as often as necessary.
There is no limit to the number of times that RSET can be
used. However, the computer can remember only one ref­

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erence point at a time. If RMEM is selected again, the new po­

sition will be remembered, and the old one forgotten.
The default reference point is the home position. If RSET
is selected and RMEM has not been used earlier in the shape,
the pen moves to 0,0.
SHAPE. As you can see, the Shapedit program has many
instructions and commands to help you create a detailed,
colorful shape. But sometimes a single shape is not enough.
An application may need to use several different shapes. This
command lets you edit multiple shapes. It should not be con­
fused with the BASIC statement SHAPE which is used to
draw shapes.
Assuming that shape 0 has already been defined, here's
how you would create a second shape. Press the button on the
item marked SHAPE, push the stick to change the current
shape number from 0 to 1, and press the button again. Now
press the button on EDIT. Because you're editing a new shape,
you'll have to establish an origin, so you'll be placed in the
positioning mode. Push the stick to move the cursor to the
starting position and press the button one more time. You're
now set to start defining shape 1.
Changing the shape number does not clear the screen,
which is why shape 0 is still displayed, even though you're
editing shape 1. If you want to get rid of the image of the old
shape, use the CLS command to clear the screen. Sometimes,
however, it can be convenient to see one shape while editing
another.
You can stop editing shape 1 and return to shape 0 at any
time by using the SHAPE command again. Since the shapes
are independent, shape 0 still has its own definition. Editing
one shape has no effect on the other. Even if you use the
ERASE command to erase one shape, the other remains intact.
The SHAPE command lets you create more than two
shapes, provided that you create them one at a time. When
you first run the Shapedit program, the SHAPE command
only lets you edit shape 0. But as soon as the shape table for
shape 0 contains at least one instruction, SHAPE allows access
to shape 1. Likewise, the SHAPE command does not let you
edit shape 2 until shape 1 has been defined.
Shapedit can handle a maximum of 100 shapes, though
it's doubtful that you'll ever need that many.
APPEND. Multiple shapes are useful by themselves, but

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one other possibility you'll find use for is to combine them to

create new shapes. The APPEND command can be used to
add one shape to another.
To demonstrate how APPEND works, assume you're
editing shape 3 and the shape you want to append is shape 5.
Move to the item marked APPEND and press the button.
You're prompted for a shape number. Push the joystick left or
right, stop when the number 5 appears, and press the button
again. The program examines the definition of shape 5 and
adds it to the end of shape 3. Shape 3 now contains the
instructions for shape 3 plus the instructions for shape 5. The
screen is updated to show shape 5 starting where shape 3
ends.
Shape 3 is the shape being edited, so it's the only shape
changed. Shape 5 still retains its previous definition. The AP­
PEND command simply added a copy of shape 5 to the end of
shape 3; it did not merge the two shapes into one.
SAVE. In order to use shapes in a BASIC program, they
have to be stored in a file. Use the SAVE command to write a
copy of a shape file to tape or disk.
When you press the joystick button while on SAVE,
you're prompted for a filename. Enter a filename, from 1 to 12
characters long, and press RETURN. The text window blanks,
the shape file is saved to tape or disk (depending on what DN
is set to in line 100), and the screen is restored.
The .SHP extension is automatically added to the
filename by the Shapedit program, and should not be entered.
To cancel the SAVE command, press the RETURN key without
typing in a filename.
If you're using tape, the standard prompt message will not
appear on the screen. You'll have to remember to press both
the PLAY and RECORD buttons on the Datassette.
If you're using disk, be sure that the filename you selected
is not already in use. The program will not report an error if
the filename already exists, but the drive light will flash. The
program, however, will report the DEVICE NOT PRESENT er­
ror if the disk drive is not connected or not turned on.
LOAD. At a later time you may want to revise some
shapes in a file or add some new ones. Or you may wish to
examine the shapes used in the demonstration programs. Use
the LOAD command to retrieve a set of shapes. Like the

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SAVE command, the LOAD command needs a filename. After

you enter the filename, the program erases the shapes cur­
rently in memory and loads the new file. Again, if you're
using tape, no prompt message appears. Be sure to press only
the PLAY button on the Datassette.
If you're using disk and the requested file does not exist,
you'll see the FILE NOT FOUND error.
QUIT. When you're finished editing and have saved the

Shapedit Reference Chart

General Editing
ED IT
Positioning mode Establish origin
Editing mode Add new plotting instructions to shape table
fl Delete one instruction
f7 Change current pen
Any other key Return to menu
Commands
CLS Clear screen
MODE Change mode
ERASE Erase current shape
SHAPE Edit another shape
APPEND Add copy of any shape to end of current shape
SAVE Store set of shapes as disk or tape file
LOAD Retrieve set of shapes from disk or tape file
QUIT Exit program
Special Instructions
(Cannot be selected until origin of shape has been established
by choosing EDIT)
SETPEN Change color of next pen used for drawing
MOVE Displace pen position
DRAW Draw line from last plotted point to current position
FILL Fill from last plotted point to current position
LFILL Fill to left only
RFILL Fill to right only
FILLPEN Specify which pen will be covered up by fill
HOME Move pen to 0,0
RM EM Remember current position
RSET Reset pen to most recently remembered position

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shapes, you can exit the program by using the QUIT com­
mand. Press the button on QUIT and type Y to end the pro­
gram. Type N if you accidentally chose the QUIT command.
The next time you run Shapedit, be sure that the BASIC
extensions have been installed.

Using Shapes in BASIC Programs

The SHAPE statement makes it easy to draw shapes in a
BASIC program. But before a program can use this statement,
some preparation is necessary.
First of all you need to have all the lines which make up
Program 6-1, SHP.BAS, included in your program. Keep the
line numbers as listed in Program 6-1.
Take a look at the previous shape demonstration pro­
grams. You'll find that they all start by assigning the variables
DN, SA, SX, SY, and SP. These variables are used by the
BASIC subroutine at line 56500 which loads the shape file
from tape or disk. Every program which uses shape tables
must assign these five variables:
DN = 8 (disk)
DN = 1 (tape)
SA = 780
SX = 781
SY = 782
SP = 783
After these variables have been assigned, the LOAD ad­
dress for the shape file must be calculated and assigned to the
variable LA. The shape file is loaded at the beginning of
BASIC free memory. This address can be found by PEEKing
location 49 and adding that value to 256 times the value
found in location 50.
BASIC uses free memory whenever a variable is assigned
for the first time and whenever an array is dimensioned.
Therefore, the calculation of the LOAD address should be
done only after most of the variables have been assigned and
after all arrays have been dimensioned. As a precaution, an
extra 1000 bytes should be added to the LOAD address in case
there are a few more variables assigned later. Here's the state­
ment you can use to assign LA.
L A = PEEK(49)+ 256*PEEK(50)+1000

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Next, assign the name of the shape file to the variable F$.
The string should consist only of the main part of the filename
and should not include the .SHP extension.
W = “filenam e"
To complete the preparation, call the subroutine at line
56500.
GOSUB 56500
The subroutine loads the shape file into memory and then
determines how many shapes have been loaded. The number
of the last shape is assigned to the variable NS. For example,
if the file contained four shapes, numbered 0 to 3, the variable
NS would be assigned the value 3.
The subroutine then dimensions an array named AS, using
the value of NS. A loop from 0 to NS is executed to store the
address of each shape in the array. Once that's been done, the
subroutine ends and returns to the main program.
The program is now ready to use the SHAPE statement.
Remember that this statement needs the address of the shape
that you want to display. The address can be found by using
the corresponding shape number as the subscript of the array
AS. The numbers used for the X and Y coordinates depend on
where you want to display the shape and are comparable to
the origin used in the Shapedit program.
SHAPE AS(shapc number), X coordinate, Y coordinate
The following two lines select graphics mode 5 and draw
shape 0 at position 40,30.
GRAPHICS 5
SHAPE AS(0),40,30
Any of the shapes in the file can be drawn by changing
the subscript of AS. Just make sure that the subscript never ex­
ceeds the value of NS or the program will stop with a BAD
SUBSCRIPT error.
Another restriction is that a program can load only one
shape file. If you attempt to load a second set of shapes, you'll
get a REDIM'D ARRAY error, because array AS has already
been dimensioned. A shape file merging utility is provided
later so that you can combine two or more shape files into
one file.
One last restriction is that, if possible, you should avoid
assigning string variables once the shapes have been loaded.
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Every assignment to a string variable uses a small amount of

free memory. After several strings have been assigned, BASIC
may use the same free memory that's used to store the shape
tables. If it's necessary to assign strings, periodically call the
FRE function. This function reorganizes the free memory used
by strings so that the shape tables will be left alone.
The first demonstration program showed that you can
draw the same shape at different positions on the screen. You
can also change the graphics mode to display the shape in dif­
ferent resolutions.
Another technique, demonstrated by the second program,
is to use the SETPEN statement before drawing a shape. The
same shape can be drawn in different color combinations. To
use this technique, the definition of the shape cannot contain
any SETPEN instructions. If the shape table does contain
SETPEN instructions, they'll override any SETPEN statements
executed before SHAPE.
The coordinates in a SHAPE statement do not have to be
constant numbers; they can be variables. An interesting effect
is created by using the SHAPE statement in a loop. Save Pro­
gram 6-9, using the filename TOWERS, and the shape file,
Program 6-10, using the filename TOWER.SHP.
Remember that BMG.OBJ must be in memory before entering
Program 6-9. Also load SHP.BAS (Program 6-1) before typing in
Program 6-9.

Program 6-9. TOWERS

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147):PRINT " TOWER G R A P H S P R I N T "

{SPACE}BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN":PRINT :rem 86
110 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781;SY=782:SP=783 :rem 133
120 F$="TOWER":LA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK{50)+1000:GOSUB
56500:REM LOAD SHAPES :rem 107
300 GRAPHICS 1:POKE 53280,0:SETPEN 1,1:S=AS(0)
:rem 82
310 FOR X=20 TO 100 STEP 40 :rem 70
320 READ C,H:SETPEN 2,C :rem 18
330 FOR Y=130 TO H STEP -IsSHAPE S,X,Y:NEXT Y,X
:rem 137
340 WAIT 198,15:GET K$ :rem 137
350 END :rem 111
800 DATA 10,50,5,40,14,30 :rem 181

148
 Chapter 6

Program 6-10. TOWER.SHP

To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MLX)," a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49259
Filename: TOWER.SHP

49152 :000,100,000,083,075,075,077
49158 :075,075,075,075,075,075,200
49164 :075,091,091,091,091,091,030
49170 :091,091,091,091,091,091,052
49176 :091,091,091,091,091,107,074
49182 :107,107,107,107,107,107,160
49188 :107,107,123,123,123,123,230
49194 :123,123,123,123,123,123,012
49200 :123,123,123,123,123,131,026
49206 :139,139,139,139,139,139,120
49212 :139,075,155,155,155,155,126
49218 :155,155,155,155,155,155,228
49224 :155,155,155,155,155,099,178
49230 :163,171,171,171,171,171,072
49236 :171,171,115,179,187,187,070
49242 :187,187,187,187,187,187,188
49248 :187,187,187,187,187,187,194
49254 :255,013,013,013,013,013,166

The syntax for the SHAPE statement also allows that no

coordinates need to be specified.
SHAPE address of shape
The coordinates are optional. A SHAPE statement without
coordinates starts drawing a shape at the position where the
most recent shape ended. That's how the figures in the second
demonstration were drawn one after another. The position
was established by the first shape of each row. The remaining
shapes in each row were drawn by using SHAPE with no
coordinates.
Drawing shapes with the SHAPE statement is really very
simple. Just follow the procedure you've seen. An easy way to
get started is to take one of the demonstration programs and
modify it to suit your own needs. Change the filename as­
signed to F$ and write new lines to display the shapes.

149
Chapter 6

Rotation
The plotting process used by shape tables is fairly straight­
forward. Each instruction moves the pen to one of eight ad­
jacent positions and plots a point. These directions are
numbered, starting at 0 for up, and moving clockwise around
an imaginary circle. Thus, 1 is up and to the right, 2 is right
only, and so on, up to 7, which indicates up and to the left.
The directional numbers are illustrated by Figure 6-1. Each
instruction consists of a direction number from 0 to 7, and a
pen number from 0 to 3.

Figure 6-1. Directional Numbers

o

What if every time an instruction was processed, a con­

stant number was added to the direction number? How would
this affect the display? Well, with a constant of 2, the direction
0 (up) would become 2, which is to the right. The direction 2
(right) would be converted into 4, which is down. And the
direction 7 would become direction 9, but since there is no
direction 9, it would wrap around to direction 1.
Consider that the eight directions could also be treated
like angles, with a measure of 45 degrees between each. Thus,
if a constant of 2 was added to each angle as a shape was
drawn, it would appear to be rotated by 90 degrees. The shape
would still start at the same position on the screen and be the
same size; it would just look as if it had been spun around at
a right angle.
For added flexibility in shape drawing, the syntax of the
SHAPE statement supports an optional rotation number. This

150
 Chapter 6

number ranges from 0 to 7 and must always be the last num­

ber in the statement.
SHAPE a d d ress, a n gle n u m b er
SHAPE a d d ress, X co o rd in a te, Y coordinate, a n gle n u m b er
The following chart shows the effects of the different angle
numbers.
Number Angle of Rotation
0 0 degrees (no rotation)
1 45 degrees
2 90 degrees
3 135 degrees
4 180 degrees
5 225 degrees
6 270 degrees
7 315 degrees
Rotation is done clockwise. When no angle number is
given, the value 0 is assumed, and the shape is not rotated.
Negative angle numbers are not allowed, but comparable pos­
itive numbers can always be used. For example, rotating a
shape by 270 degrees is the same as rotating it by —90
degrees.
The following demonstration, Program 6-11, takes the
Munchkin shape and draws it at every angle. Remember that
BMG.OBJ must be in memory and Program 6-1, SHP.BAS,
should first be loaded so that it becomes part of "TWIST.”
Program 6-3, MUNCHKIN.SHP, must also be on the same
disk. (If you're using tape, make sure that MUNCHKIN.SHP is
saved immediately after Program 6-11. Since you already have
Program 6-3 on tape from the earlier example, just resave it,
using MLX, to this new area on the tape. Refer to Appendix C
for information on using MLX to copy tape files.)

Program 6-11. TWIST

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147)SPRINT " MUNCHKIN TWIST"SPRINT

{SPACE}" BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN":PRINT srem 248
110 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783 srem 133
120 F$ = "MUNCHKIN"sLA=PEEK(49)+2 56 *PEEK(50)+1000 sGO
SUB 56500sREM LOAD SHAPES srem 55
300 GRAPHICS Is POKE 53280,0 srem 220
310 FOR A=0 TO 7 srem 3
320 SHAPE AS(0),80+20*COS(A*tV4),100+30*SIN(A*tV4)
,A srem 83
151
Chapter 6

330 NEXT A :rem 22

340 WAIT 198,15:GET K$ srem 137
350 END :rem 111

When you run this program, you'll notice that the shape
deteriorates when it's rotated to one of the diagonal angles.
That's why these four angles are not frequently used. But the
four main angles (0, 90, 180, and 270 degrees) can be useful,
often in some surprising ways. The next program rotates a
small shape to draw a continuous border around the screen.
Type in Program 6-12, "BRAID," after loading SHP.BAS
so that the latter becomes part of Program 6-12. Then use
MLX to enter Program 6-13. Be sure to use the filename
BRAID.SHP for this.

Program 6-12. BRAID

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$ (147 ) :PRINT " BRAID" .-PRINT " BY CRAI
G CHAMBERLAIN":PRINT srem 98
110 DN=8 sSA=780 sSX=781:SY=782:SP=783 srem 133
120 F$="BRAID":LA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50 )+1000 sGOSUB
56500:REM LOAD SHAPES srem 60
300 GRAPHICS 2 sS=AS(0) srem 245
310 SHAPE S,20,15 srem 120
320 FOR K=1 TO 11:SHAPE S,0:NEXT srem 13
330 FOR K=1 TO 7:SHAPE S,2sNEXT srem 229
340 FOR K=1 TO 12:SHAPE S,4sNEXT srem 20
350 FOR K=1 TO 7sSHAPE S,6:NEXT srem 235
360 SHAPE S ,70,50 srem 129
370 WAIT 198,15 sGET K$ srem 140
380 END srem 114

Program 6-13. BRAID.SHP

To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MLX)," a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49205
Filename: BRAID.SHP
49152 :000,051,000,083,083,083,044
49158 :083,083,083,083,083,067,232
49164 :067,067,067,067,067,115,206
49170 :115,115,115,099,099,083,132
49176 :083,099,099,115,115,115,138
49182 s115,067,067,067,067,067,224
49188 :067,083,083,083,083,083,006
152
 Chapter 6

49194 :083,083,083,099,099,099,076
49200 :099,099,099,099,099,255,030

Rotation will not work correctly with shapes that contain

a MOVE instruction. This instruction does not take into ac­
count the rotation angle when it moves the drawing pen. For
instance, if a MOVE instruction moves the pen up a certain
number of positions, it moves the pen up that many positions
even if the shape is drawn upside down. Since MOVE is used
with DRAW, FILL, LFILL, and RFILL, these instructions can­
not be used either.
RMEM and RSET do work with rotation, so DRAW can be
used if the pen is moved by RSET instead of MOVE. Unfortu­
nately, this method does not work with any of the fill instruc­
tions. These always fill to the left and/or right, no matter how
the shape is rotated.

Drawing Pen Indirection

Each shape table instruction contains direction and drawing
pen information for one point. You've just seen how
experimenting with the direction number can produce some
interesting and useful effects. What about the drawing pen
number?
Indeed, something special can be done with the drawing
pen number. You know that the SHAPE statement can quickly
draw shapes. It can quickly undraw shapes too, by using the
PEN statement, which has a format of:
PEN pen number, pen number
This statement indirects drawing done by the first pen
number so that the drawing is actually done by the second
pen number. For instance, the statement PEN 1,2 means that
all shape table instructions using pen 1 will instead be drawn
by pen 2. The term indirection is used because of this extra
step in determining the pen number. The pen number in the
instruction indirectly determines the pen number used for
plotting.
Consider what would happen if the three drawing pens
were set to 0 before a shape was drawn. Every point in the
shape would be drawn with pen 0, the erasing pen. What does
this get you? It means that you can draw a shape at any po­
sition on the screen, and then by setting the pens to 0 and
drawing the shape at the same position, you can erase that
153
 Chapter 6

shape without disturbing anything else on the screen. Run

Program 6-14 for a demonstration.
Again, insure that the bitmapped graphics BASIC exten­
sions are enabled, and SHP.BAS in memory before typing any
of the following listing. You also need to have MUNCHKIN.SHP
on the same disk, or if you're using tape, immediately after
Program 6-14.

Program 6-14. ANTIMUNCH

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT C H R $ (147):PRINT " ANTIMUNCH" sPRINT " BY

{SPACE}CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN"SPRINT srem 167
110 D N = 8 :SA=780:SX=781:SY= 7 8 2 ;SP=783 :rem 133
120 F$ = "MUNCHKIN":LA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50)+1000:GO
SUB 56500:REM LOAD SHAPES :rem 55
300 GRAPHICS 1:S=AS(0) :rem 244
310 FOR X=15 TO 135 STEP 30 srem 81
320 FOR Y=10 TO 180 STEP 20 srem 77
330 SHAPE S , X ,Y srem 99
340 N E X T :NEXT srem 79
400 PEN 1,0:PEN 2,0:PEN 3,0 srem 91
410 FOR X=15 TO 135 STEP 30 srem 82
420 FOR Y=10 TO 180 STEP 20 srem 78
430 SHAPE S ,X ,Y srem 100
440 NEXT:NEXT srem 80
450 END srem 112

Applications of the PEN statement are not limited to just

erasing shapes, however. Remember the demonstration of the
rising tower graphs? The towers had to be separated to avoid
problems with color squares. By using indirection, the program
could have drawn the towers in overlapping pairs. To see this
illustrated, check that Program 6-10, "TOWER.SHP," is on the
same disk; save it right after Program 6-15 if you have a
Datassette. As always, the bitmapped graphics BASIC exten­
sions must be operating, and SHP.BAS should be in memory
before you start typing.

Program 6-15. TOWER II

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT C H R $ (147)SPRINT " TOWERS II"sPRINT " BY

{SPACE}CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN" s PRINT srem 118
110 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783 srem 133
120 F$="TOWER":LA=PEEK(4 9 )+256*PEEK(50)+1000 sGOSUB
56500:REM LOAD SHAPES srem 107
154
 Chapter 6

300 GRAPHICS 1 sPOKE 53280,0:SETPEN 1,1:S=AS(0)

:rem 82
310 FOR X=20 TO 100 STEP 40 :rem 70
320 READ C,H:SETPEN 2,C :rem 18
330 FOR Y=130 TO H STEP -IsSHAPE S,X,YsNEXT Y,X
srem 137
340 PEN 2,3 srem 11
350 FOR X=30 TO 110 STEP 40 srem 76
360 READ C,H sSETPEN 3,C srem 23
370 FOR Y=150 TO H STEP -IsSHAPE S,X,YsNEXT Y,X
srem 143
380 WAIT 198,15sGET K$ srem 141
390 END srem 115
800 DATA 10,50,5,40,14,30 srem 181
810 DATA 6,90,4,80,8,70 srem 105

Here's another program which makes extensive use of the

PEN statement. The program draws a weather map, complete
with suns and clouds. Indirection is used to create the effect of
flashing thunderbolts and falling rain. Start with SHP.BAS in
memory.

Program 6-16. WEATHER

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147)SPRINT " MICHIGAN LOWER PENINSU

LA" srem 143
105 PRINT " WEATHER MAP DEMONSTRATION"sPRINT " BY
{SPACE}MARK DAVIDS"sPRINT srem 143
110 DN=8sSA=780sSX=781sSY=782sSP=783 srem 133
120 F$="WEATHER"s LA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50)+1000 sGOS
UB 56500sREM LOAD SHAPES srem 234
200 GRAPHICS 1 sSETPEN 3,9sPOKE 53280,0sREM DRAW MI
CHIGAN LOWER PENINSULA srem 64
205 DRAW 25,195,3 TO 35,169 TO 37,151 TO 39,127 TO
35,109 TO 33,87 TO 36,69 srem 238
210 DRAWTO 44,39 TO 46,54 TO 48,54 TO 50,39 TO 61,
34 TO 59,28 TO 64,21 TO 67,17 srem 206
215 DRAWTO 79,23 TO 91,33 TO 99,44 TO 105,50 TO 10
7,57 TO 102,55 TO 106,62 srem 233
220 DRAWTO 108,84 TO 103,101 TO 95,109 TO 88,121 T
O 86,131 TO 90,139 TO 95,138 srem 181
225 DRAWTO 97,134 TO 100,127 TO 106,120 TO 112,116
TO 112,118 TO 119,139 srem 144
230 DRAWTO 121,164 TO 118,166 TO 115,174 TO 107,19
9 TO 65,199 TO 65,195 srem 137
235 DRAWTO 25,195 sDRAW 104,55 TO 105,55 sDRAW 106,5
6 srem 149

155
Chapter 6

240 FILL 44,42 TO 43,54:FILL 110,117 TO 110,139:FI

LL 67,18 TO 66,199 :rem 77
250 DIM X(6),Y(6),T(6):FOR K=1 TO 6 jREAD X(K),Y(K)
:NEXT :rem 250
300 FOR DAY=0 TO 6:MODE 3:SETPEN 1,7:SHAPE AS(5+DA
Y) ,36,7: SHAPE AS (12) .-MODE 1 srem 22
310 FOR P=1 TO 6:C=INT(5*RND(0))+1;T (P )= C :ON C GOS
UB 330,340,350,360,370 :rem 25
320 NEXT:SETPEN 1,12:GOTO 400 rem 164
330 REM CLOUD rem 241
335 SETPEN 1,1:SHAPE AS(0),X(P),Y(P):RETURN:rem 29
340 REM CLOUD AND SUN :rem 187
345 SETPEN 1,12:SETPEN 2,7:SHAPE AS(0),X(P),Y(P):S
HAPE A S (1),X (P ),Y (P ):RETURN :rem 250
350 REM CLOUD AND RAIN :rem 240
355 SETPEN 1,12:SHAPE AS(0),X(P),Y(P):SHAPE A S (2),
X (P ),Y(P):RETURN :rem 94
360 REM CLOUD AND LIGHTNING :rem 107
365 SETPEN 1,0:SETPEN 2,7:SHAPE AS(0),X(P),Y(P):SH
APE AS(3) ,X(P) ,Y(P) .-RETURN :rem 203
370 REM SUNNY :rem 27
375 SETPEN 1,7:SHAPE AS (4), X (P ) ,Y( P) .-RETURN: rem 43
400 FOR T=1 TO 32:FOR Q=1 TO 6 :rem 254
410 IF T(Q)=3 AND T/4=INT(T/4) THEN:PEN 1,3:SHAPE
{SPACE}A S (2),X(Q),Y(Q) :rem 47
420 IF T(Q)=3 AND T/4>INT(T/4) THEN:PEN 1,1:SHAPE
{SPACE}A S (2),X(Q),Y(Q) :rem 47
430 IF T(Q)=4 AND T/5=INT(T/5) THEN:PEN 2,3:SHAPE
{SPACE}AS(3),X(Q),Y(Q) :rem 54
440 IF T(Q)=4 AND T/5>INT(T/5) THEN:PEN 2,2:SHAPE
{SPACE}A S (3),X(Q),Y(Q) :rem 55
450 NEXT:NEXT :rem 81
500 MODE 3:PEN 1,0:SHAPE AS(5+DAY),36,7:SHAPE AS(1
2):MODE 1 :rem 224
510 PEN 1,3:PEN 2,3 :rem 183
520 FOR Q=1 TO 6:FOR T=0 TO 4:SHAPE AS(T),X(Q),Y(Q
):NEXT:NEXT :rem 242
530 NEXT DAY:GOTO 300 :rem 187
800 DATA 60,44,38,81,88,74,55,120,37,169,95,159
rem 39

156
 Program 6-17. WEATHER.SHP 49290 :179,163, 179 ,163,179,163,140
To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language 49296 :179,163 ,255 ,090,000,083,146
Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C. 49302 :083,083, 099 ,115,115,014,147
49308 s001,083, 099 ,099,099,083,108
Starting Address: 49152 49314 :067,091, 067 ,123,083,067,148
Ending Address: 50081 49320 s115,075, 115 ,115,067,083,226
Filename: WEATHER.SHP 49326 :083,075, 067 ,075,067,075,104
49332 :067,012, 009 ,001,099,031,143
49152 :012,054,000,083,059,031,238 49338 :149,031, 004 ,089,002,115,064
49158 5067 ,056,031,067, 058,031,060 49344 :067,123, 067 ,123,067,026,153
49164 5123 ,016,031,075, 083,083,167 49350 5061,083, 083 ,083,099,115,210
49170 5083 ,024,005,002, 115.020.011 49356 :115,004, 013 ,099,099,091,113
49176 5031 ,067,018,031, 067,012,250 49362 :099,091, 099 ,012,099,099,197
49182 5031 ,067,083,083, 083,012,133 49368 s000,049, 115 ,099,107,099,173
49188 s053 ,083,054,031, 107.008.116 49374 :107,099, 006 ,073,099,067,161
49194 5036 ,031,091,018, 031,107,100 49380 :099,099, 099 ,083,083,083,006
49200 511 5 ,115,115,022, 001,083,243 49386 :083,067, 067 ,067,255,064,069
49206 5010 ,031,255,026, 000,026,146 49392 :000,034, 063 ,006,083,010,180
49212 5017 ,147,147,179, 187.147.116 49398 :031,017, 031 ,008,031,067,175
49218 5147 ,147,139,179, 179.179.012 49404 :115,075, 010 ,031,002,013,242
49224 5179 ,139,147,147, 179,147,242 49410 :099,099, 002 ,005,063,002,016
49230 ;147 ,187,179,179, 171,163,080 49416 5083,033, 031 ,083,037,031,050
49236 s255 ,032,000,006, 037,091,249 49422 5010,031, 033 ,031,083,037,239
49242 5099 ,083,067,006, 083,099,015 49428 5031,002, 063 ,002,083,033,234
49248 5083 ,067,006,083, 099,083,005 49434 5031,018, 037 ,031,033,031,207
49254 5067 ,029,107,099, 115,067,074 49440 5115,037, 031 ,008,017,031,015
49260 5004 ,115,099,115, 067,004,000 49446 5067,067, 037 ,031,002,025,011
49266 5115 ,099,115,067, 255,026,023 49452 5091,123, 014 ,029,255,073,117
49272 5000 ,042,021,179, 179,155,184 49458 5000,034, 063 ,002,083,033,009
49278 5179 ,163,179,163, 179,163,128 49464 5031,010, 021 ,031,010,017,176
49470 5031,037, 031 ,115,033,031,084

157
49284 5147 ,147,147,163, 179,163,054
 49476 :004,013, 031 ,004,009,031,160 49662 :083,006,009,031,008,017,152

8SL
49482 :037,031, 022 ,063,002,075,048 49668 :031,107,029,031,018,063,027
49488 :017,031, 075 ,010,031,037,025 49674 :002,083,033,031,018,037,214
49494 :031,008, 031 ,025,031,010,222 49680 :031,033,031,115,037,031,038
49500 :083,021, 031 ,002,005,063,041
Chapter 6

49686 :008,017,031,067,067,037,249
49506 :002,083, 033 ,031,018,037,046 49692 :031,002,025,091,123,014,058
49512 :031,033 ,031 ,115,037,031,126 49698 :029,063,002,083,033,031,019
49518 :008,017 ,031 ,067,067,037,081 49704 :018,031,013,115,008,031,000
49524 :031,002, 025 ,091,123,014,146 49710 :067,029,031,014,031,002,220
49530 :029,255, 070 ,000,022,063,049 49716 :063,006,083,010,031,017,006
49536 :010,083, 033 ,031,083,037,149 49722 :031,008,031,067,115,075,129
49542 :031,004, 033 ,115,018,031,110 49728 5010,031,002,013,099,099,062
49548 :002,037, 063 ,002,083,033,104 49734 :002,005,255,097,000,010,183
49554 :031,083, 037 ,031,010,031,113 49740 5063,010,083,033,031,083,123
49560 :033,031, 083 ,037,031,002,113 49746 5037,031,004,033,115,018,064
49566 :063,002, 083 ,033,031,018,132 49752 5031,002,037,063,002,083,050
49572 :031,013, 115 ,008,031,067,173 49758 5033,031,083,037,031,017,070
49578 :029,031, 014 ,031,002,063,084 49764 s083,083,009,083,037,031,170
49584 :006,083 ,010 ,031,017,031,098 49770 5083,033,031,002,037,063,099
49590 :008,031, 067 ,115,075,010,232 49776 5002,083,033,031,083,037,125
49596 :031,002, 013 ,099,099,002,178 49782 5031,010,031,033,031,083,081
49602 :005,255, 131 ,000,063,002,138 49788 5037,031,002,063,002,083,086
49608 :083,033, 031 ,083,037,031,242 49794 5033,031,014,031,037,031,051
49614 :006,009, 031 ,006,013,031,046
49800 5083,008,115,025,031,010,152
49620 :033,031, 083 ,037,031,008,179
49806 5083,099,004,005,031,115,223
49626 :017,031, 107 ,018,013,063,211 49812 5091,010,005,063,006,083,150
49632 :002,083, 033 ,031,018,031,166
49818 5010,031,017,031,008,031,026
49638 :013,115, 008 ,031,067,029,237
49824 5067,115,075,010,031,002,204
49644 :031,014, 031 ,002,063,002,123
49830 5013,099,099,002,005,255,127
49650 :083,063, 033 ,031,010,031,237
49656 :006,013, 031 ,008,021,031,102 49836 5060,000,034,063,002,083,158
49842 5033,031,018,031,013,115,163
49848 :008,031, 067 ,029,031,018,112 50034 :017,031,006,009,031,083,035
49854 2063,002, 083 ,033,031,014,160 50040 :107,083,083,029,031,083,024
49860 1031,037, 031 ,083,008,115,245 50046 :017,031,012,001,099,021,051
49866 :025,031, 010 ,083,099,004,198 50052 s031,001,083,083,010,005,089
49872 :005,031, 115 ,091,010,005,209 50058 :063,010,083,017,031,115,201
49878 :063,002, 083 ,018,031,008,163 50064 :067,067,115,099,006,005,247
49884 :067,025, 031 ,004,031,018,140 50070 5083,021,031,017,083,067,196
49890 :031,004, 099 ,021,031,010,166 50076 5067,083,099,002,029,255,179
49896 :005,255, 104 ,000,010,063,157
49902 :006,083, 010 ,031,017,031,160
49908 :008,031, 067 ,115,075,010,038 Program 6-18. CHSETA.SHP
49914 :031,002, 013 ,099,099,002,240 To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language
49920 :005,063, 002 ,083,017,031,201 Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C.
49926 2006,009, 031 ,083,107,083,069
49932 2083,029, 031 ,083,017,031,030 Starting Address: 49152
49938 2012,001, 099 ,021,031,001,183 Ending Address: 50447
49944 2083,083, 0 1 0 ,005,063,010,022 Filename: CHSETA.SHP
49950 2083,033, 031 ,083,037,031,072
49956 2004,033, 115 ,018,031,002,239 49152 :058,003,000,063,022,255,145
49962 2037,063, 002 ,083,033,031,035 49158 :013,000,006,083,001,067,176
49968 2083,037, 031 ,010,031,033,017 49164 :017,031,083,021,031,005,200
49974 2031,083, 037 ,031,002,063,045 49170 :099,006,255,018,000,006,146
49980 :002,083, 033 ,031,014,031,254 49176 :009,067,067,067,083,099,160
49986 2037,031, 083 ,008,115,025,109 49182 :099,002,083,067,067,083,175
49992 2031,010, 083 ,099,004,005,048 49188 :099,099,002,021,255,025,025
49998 2031,115, 091 ,010,005,255,073 49194 :000,067,026,031,107,033,050
50004 2076,000, 063 ,002,083,063,115 49200 :031,115,037,031,012,025,043
50010 2033,031, 010 ,031,006,013,214 49206 :063,067,037,031,083,033,112
50016 2031,008, 021 ,031,083,006,020 49212 j 031,191,115,026,031,002,200
50022 2009,031, 008 ,017,031,107,049 49218 :029,255,022,000,002,075,193
Chapter 6

50028 2029,031, 018 ,063,002,083,078 49224 :014,031,067,083,123,008,142

49230 :031,067 115 ,075,014,031,155 49416 :255,007, 000 ,006,083,067,170
49236 :115,123 115 ,037,099,083,144 49422 :083,099, 006 ,255,013,000,214
49242 s010,255 022 ,000,002,083,206 49428 :002,083, 022 ,000,033,031,191
49248 :018,033 031 ,115,012,029,078 49434 :115,012, 029 ,031,022,005,240
Chapter 6

49254 s031,009 067 ,067,083,099,202 49440 :255,024, 00 0 ,006,075,025,161

49260 :006,029 083 ,067,083,099,219 49446 :031,010, 031 ,037,031,008,186
49266 :002,255 031 ,000,014,083,243 49452 :031,123, 017 ,031,014,083,087
49272 :115,115 067 ,115,067,083,170 49458 :021,031, 004 ,009,107,075,041
49278 :067,083 067 ,067,115,075,088 49464 :010,021, 255 ,017,000,002,105
49284 :083,083 099 ,083,107,115,190 49470 :083,018, 031 ,004,001,115,058
49290 :099,099 083 ,083,083,107,180 49476 5025,031, 107 ,075,083,029,162
49296 :115,091 083 ,002,255,011,189 49482 5031,010, 005 ,255,025,000,144
49302 :000,010 009 ,067,067,067,114 49488 5063,002, 083 ,018,031,191,212
49308 :083,099 099 ,006,021,255,207 49494 5010,067, 010 ,017,031,083,048
49314 :017,000 0 1 0 ,083,123,017,156 49500 5008,021, 031 ,010,025,115,046
49320 :031,075 083 ,083,107,115,150 49506 5008,031, 099 ,115,022,029,146
49326 :029,031 075 ,099,083,002,237 49512 5255,021, 000 ,063,002,075,008
49332 :255,019 00 0 ,002,083,083,110 49518 5083,099, 0 1 0 ,031,075,115,011
49338 :083,033 031 ,115,115,091,142 49524 5067,115, 067 ,115,075,083,126
49344 :006,001 099 ,021,031,115,209 49530 5075,016, 031 ,022,037,255,046
49350 :115,010 005 ,255,023,000,094 49536 5020,000, 063 ,002,075,018,050
49356 :017,083 026 ,031,009,115,229 49542 5031,107, 033 ,031,115,008,203
49362 :115,099 008 ,031,067,115,133 49548 5021,031, 083 ,006,009,031,065
49368 :021,099 083 ,067,010,031,015 49554 5029,031, 010 ,255,025,000,240
49374 :099,083 006 ,005,255,015,173 49560 5063,002, 075 ,083,099,010,228
49380 :000,010 075 ,025,031,083,196 49566 5031,017, 031 ,091,099,000,171
49386 :029,031 0 0 2 ,009,083,016,148 49572 5009,115, 008 ,031,009,031,111
49392 :031,022 021 ,255,009,000,066 49578 5018,031, 012 ,099,018,029,121
49398 :002,091 083 ,067,067,083,127 49584 5255,025, 00 0 ,063,002,075,084
49404 :099,006 255 ,008,000,002,110 49590 5017,031, 075 ,010,031,008,098
49410 :017,083 018 ,031,002,021,174 49596 5099,029, 031 ,031,010,031,163
49602 5017,031,004,031,010,099,130 49788 5031,115,004,013,031,006,068
49608 :099,002,005,255,020,000,069 49794 5009,067,008,031,099,115,203
49614 5063,063,006,083,014,025,204 49800 5022,029,255,024,000,022,232
49620 5031,067,012,029,031,091,217 49806 5083,012,031,033,031,010,086
49626 5010,033,115,012,031,022,185 49812 5031,013,031,115,099,006,187
49632 5037,255,029,000,063,002,098 49818 5031,009,031,016,001,099,085
49638 5075,067,005,091,033,031,020 49824 5021,031,022,005,255,028,010
49644 5010,031,037,031,115,115,063 49830 5000,063,002,083,017,031,106
49650 5006,001,083,067,123,075,085 49836 5006,009,031,083,107,083,235
49656 5012,115,002,005,083,083,036 49842 5083,029,031,083,017,031,196
49662 5010,021,255,022,000,063,113 49848 5012,001,099,021,031,001,093
49668 5006,083,083,083,067,083,153 49854 5083,083,010,005,255,024,138
49674 5025,031,008,031,099,115,063 49860 5000,063,002,083,033,031,152
49680 5091,014,031,067,099,099,161 49866 5014,031,037,031,012,031,102
49686 5002,013,255,014,000,063,113 49872 5075,017,031,091,083,075,068
49692 5006,083,083,067,115,001,127 49878 5083,005,099,099,002,005,251
49698 5067,083,067,115,010,029,149 49884 5255,023,000,063,002,075,126
49704 5255,016,000,063,006,083,207 49890 5017,031,075,014,000,031,138
49710 5107,083,075,067,115,001,238 49896 5091,115,008,001,099,029,063
49716 5067,083,067,115,010,029,167 49902 5031,010,031,067,083,002,206
49722 5255,018,000,063,014,083,235 49908 5005,255,026,000,063,002,083
49728 5008,017,031,010,017,031,178 49914 5083,063,033,031,010,031,245
49734 5083,008,021,031,010,02.1,244 49920 5006,013,031,008,021,031,110
49740 5031,002,255,012,000,063,183 49926 5083,006,009,031,008,017,160
49746 5002,075,018,031,009,067,028 49932 5031,107,029,031,018,255,227
49752 5016,031,022,029,255,019,204 49938 5018,000,063,002,083,033,217
49758 5000,063,002,083,010,017,013 49944 5031,018,031,013,115,008,240
49764 5031,012,002,017,031,083,020 49950 5031,067,029,031,014,031,233
49770 5010,021,031,008,021,031,228 49956 5002,255,016,000,063,002,118
49776 5014,255,023,000,063,010,221 49962 5083,033,031,018,031,013,251
Chapter 6

49782 5083,083,001,067,006,009,111 49968 5115,008,031,067,029,031,073

49974 :018,25s, 02 2 ,000,063,002,158 50160 5255,021, 000 ,063,002,075,144
49980 :075,017, 031 ,075,014,031,047 50166 5017,031, 075 ,010,031,037,191
49986 :012,099, 029 ,031,014,031,026 50172 5031,008, 031 ,025,031,010,132
49992 :067,115, 075 ,115,115,010,057 50178 5083,021, 031 ,002,005,255,143
Chapter 6

49998 :013,255, 021 ,000,063,002,176 50184 :021,000, 063 ,063,002,083,240

50004 :083,033, 031 ,083,037,031,126 50190 5033,031, 014 ,031,091,115,073
50010 :017,083, 083 ,009,083,037,146 50196 :091,115, 099 ,008,031,067,175
50016 :031,083, 033 ,031,002,037,057 50202 5067,029, 031 ,018,255,023,193
50022 :2 55,020, 000 ,063,002,083,013 50208 :000,063, 002 ,075,017,031,220
50028 :018,031, 008 ,067,025,031,032 50214 :075,010, 031 ,037,031,123,089
50034 :004,031, 018 ,031,004,099,045 50220 5107,115, 025 ,031,010,083,159
50040 :021,031, 010 ,005,255,015,201 50226 :013,031, 005 ,099,002,255,199
50046 :000,063, 0 0 2 ,075,083,099,192 50232 5025,000, 063 ,002,083,033,006
50052 :010,031, 033 ,031,083,029,093 50238 5031,014, 031 ,037,031,083,033
50058 5031,002, 005 ,255,026,000,201 50244 5008,115, 025 ,031,010,083,084
50064 5063,002, 083 ,033,031,083,183 50250 5099,004, 005 ,031,115,091,163
50070 :037,031, 006 ,033,083,004,088 50256 5010,005, 255 ,021,000,063,178
50076 5013,031, 099 ,010,017,031,101 50262 :006,083, 010 ,031,017,031,008
50082 :037,115, 123 ,067,091,091,174 50268 :008,031, 067 ,115,075,010,142
50088 :002,255, 01 2 ,000,063,002,246 50274 5031,002, 013 ,099,099,002,088
50094 :083,033, 031 ,083,037,031,216 50280 5005,255, 016 ,000,063,010,197
50100 :010,031, 002 ,255,026,000,248 50286 5083,033, 031 ,083,037,031,152
50106 5063,002, 083 ,033,031,010,152 50292 5004,033, 115 ,018,031,002,063
50112 5021,031, 010 ,017,031,037,083 50298 5037,255, 017 ,000,063,002,240
50118 5031,115, 033 ,031,004,013,169 50304 :083,033, 031 ,083,037,031,170
50124 5031,004, 009 ,031,037,031,091 50310 5010,031, 033 ,031,083,037,103
50130 :022,255, 027 ,000,063,002,067 50316 :031,002, 255 ,022,000,063,001
50136 5083,033, 031 ,018,037,031,193 50322 5006,001, 067 ,017,031,083,095
50142 :033,031, 115 ,037,031,008,221 50328 5029,031, 010 ,031,025,031,053
50148 5017,031, 067 , ,067,037,031,222 50334 :083,021, 031 ,000,013,115,165
50154 :002,025, 091,,123,014,029,006 50340 5115,014, 255 ,026,000,063,125
 50346 :002,083,033,031,083,037,183
50352 5031 ,006,009, 031,006,013,016
50358 :031,033,031,083,037,031,172
50364 :008,017,031,107,018,013,126
50370 :255,025,000,063,002,083,110
50376 :067,091,033,031,115,099,124
50382 :091,010,031,075,067,115,083
50388 :037,031,083,067,123,115,156
50394 5115,014,013,255,024,000,127
50400 5063,010,083,017,031,115,031
50406 5067,067,115,099,006,005,077
50412 5083,021,031,017,083,067,026
50418 5067,083,099,002,029,255,009
50424 5018,000,063,002,083,018,176
50430 5033,031,016,031,014,107,230
50436 5008,021,031,091,014,031,200
50442 5002,255,108,161,23£,100,104
Chapter 6

163
Chapter 6

Because the graphics statements may not be positioned

immediately after the keyword THEN, a colon must be placed
between the THEN and the graphics statement. This was nec­
essary in the weather map program. Line 410 is one example.
There's one limitation with the PEN statement: It does not
affect the FILLPEN value. Shapes which contain a fill instruc­
tion may not work properly with indirection.
When you've finished using indirection and you want to
return to normal shape drawing, the values set by the PEN
statement should be restored. Drawing pen indirection is can­
celed whenever the GRAPHICS or MODE statement is
executed.
The PEN statement works only with shape table drawing,
and has no effect on the other graphics statements like DRAW
and FILL.

Mixing Text with Bitmapped Graphics

The normal method of displaying information on the screen is
to use text. Letters, digits, and other symbols are combined to
form words and numbers.
An alternative means of displaying information is to use
graphics. Characteristics like color, size, shape, and position
can all be used to express information, without the viewer
having to know a specific language. Graphics is a method of
communication that should not be overlooked.
You may have noticed that the weather map demonstra­
tion used text along with graphics. The program used letters to
display the day of the week. By themselves, the methods of
text and graphics each have their own advantages. When used
together, they open up an almost endless number of new
possibilities.
To make it easy to mix text with bitmapped graphics,
we've provided a shape file containing definitions for the most
commonly used characters (Program 6-18). The shapes include
letters, digits, and punctuation symbols. Save this file using
the filename CHSETA.SHP.
Also add the following lines to the SHP.BAS file:
56600 SHAPE AS(1)-3,X,Y:IF S$="" THEN RETURN
56610 FOR 1=1 TO LEN(S$):SHAPE A S (ASC(MID$(S$,I ))-
32):NEXT:RETURN

164
 Chapter 6

These revised SHP.BAS lines (and the remainder of SHP.BAS, of

course) must be included in all programs which use text on the
bitmap screen.
You're now ready to use text in a program. Printing text
on the bitmap screen is easy when you follow three simple
steps.
1. Assign the string that you want to print on the screen to the
variable S$.
300 GRAPHICS 2
310 S$="HAPPY BIRTHDAY"

2. Choose the position of the first character in the string, and

assign the coordinates to the variables X and Y.
320 X= 4 :Y=8

3. Finally, call the subroutine at line 56600.

330 GOSUB 56600

This subroutine sequentially draws the shapes that corre­

spond to the characters in the string. If the string contains
characters not in the shape file, or if the writing goes out of
range, the program stops with an error.
Changing the resolution changes the size of the letters.
The following program writes messages in four different
resolutions. In order to type in and run this demonstration,
you need to have the BASIC extensions installed, the
CHSETA.SHP file on the same disk or saved on tape immedi­
ately after Program 6-19, and the revised SHP.BAS in
memory.

Program 6-19. CHDEMOl

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147):PRINT " CHDEMOl":PRINT " BY CR

AIG CHAMBERLAIN" .
‘PRINT :rem 225
110 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783 :rem 133
120 F$="CHSETA":LA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50)+1000:GOSU
B 56500:REM LOAD SHAPES :rem 146
300 GRAPHICS 0:POKE 53280,0 :rem 219
310 S$="MODE ZERO":X=14:Y=10:GOSUB 56600 :rem 17
320 MODE 2 :S$="MODE TWO":X=6:Y=12:GOSUB 56600
:rem 48

165
Chapter 6

330 MODE 4:S$="MODE FOUR":X=2:Y=13:GOSUB 56600

:rem 114
340 MODE 6 sS$="MODE":X=0:GOSUB 56600 :rem 3
350 S$="SIX":Y=20:GOSUB 56600 :rem 113
360 WAIT 198,15:GET K$ :rem 139
370 END :rem 113

The characters are drawn in pen 1. To write text in a dif­

ferent drawing pen, use the PEN statement.
This next program uses multicolor mode to draw the same
message in two different pens. The second message is drawn
one position down and one position to the right to create a
shadowed lettering effect. This example requires the shape file
(CHSETA.SHP) on disk or tape; you also need the revised
SHP.BAS in memory before beginning to type it in.

Program 6-20. CHDEM02

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147)SPRINT " C H D E M 0 2 P R I N T " BY CR

AIG CHAMBERLAIN"SPRINT srem 226
110 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783 srem 133
120 F$="CHSETA"sLA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50)+1000sGOSU
B 56500 sREM LOAD SHAPES srem 146
300 GRAPHICS 3 sPOKE 53280,0sS$ = "COMMODORE 64"sX=30
srem 81
310 FOR Y=30 TO 70 STEP 20 srem 28
320 READ CsSETPEN l,CsGOSUB 56600sNEXT srem 209
330 X=31sPEN 1,2 srem 59
340 FOR Y=31 TO 71 STEP 20 srem 33
350 READ CsSETPEN 2,CsGOSUB 56600sNEXT srem 213
360 WAIT 198,15sGET K$ srem 139
370 END srem 113
800 DATA 2,6,5,10,14,13 srem 85

The character shapes can be used with other shapes in the

same program. When using Shapedit, start by loading the
CHSETA.SHP file into memory. Then add the new shapes to
the file.

Suggested Applications
Redefined (custom) characters. A popular way to draw
shapes is to use redefined characters, but this method has
some drawbacks. The major restriction is that character defi­
nitions must fit within an 8 X 8 grid. To create a shape larger
than 8 X 8 points, several characters must be used. Another
166
 Chapter 6

limitation concerns positioning. A character must be placed at

one of the 40 X 25 positions on the screen.
Bitmapped graphics shapes have many advantages over
shapes drawn by redefined characters. There's no size restric­
tion, so a shape drawn by the SHAPE statement can be any
size. This gives you the freedom to do some interesting things.
For instance, the letters in the character-set shape file were de­
signed for proportional printing. Some letters, such as W, are
wider than other letters, such as I. If you added lowercase let­
ters to the file, true descenders could be supported. This
means that the tails on letters (g, for example) could extend
below the other characters.
Shapes drawn with the SHAPE statement are also more
convenient to use than those created with redefined charac­
ters. The Shapedit program simplifies the task of defining a
shape. Storing shapes in memory is less complicated because
you don't have to reserve memory for a character set. Finally,
an entire shape can be drawn by just one statement.
Sprites. Another type of graphics supported by the VIC-II
chip is sprite graphics. Sprites are used mainly for animation.
A sprite image can be moved to any position on the screen by
just a few POKE statements. This is one application where it's
just not practical to use bitmapped graphics shapes. Moving a
shape requires erasing it and redrawing it at the new position.
Although the plotting done by the SHAPE statement is fast,
it's not fast enough to do this effectively.
Animation, however, isn't restricted just to motion across
the screen. It can also mean "changing in shape." The
demonstration programs showed how the SHAPE statement
can be used to make flowers grow or thunderbolts flash. And
sprites do have several limitations. They have to be defined
within a 24 X 21 grid, they can have only three colors (maxi­
mum), and there can be only eight of them on the screen at
one time. In applications where motion is not required,
bitmapped graphics shapes may be worth consideration.
Another possibility is to combine sprites with bitmapped
graphics. Remember that sprites are completely independent
of anything else displayed on the screen. Using sprites and
bitmapped graphics on the same screen might allow you to do
things which couldn't be done using sprites or bitmapped
graphics alone.

167
Chapter 6

General applications. Shapes have distinguishing

characteristics, like size, color, and position. They can be full
(filled in) or empty (outlined). Their edges can be smooth or
pointed. If you have several shapes, they can be used in
counting exercises. Shapes have hundreds of applications in
educational software. Concepts such as larger/smaller, above/
below, inside/outside, open/closed, rightside up/upside
down, and alike/different can easily be presented.
Games offer many opportunities to use shapes as well.
Board games often use several objects which could be drawn
with bitmapped graphics shapes. Another type of game is the
role-playing adventure game. Graphics statements like DRAW
and FILL could be used to draw detailed background scenes.
The SHAPE statement could then be used to draw the objects
being carried by each player.
Cave dwellers drew pictures on cave walls long before
words were ever written. Pictures and shapes have a power of
communication that should not be ignored. A lot of creative
thought and time was invested in the design and implementa­
tion of the shape table utility. Now it's your turn.

The Technical Side

A bitmap requires 8K of RAM, which is a significant amount
of memory. In order to retain as much free memory for BASIC
as possible, the bitmapped graphics routines were designed to
use the 8K of RAM underneath the Kernal ROM. This area of
memory behaves a little differently from normal RAM because
ROM and RAM locations exist at the same addresses. If a loca­
tion in this area is POKEd, the value will be stored in RAM,
but if the location is PEEKed, the value will come from ROM.
The nature of this memory means that it's not suitable for use
by BASIC. It's ideal, however, for things like bitmaps.
Unfortunately, a few complications may arise when this
area of memory is used. Since the PEEK function cannot be
used to look at RAM locations, there's no way for a program
to examine the memory used by the bitmap. Using sprites is a
little different, because placing the bitmap under the Kernal
requires switching the VIC-II chip from the normal bank 0 to
bank 3. Also, the RAM under the Kernal may be needed by
other utilities, such as disk drive handlers.
As an answer to the first problem, the LOOK function is
available.

168
 Chapter 6

LOOK(X coordinate, Y coordinate)

This function returns the pen value found at the specified
position. For example, if position 5,6 has been plotted with
pen 1, the statement PRINT LOOK(5,6) prints the number 1. If
the position has not been plotted and displays only the back­
ground, the function will return the number 0.
Here's a program that randomly draws a maze. The pro­
gram uses the LOOK function to decide where to draw the
paths. Make sure that the bitmapped graphics extensions are
enabled before typing in the following program.

Program 6-21. MAZE

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 REM MAZE DRAWING DEMONSTRATION :rem 149

110 REM BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN srem 141
200 GRAPHICS 6 sPOKE 53280,0sSETPEN 1,15:DRAW 2,22
{SPACE}TO 2,2 sLFILLTO 36,22 TO 36,2 srem 188
210 DIM D X (3),D Y (3)sFOR K=0 TO 3:READ DX(K),DY(K):
NEXT srem 245
220 T=2:H=17:V=10:X=3:DEF FNRY(Y)=3+INT(RND(1)*V)*
TsY=FNRY(0):DRAW X,Y,0 srem 12
300 FOR K=1 TO H*V-1 srem 252
310 IF LOOK(X+T,Y ) GOTO 370 srem 216
320 IF LOOK(X ,Y+T) GOTO 370 srem 217
330 IF LOOK(X-T,Y) GOTO 370 srem 220
340 IF LOOK(X ,Y-T) GOTO 370 srem 221
350 X=3 + INT(RND(1)*H)*T sY=FNRY(0 ) sIFLOOK(X,Y) GOT
O 350 srem 170
360 GOTO 310 srem 102
370 D=RND(l)*4sIF LOOK(X+DX(D),Y+DY(D))=0 GOTO 370
srem 4
380 DRAW X,YsX=X+DX(D)sY=Y+DY(D)sDRAWTO X,YsNEXTsD
RAW 2,FNRY(0)sDRAW 36,FNRY(0) srem 83
390 WAIT 198,15 sGET K$ sEND srem 159
800 DATA 2,0,0,2,-2,0,0,-2 srem 200

It's important to note that the LOOK function returns only

the pen number of the designated point and ignores the asso­
ciated color. In Program 6-22, even though the barriers are
drawn in different colors, they're all detected by the LOOK
function as points drawn with pen 1. As with Program 6-21,
all you need to do before typing it in and running it is to in­
sure that the BASIC extensions are operating.

169
Chapter 6

Program 6-22. PINBALL

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

10 GRAPHICS 6:POKE 53280,0:SETPEN 1,1 5:DRAW 0,0 TO

39,0 TO 39,24 TO 0,24 TO 0,0 :rem 15
20 FOR K=1 TO 30:X=RND(1)*38+1:Y=RND(1 )*23+l:SETPE
N 1,9*RND(1)+2:DRAW X,Y:NEXT :rem 153
30 MODE 4:DX=1:DY=1:SETPEN 1,1 srem 220
40 X=INT(RND(1)*80):Y=INT(RND(1)* 50): IF LOOK(X ,Y)
{SPACE}GOTO 40 srem 247
50 DRAW X ,Y,0:X=X+DX:Y=Y+DY:DRAW X,Y, 1 srem 77
60 IF LOOK{X ,Y+DY) THEN DY=-DY srem 243
70 IF LOOK(X+DX,Y ) THEN DX=-DX srem 241
80 IF LOOK(X+DX,Y+DY) THEN DX=-DX:DY -DY srem 152
90 GOTO 50 srem 7

In modes 0, 2, 4, and 6, the LOOK function returns only

the values 0 or 1, because these modes only support an eras­
ing pen and one drawing pen. The multicolor modes support
three drawing pens, so in modes 1, 3, 5, and 7, the LOOK
function can return values from 0 to 3. In any mode, the IL­
LEGAL QUANTITY error will occur if the position is out of
range.
Be aware that the LOOK function changes the current pen
position, which can affect line drawing and area filling. For in­
stance, let's say that you plot a point at 3,4 and then look at
position 8,7. If the statement DRAWTO 5,6 were now exe­
cuted, the line would be drawn from the position 8,7, rather
than from the last plotted point at 3,4.
Switching the VIC-II chip to bank 3 affects the sprite
pointers and the available definition blocks. The address of the
sprite pointers can be calculated with the following formula:
Sprite pointer address = Screen memory address + 1016
The screen normally starts at address 1024. Adding 1024
and 1016 gives 2040, the first of the eight sprite pointers.
When the GRAPHICS statement turns on the bitmapped
graphics mode, the screen is moved to start at 50176. The sum
of 50176 plus 1016 is 51192, so locations 51192 through
51199 act as the sprite pointers when bitmapped graphics is
used. (See Chapters 12-16 for more information on sprites.)
Bank 3 does not contain much extra memory for sprite
definition blocks. Blocks 0-15 are available in normal RAM,
and blocks 253 and 254 are available in RAM under the
Kernal (you can POKE blocks 253 and 254 but you cannot
170
 Chapter 6

PEEK them). These are the only blocks available from BASIC
when using the bitmapped graphics routines.
To calculate the beginning address of a definition block in
bank 3, use this formula:
Block address = 49152 + 64 * Block number
For most applications, 18 definition blocks should be suf­
ficient. If you need more, you'll have to relocate the bitmap.
It's also necessary to move the bitmap when the RAM under
the Kernal is needed by another utility. Relocating the bitmap
is as easy as four POKE statements. The difficulty lies in
choosing where you want to relocate the bitmap.
The memory on the Commodore 64 is divided into four
banks of 16K each. A bitmap requires 8K, or half a bank, so it
would seem that there is a total of eight different places in
memory where a bitmap can be placed. Actually, three of
these places are not available, either because they conflict with
character-set images, or they are needed by the system.
Besides the 8K for the bitmap, IK for screen memory
must also be allotted. Screen memory is used to provide color
information in the bitmap mode. Since the VIC-II chip can ac­
cess only one bank at a time, the screen memory must be
placed somewhere in the other half of the bank that contains
the bitmap. Depending on which bank is being used, there
may be from one to eight different places to put the screen
memory.
Bank Address Supports Possible Locations for
Bitmap? Screen Memory
0 0 No
0 8192 Yes 1024, 2048, 3072
1 16384 Yes 24576, 25600, 26624, 27648,
28672, 29696, 30720, 31744
1 24576 Yes 16384, 17408, 18432, 19456,
20480, 21504, 22528, 23552
2 32768 No
2 40960 Yes 32768, 33792, 34816, 35840
3 49152 No
3 57344 Yes 49152, 50176
In bank 3, the bitmap may be placed only in the second
half of the bank, starting at location 57344. The screen can be
placed either at address 49152 or at address 50176. The de­
fault arrangement of the bitmapped graphics routines is to put

171
Chapter 6

the bitmap at 57344 and screen memory at 50176. As dis­

cussed earlier, this arrangement allows only 18 sprite defi­
nition blocks, but it does let you use the full 38K of BASIC
free memory.
Bank 2 supports a bitmap only in the second half of the
bank, at location 40960, which is under the BASIC ROM.
There are four possible places to put the screen memory. All
four are in the area of memory used by BASIC, so using bank
2 means that the amount of free memory will be reduced. The
maximum amount of free memory can be obtained by placing
screen memory at address 35840, which allows 33K of BASIC
free memory. Unfortunately, this arrangement allows only
three sprite definition blocks, blocks 253-255. By moving
screen memory lower, to 32768, you can also use blocks
16-63.
There are no restrictions when using bank 1 for
bitmapped graphics. Either half of the bank can support a
bitmap, and a full eight positions are available for placing
screen memory. The only problem with using this bank is that
it uses a lot of BASIC free memory. A maximum of 2 IK free
can be obtained by starting the bitmap at location 24576 and
screen memory at address 23552. Sprite definition blocks
0-111 can be used in this configuration, but it further reduces
the amount of free memory available for BASIC.
Since it limits BASIC free memory to only 6K, bank 0
should be used only as a last resort. Screen memory should be
placed at location 1024, which is where it normally resides in
the text mode. The other two places are right where the
BASIC program is stored. Another problem with using bank 0
is that there's hardly any room for sprite definition blocks. To
make bank 0 a little more useful, move the start of BASIC
memory up to 16384 so that it comes after the bitmap. This al­
lows 24K free. Enter the following line in the immediate mode
to move the bottom of BASIC memory up to 16384.
POKE 44,64:POKE 64*256,0:NEW
This line should be entered immediately after you turn the
computer on, but before you load any programs.
Once you've chosen the new locations for the bitmap and
the screen memory (keeping in mind the fact that they must
be in the same bank), you're all set to begin the relocation.
Four POKE statements are all that's required. The first value to
POKE specifies which bank is being used.
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 Chapter 6

POKE 52474,3—« (where n is the bank number, 0-3)

The next POKE selects a mask value for ROM/RAM
flipping.
POKE 52475,253 (for bank 3)
or
POKE 52475,254 (for bank 2)
or
POKE 52475,255 (for bank 1 or 0)
The location of the bitmap is determined by the third
POKE value.
POKE 52476,address of bitmap divided by 256
The last POKE specifies the location of screen memory.
POKE 52477,ad dr ess of screen memory divided by 256
Let's take a look at an example. Assume that you want to
relocate the bitmap to bank 2. The bitmap will start at location
40960 and screen memory at address 35840. Here are the four
POKE statements that would be executed.
POKE 52474,3-2 or POKE 52474,1
POKE 52475,254 POKE 52475,254
POKE 52476,40960/256 POKE 52476,160
POKE 52477,35840/256 POKE 52477,140
Be sure that these POKE statements are executed after the
BMG.OBJ file has been loaded by the BMGLOADER program.
The preceding POKE statements relocate the bitmap and
screen memory, but they do not inform BASIC of the change.
To protect your program and to make sure that it runs cor­
rectly, it's a good idea to lower the top of free memory. Deter­
mine the lowest address used by the graphics (whether it's the
screen memory location or the bitmap), and use that value in
the following line.
POKE 56,address divided by 256:CLR
If you're relocating to bank 2 and the lowest address used
for graphics is that of the screen memory at location 35840,
the line would look like this:
POKE 56,140:CLR
It's not necessary to lower the top of memory when
you're using bank 0 and you've moved the bottom of BASIC
memory up.
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Chapter 6

NMI interrupts don't work reliably when using a bitmap

in bank 3. Since the modem uses NMI interrupts, the bitmap
must be relocated to a bank other than 3 if a program is to re­
ceive characters from the modem while it's drawing
bitmapped graphics.
One last item having to do with relocation is a revised
formula for calculating the address of a sprite definition block.
The formula has been updated to work for all banks.
Block address = Bank address + 64 * Block number
Bank Address
0 0
1 16384
2 32768
3 49152
The bitmapped graphics routines use memory from loca­
tion 51200 to 53247. They also share several zero page loca­
tions with BASIC, but do not use locations 2 or 251-254.
These bitmapped graphics extensions to BASIC may not
work if other extensions have been installed. The bitmapped
graphics routines are accessible by BASIC statements for
convenience, but if you want, you can call the routines directly
by using POKE and SYS statements. Instead of running the
BMGLOADER program, enter the following lines to load the
graphics routines.
LOAD "BMG.OBJ',8,1 (disk)
NEW
or
LOAD "BMG.OBJ",l,l (tape)
NEW
Include this next line at the beginning of every program
which uses bitmapped graphics.
SA= 780:SX= 781:SY= 782:SP= 783:POKE SP,0
You're now set to use bitmapped graphics. The following
is a list of all the graphics statements and their equivalents
using POKE and SYS.

174
 Chapter 6

P O K E and SYS Equivalents

GRAPHICS N S YS 51369 Clear screen
P O K E S A ,N Set mode number
S YS 51200 T u rn on b itm ap p ed
g rap h ics
DRAW X,Y,P P O K E S A ,P S et p en n u m b er
POKE SX,XAND255 X co o rd in ate low b y te
P O K E S P ,-(X > = 256) X co o rd in ate h ig h b y te
P O K E SY,Y Y co o rd in ate
S YS 51464 P lot p o in t
IF PEEK(SP)AND1 THEN Out of range error
SETPEN A,B POKE 52488+A,B Set p en colo r
CLS S YS 51369 C lear screen (black)
CLS C P O K E S A ,C S et b ack g ro u n d color
S YS 51371 C lear w ith colo r
MODE N ■POKE SA>N.V:v\i;:'r&:|' Set mode number
S YS 51280 C h an g e m od e
TEXT SYS 51436 S w itch to text m od e
DRAWTO X,Y P O K E S A ,0 S et for lin e d raw
POKE SX,XAND255 X co o rd in ate low b y te
POKE SP,-(X>=256) X co o rd in ate h ig h b y te
Y co o rd in ate
SYS 51831 Perform draw/fill
IF PEEK(SP)AND1 THEN R an g e erro r
FILLTO X,Y,F POKE SA,3 S et for fu ll fill
P O K E S X ,X A N D 255 X co o rd in ate low b y te
P O K E S P ,- ( X > = 2 5 6 ) X coordinate high byte
POKE SY,Y
P O K E 52492,0 If F = 0 (fill o v e r
b ack grou n d )
:or :
POKE 52492,255 If F = 1 in m od es 0, 2, 4, 6
or
P O K E 52492,85 If F = 1 in m od es 1, 3, 5, 7
or
P O K E 52492,170 If F = 2
or
P O K E 52492,255 If F = 3
S YS 51831 P erfo rm d r a w /f ill
IF P E E K (S P )A N D 1 T H E N R an g e erro r
R F IL L T O X ,Y ,F P O K E SA ,1 S et for rig h t fill
P O K E S X ,X A N D 255 X co o rd in ate low b y te
P O K E S P ,- ( X > = 2 5 6 ) X co o rd in ate h ig h b y te
P O K E SY,Y Y co o rd in ate
P O K E 52492,0 If F = 0 (fill o v e r
b ack grou n d )

175
Chapter 6

or
P O K E 52492,255 If F = 1 in m o d es 0, 2, 4, 6
or
P O K E 52492,85 If F = 1 in m o d es 1, 3, 5, 7
or
P O K E 52492,170 If F - 2
or
P O K E 52492,255 If F - 3
S Y S 51831 P erfo rm d r a w /f ill
IF P E E K (S P )A N D 1 T H E N R an g e erro r
L FIL L T O X ,Y,F P O K E S A ,2 S et fo r left fill
P O K E S X ,X A N D 255 X co o rd in ate low b y te
P O K E S P ,- ( X > = 2 5 6 ) X co o rd in ate h ig h b y te
P O K E S Y ,Y Y co o rd in ate
P O K E 52492,0 If F = 0 (fill o v e r
b ack grou n d )
or
P O K E 52492,255 If F = 1 in m o d es 0, 2, 4, 6
or
P O K E 52492,85 If F = 1 in m o d es 1, 3, 5, 7
or
P O K E 52492,170 If F = 2
or
P O K E 52492,255 If F = 3
S Y S 51831 P erfo rm d r a w /f ill
IF P E E K (S P )A N D 1 T H E N R an g e e rro r
S H A P E A ,X ,X R PO K E
52493, A -2 5 6 * IN T (A /2 5 6 ) S h ap e ad d ress low b y te
P O K E 52494,A /2 5 6 S h ap e ad d ress h ig h b y te
P O K E 52495,X A N D 255 X co o rd in ate low b y te
P O K E 52496,~ ( X > = 2 5 6 ) X co o rd in ate h ig h b y te
P O K E 52497,Y Y co o rd in ate
P O K E S A ,R R o tatio n v a lu e
S Y S 52166 D raw sh ap e
IF P E E K (S P )A N D 1 T H E N R an g e e rro r
P E N A ,B P O K E 52501 + A ,B S et p en in d irectio n
L O O K (X ,Y ) P O K E S X ,X A N D 255 X co o rd in ate low b y te
P O K E S P ,- ( S X > —256) X co o rd in ate h ig h b y te
P O K E S Y ,Y Y co o rd in ate
S Y S 51462 L ook at p o sitio n
IF P E E K (S P )A N D 1 T H E N R an g e e rro r
o th e rw ise
P en n u m b e r = P E E K (S A )

176
 Chapter 6

All the POKE statements listed for each graphics state­

ment are required, and none should be omitted. For example,
even though the pen number is optional in the DRAW state­
ment, it must be specified by POKE SA,pen number when
using the equivalent POKE and SYS statements.
The only exceptions to this rule have to do with the
SHAPE statement. The X and Y coordinates do not have to be
set. If you don't POKE the locations for the coordinates, the
shape will be drawn starting at the end of the previous shape.
Also, if the shape address has been set previously and you
want to draw the same shape again, the address does not have
to be set a second time.
Some interesting applications are possible if you eliminate
the SYS 51369 in the code equivalent to the GRAPHICS state­
ment. Not performing this SYS call means that the screen will
not be cleared. This allows you to switch from bitmap mode to
text and back to bitmap without losing the bitmap picture. By
using relocation, together with the code equivalent to graphics
statements, you can draw on two different bitmaps and flip
between them. Program 6-23 shows how. (Make sure that the
bitmapped graphics BASIC extensions are enabled before typ­
ing in this next program.)

Program 6-23. MODERNART

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.
100 GOSUB 610 sGRAPHICS 4:POKE 53280,0:SA=780:REM F
IRST SCREEN :rem 62
110 SETPEN 1,5sLFILL 0,40 TO 40,0 :rem 195
120 SETPEN 1,4s DRAW 0,45 TO 60,0sLFILL 0,49 TO 20,
49 TO 79,10 TO 79,0 srem 168
130 SETPEN 1,8sRFILL 79,20 TO 50,49 srem 74
200 GOSUB 620 sREM POINT TO SECONDSCREEN BUT DO NO
T DISPLAY srem 246
210 SYS 51369sREM CLEAR SECOND SCREEN srem 155
220 SETPEN 1,6sLFILL 0,0 TO 10,0 TO 20,49sSETPEN 1
,7sDRAW 40,0 TO 30,49 srem 145
230 SETPEN 1,7s DRAW 40,0 TO 30,49sDRAWTO 40,49sLFI
LLTO 50,0 srem 216
240 SETPEN 1,2s RFILL 79,0 TO 60,0 TO 70,49srem 123
250 GOSUB 600 sREM WAIT FOR KEYPRESS srem 93
260 POKE SA,4s SYS 51200 sREM NOW DISPLAY SECOND SCR
EEN srem 144
270 GOSUB 600 srem 175
300 GOSUB 610sREM FIRST SCREEN srem 16
310 POKE SA,4 sSYS 51200sGOSUB 600 srem 56

177
Chapter 6

320 GOSUB 620:REM SECOND SCREEN :rem 71

330 POKE SA,4:SYS 51200:GOSUB 600 :rem 58
340 K=FRE(0):GOTO 300 :rem 131
600 WAIT 198,15:GET K$:RETURN :rem 162
610 POKE 52474,0:POKE 52475,253:POKE 52476,224:POK
E 52477,196:RETURN :rem 235
620 POKE 52474,2:POKE 52475,255:POKE 52476,96:POKE
52477,92:RETURN :rem 146

Stop this program only when it's displaying the screen

with the green, purple, and orange colors, or the bitmap will
remain in lower memory.
When using two or more bitmap screens, only one of the
screens can be in multicolor mode. Modes 1, 3, 5, and 7 use
color memory starting at location 55296. This memory cannot
be shared by different screens. Since this is also used by the
text mode, you should not switch from text mode to a multi­
color mode without first clearing the screen. Do this only with
mode 0, 2, 4, or 6.
When using the POKE statement equivalent to SETPEN,
the value for A must be in the range 1-3. The value for A in
the POKE statement equivalent to PEN must be in the range
0-3.
When using the bitmapped graphics routines without add­
ing statements to BASIC, the screen will not automatically re­
vert back to the text mode when the READY, prompt is
printed or an error occurs.
E X T R A C T and MERGE
These last two programs are convenient utilities you can use to
pull apart and put together various shape files. Both are easy
to use and fairly self-explanatory. If you're using tape, make
sure that the DN = 8 is changed to DN = 1 in line 110 of both
programs.
"EXTRACT,” Program 6-24, is used to extract a group of
shapes from a shape file. When you run the program, it asks
you for the name of the file from which the shapes will be ex­
tracted. Do not include the .SHP extension as part of the
filename. The program loads the file and tells you how many
shapes the file contains. You can then specify which shapes
are to be extracted by entering the numbers for the first and
last shapes. Finally, the program requests a filename for saving
the extracted shapes. All the shapes in the specified range will

178
 Chapter 6

be saved. The original shape file, however, retains all the

shapes. They are only extracted.

Program 6-24. EXTRACT

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147)SPRINT " SHAPE FILE EXTRACTION

{SPACE}UTILITY" srem 221
105 PRINT " BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN"sPRINT srem 69
110 DN=8sSA=780sSX=781sSY=782sSP=783 srem 133
120 DEF FNH(N)=INT(N/256)sDEF FNL(N)=N-256*FNH(N)s
LA=PEEK(4 9 )+256*PEEK(50)+1000 srem 146
300 F$="" sINPUT " LOAD FILENAME";F$sIF F$="" OR LE
N(F$)>12 GOTO 300 srem 238
310 PRINTsGOSUB 56500sPRINT " LOADED SHAPES 0 TO"
{SPACE}NSsPRINT srem 142
400 FS=-1sINPUT " NUMBER OF FIRSTSHAPE";FSsIF FS<
0 OR FS>NS GOTO 400 srem 181
410 LS=-1sINPUT " NUMBER OF LAST{2 SPACES}SHAPE"?L
SsIF LS<FS OR LS>NS GOTO 410 srem 228
420 PRINT srem 35
500 F$=""sINPUT " SAVE FILENAME";F$sIF F$="" OR LE
N (F$)>12 GOTO 500 srem 1
510 POKE SA,1 sPOKE SX.DNsPOKE SY,0sSYS 65466sF$=F$
+ " .SHP"sGOSUB 59000 srem 200
520 A=AS(FS)-3 sPOKE A,LS-FSsPOKE SA,251sPOKE 251,F
NL(A)SPOKE 252,FNH(A ) srem 42
530 B=AS(LS)sB=B+PEEK(B-2)+256*PEEK(B-l)sPOKE SX,F
NL(B)sPOKE SY,FNH(B ) srem 67
540 PRINTsSYS 65496sIF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 59100
srem 139
550 PRINT " SAVED" B-A "BYTES"sEND srem 106
56500 POKE SA,1sPOKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,0sSYS 65466sF$=
F$+".SHP"sGOSUB 59000 srem 50
56510 POKE SA,0 sPOKE SX,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE SY
,INT(LA/256) srem 76
56520 SYS 65493sIF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 59100 srem 42
56530 NS=PEEK(LA)sDIM A S (NS)sLA=LA+1 srem 107
56540 FOR K=0 TO NSsAS(K)=LA+2sLA=LA+2+PEEK(LA)+25
6*PEEK(LA+1)sNEXTsRETURN srem 120
59000 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$)sPOKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K)
)5NEXT srem 88
59010 POKE SA,LEN(F$)sPOKE SX,73sPOKE SY,2sSYS 654
69sRETURN srem 6
59100 P=PEEK(SA)sPRINT " ERRORS ";sIF P=4 THEN PRI
NT "FILE NOT FOUND"sEND srem 200
59110 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT"sEND
srem 36
59120 PRINT STsEND srem 70

179
Chapter 6

“MERGE/' Program 6-25, is used to combine shape files.

You can load a shape file and append other shape files to cre­
ate one larger file. The program asks for a filename, loads the
file, and reports the number of shapes loaded. It then requests
the name of the file to be appended. The shapes from that file
will be placed after the shapes in the first file. This can be
done several times to merge several files together. When you
don't want to append any more files, press the RETURN key
in response to the filename prompt. The program asks for a
filename to save the file just created.
By loading a file and appending nothing, the MERGE pro­
gram can be used to copy a shape file from one tape to an­
other tape, or one disk to another disk.

Program 6-25. MERGE

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147):PRINT " SHAPE FILE MERGE UTILI

TY" srem 76
105 PRINT " BY CRAIG CH A M B E R L A I N P R I N T :rem 69
110 DN=8 sSA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783:BA=PEEK(49)+2
56*PEEK(50)+1000 :rem 27
300 F$="":INPUT " LOAD FILENAME";F$sIF LEN(F$)>12
{SPACE}GOTO 300 srem 98
310 IF F$="" THEN END srem 20
320 LA=BAsGOSUB 630sNA=PEEK(BA)sPRINT " LOADED SHA
PES 0 TO" NA srem 14
400 BB=PEEK(SX)+2 56*PEEK(SY)-1sPRINT srem 175
410 F$=""sINPUT " APPEND FILENAME"?F$sIF LEN(F$)>1
2 GOTO 410 srem 254
420 IF F$="" THEN PRINTsGOTO 500 srem 212
430 LA=BBsGOSUB 630sNB=PEEK(BB)SPRINT " APPENDED S
HAPES" NA+1 "TO" NA+NB+1 srem 193
440 POKE BB,255sNA=NA+NB+lsIF NA<256 GOTO 400
srem 189
450 PRINTsPRINT " ERRORS TOO MANY SHAPES"SEND
srem 241
500 F$=,,MsINPUT " SAVE FILENAME" ;F$ sIF F$ = "" OR LE
N(F$)>12 GOTO 500 srem 1
510 GOSUB 600 sPOKE SA,251sPOKE 251,BA-256*INT(BA/2
56)sPOKE 252,INT(BA/256) srem 85
520 POKE BA,NAsBB=BB+lsPOKE SX,BB-256*INT(BB/256)s
POKE SY,INT(BB/256) srem 240
530 SYS 65496 sIF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 700 srem 91
540 PRINT " SAVED" BB-BA "BYTES"sEND srem 237
600 PRINTsPOKE SA,1 sPOKE SX.DNsPOKE SY,0$SYS 65466
sF$=F$+".SHP" srem 215

180
 Chapter 6

610 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$):POKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K))s

NEXT :rem 241
620 POKE SA,LEN(F$)sPOKE SX,73sPOKE SY,2:SYS 65469
sRETURN :rem 159
630 GOSUB 600sPOKE SA,0:POKE SX,LA-256*INT(LA/256)
sPOKE SY,INT(LA/256) srem 52
640 SYS 65493 sIF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 700 srem 90
650 RETURN srem 123
700 P=PEEK(SA)SPRINT " ERRORS ";sIF P=4 THEN PRINT
"FILE NOT FOUND"sEND srem 96
710 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT"sEND
srem 188
720 PRINT STsEND srem 222

BMG Statement Index

Bitmapped Graphics Utility

Statements
CLS 111
DRAW 106, 109
DRAWTO 114
FILL 115-16
GRAPHICS 106, 107
LFILL 117
MODE 112
PEN 153-54, 164
RFILL 117
SETPEN 110
SHAPE 123, 149
TEXT 112

Function
LOOK 168-70

Command
KILL 99

181
Part 3
Sidplayer
Chapter 7

Introduction to Music and

the Sidplayer

Of all the special chips in the Commodore 64, none is more

devoted to one specific purpose than the SID chip. This chip,
more formally known as the Sound Interface Device, is solely
responsible for producing music and sound effects. It has
many features for controlling sound, and has been described
as a complete synthesizer on a chip. The only problem is that
the SID chip is very complicated. As a result, it's not fully
understood by most people, and often not fully used.
Enter "Sidplayer,” a music playing and editing utility for
the Commodore 64. This music system is designed to make it
easy to use the SID chip so that you can realize its full poten­
tial. Using Sidplayer, you can make your Commodore 64 pro­
duce music of extremely high quality.
To fully appreciate the capabilities of Sidplayer, it's first
necessary to have an understanding of how electronic music
works.

Electronic Music
When your ear hears a sound, it is actually detecting vibra­
tions. The rate of vibration is called the frequency and deter­
mines the pitch of a sound. In a musical instrument, a metal
string, reed, stretched membrane, or air in a tube is what
vibrates. The player usually has a method for changing the
pitch.
But sounds are not so simple. There are many different
kinds of vibrations. When viewed with an oscilloscope, vibra­
tions have another characteristic, called waveform. Square, tri­
angle, and sawtooth are common waveforms. The waveform
helps distinguish the sound produced by one instrument, such
as a flute, from the sound produced by another instrument,
such as a violin.
There's just one more essential characteristic remaining—
volume. As a string is plucked or air is blown, the volume
changes over a short period of time. This pattern of changing
volume levels is called an envelope, and is usually divided into
four parts called the attack, decay, sustain, and release. In the

185
Chapter 7

first three parts, the volume rises to a peak level and then falls
to a sustain level. When the note is released, the volume fades
away to silence.
The frequency, waveform, and envelope are all essential
parts of a note. A sequence of notes creates music. Electronic
music is merely a method of producing these qualities of
sound by electronic means. A device which does this is called
a synthesizer. Theoretically, it's possible for a synthesizer to
imitate any musical instrument or to produce sounds never
heard before.

The Sidplayer
The SID chip contains three oscillators. Each oscillator acts as
one "voice" and can produce a tone in a range of eight oc­
taves, using one of four basic waveforms. The tone is passed
through an envelope generator which regulates the volume of
that voice. All three voices are then combined into one audio
signal, which is controlled by the master volume and sent to
the television or monitor speaker.

Figure 7-1. Producing Electronic Sounds

Voice 1 Voice 2 Voice 3

186
 Chapter 7

Figure 7-1 is a simplified description of the actual design

of the SID chip, but it does serve our purposes for the mo­
ment. Advanced features not mentioned include a filter and
options for synchronization and ring modulation.
Sidplayer fully supports all of the features built into the
SID chip. As many as three voices can be played at the same
time, each with its own pitch, waveform, and envelope. Sid­
player also supports the filter and all of the related filter con­
trols, plus the synchronization and ring-modulation options.
To further extend the power of the SID chip, there are
additional features provided by software control, such as vi­
brato, portamento, transposing, automatic filtering, and much
more.
The most important thing, however, is not that Sidplayer
has all these features, but that it makes them so easy to use.
The music system includes a carefully designed editing pro­
gram which lets you edit all three voices. Notes can be en­
tered from keyboard or by joystick and are played as they are
entered for immediate feedback. Special commands are avail­
able to select things like waveform and envelope settings.
Finally, all music created with Sidplayer can be merged
with your own BASIC programs. The music will even play
while the program is running. This opens up many possibil­
ities, including animated screen displays that change in time
with the music.
Some demonstration songs have been provided so that
you can hear just what Sidplayer can do. First, however, you'll
need to enter two programs. Disk users should enter and save
Program 7-1; tape users, Program 7-2. Use the filename
PLAYER.
Program 7-3 is a machine language listing that requires
the “Machine Language Editor: MLX" program found in
Appendix C (this is the same program used to enter
“BMG.OBJ" in Chapter 5). Note the starting and ending ad­
dresses listed before the program listing. Use these as your re­
sponses to MLX's prompts. Program 7-3 should be saved
using the filename SID.OBJ. If you're using tape, be sure to
save the file on the same tape, right after Program 7-2, and
note the number on the tape counter where SID.OBJ begins.
Tape users who use an MLX program from another COM­
PUTE! publication must be sure to change line 763 to match

187
Chapter 7

the listing in this book. (Tape users who have a copy of MLX
which does not have a line 763 must use the version of MLX
from this book.)

Program 7-1. PLAYER (Disk)

,
For error-free program entry be sure to use "The Automatic ProofreaderA ppendix D.
100 PRINT CHR$(147):PRINT " SIDPLAYER"sPRINT " BY
{SPACE}CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN":PRINT :rem 173
110 PRINT " TUNING INSTRUMENTS..."sPRINT srem 245
120 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783:POKE SA, 1 sPOK
E SX,DN:POKE SY,1:SYS 65466 :rem 104
130 F$="SID.OBJ":GOSUB 600:POKE SA,0sSYS 65493:IF
{SPACE}PEEK(SP)ANDl GOTO 710 :rem 12
140 SS=49152:HK=49435:PL=49458 sDP=49629:LA=PEEK(49
)+256*PEEK(50)+100:DR=LA :rem 212
150 FOR K=LA TO LA+90:READ P ;POKE K ,P $NEXTsLA=LA+9
1 :HI=INT(LA/256):LO=LA-256*HI :rem 140
160 GOTO 510 :rem 102
300 K=FRE(0):F$="":INPUT " YOUR R E Q U E S T F $ s I F LEN
(F$ )>12 GOTO 300 :rem 153
310 IF F$=”” GOTO 500 :rem 220
320 PRINT:POKE SA,l:POKE SX,DN:POKE SY,0:SYS 65466
sF$=F$+".MUS"sGOSUB 600 :rem 48
330 POKE SA,0:POKE SX,LO:POKE SY,HI:SYS 65493 sIF P
EEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 700 :rem 92
400 SYS HKSPOKE SX,LOsPOKE SY,His SYS PLsK=PEEK(SX)
+256*PEEK(SY)sF$=” " srem 196
410 P=PEEK(K )sK=K+1sIF P AND P<>13 THEN F$=F$+CHR$
(P)sGOTO 410 srem 123
420 PRINT F$ sIF P THEN F$ = " "sGOTO 410 srem 200
430 WAIT 56320,16sPOKE 198,0sPOKE SS,7 srem 56
440 IF PEEK(198) THEN POKE 198,0sPOKE SS,0 srem 6
450 IF PEEK(SS)AND7 GOTO 440 srem 31
460 POKE 54276,0 sPOKE 54283,0 sPOKE 54290,0 sSYS DPs
GOTO 300 srem 148
500 PRINT CHR$(147)SPRINT " SIDPLAYER"sPRINT " BY
{SPACEjCRAIG CHAMBERLAIN"SPRINT srem 177
510 FOR K=1 TO 4 sPOKE 580+K,ASC(MID$(".MUS",K ) )sNE
XT srem 131
520 OPEN 1,8,0,"$"sGET #1,S$,S$sPRINT " "?sTB=lsK=
0 srem 120
530 SYS DRs TB=TB+13 sPRINT TAB(TB); :IF TB=40 THEN T
B=1SPRINT " "; srem 152
540 IF ST=0 THEN K=K+1sGOTO 530 srem 165
550 PRINTS CLOSE Is SYS 65484 sIF K=0 THEN PRINTsPRIN
T " NO MUSIC FILES ON DISK" srem 237
560 PRINTsGOTO 300 srem 46
600 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$)sPOKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K ))s
NEXT srem 240
188
 Chapter 7

610 POKE SA,LEN(F$):POKE SX,73:POKE SY,2:SYS 65469

:RETURN srem 158
700 IF PEEK(SA)=4 THEN PRINT " I DON'T KNOW THAT S
ONG"SPRINT:GOTO 300 srem 186
710 P=PEEK(SA)SPRINT " ERROR: ";sIF P=4 THEN PRINT
"FILE NOT FOUND"sEND srem 97
720 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT"sEND
srem 189
730 PRINT STsEND srem 223
800 DATA 162,1,32,198,255,32,207,255,32,207,255,32
,207,255,133,251,32,207,255 srem 206
801 DATA 133,252,32,207,255,164,144,208,62,201,34,
208,245,160,0,32,207,255,201 srem 238
802 DATA 34,240,6,153,73,2,200,208,243,132,253,32,
207,255,168,208,250,164,253 srem 200
803 DATA 192,5,144,200,162,3,185,72,2,221,69,2,208
,190,136,202,16,244,132,253 srem 195
804 DATA 160,0,185,73,2,32,210,255,200,196,253,208
,245,96 srem 247

Program 7-2. PLAYER (Tape)

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.
100 PRINT CHR$(147)SPRINT " SIDPLAYER"sPRINT " BY
{SPACE}CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN"SPRINT srem 173
110 PRINT " TUNING I N S T R U M E N T S P R I N T srem 245
120 DN=1:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783:POKE SA,l:POK
E SX,DNsPOKE SY,1:SYS 65466 srem 97
130 F$="SID.OBJ"sGOSUB 600:POKE SA,0:SYS 65493:IF
{SPACE}PEEK(SP)ANDl GOTO 700 srem 11
140 SS=49152sHK=49435:PL=49458:DP=49629 srem 202
150 LA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50)+100:HI=INT(LA/256)sLO
=LA-256*HI srem 141
300 K=FRE(0):F$="":INPUT " YOUR REQUEST";F$:IF LEN
(F $ )>12 GOTO 300 srem 153
310 IF F$="" THEN PRINTsON F+l GOTO 300,400
srem 207
320 PRINT:F=1sPOKE SA,1sPOKE SX,DN:POKE SY,0:SYS 6
5466:F$=F$+".MUS"sGOSUB 600 srem 30
330 POKE SA,0s POKE SX,LO:POKE SY,HI:SYS 65493sIF P
EEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 700 srem 92
400 SYS HKsPOKE SX,LOsPOKE SY,HI:SYS PLsK=PEEK(SX)
+256*PEEK(SY)sF$=" " srem 196
410 P=PEEK(K)sK=K+lsIF P AND P<>13 THEN F$=F$+CHR$
(P)sGOTO 410 srem 123
420 PRINT F $ :IF P THEN F$=" "sGOTO 410 srem 200
430 WAIT 56320,16sPOKE 198,0:POKE SS,7 srem 56
440 IF PEEK(198) THEN POKE 198,0sPOKE SS,0 srem 6
450 IF PEEK(S S )AND7 GOTO 440 srem 31

189
Chapter 7

460 POKE 54276,0:POKE54283,0:POKE 54290,0:SYS DP:

GOTO 300 :rem 148
600 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$):POKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K )):
NEXT :rem 240
610 POKE SA,LEN(F $ ):POKE SX,73:POKE SY,2:SYS 65469
:RETURN :rem 158
700 PRINT " ERROR"ST:END :rem 170

Let the Music Play

You may want to enter any or all of the three demonstration
songs which follow Program 7-3. The first, Program 7-4, is
“Bach's Two-Part Invention in A Minor.'' This is the theme
music used by Commodore in their television ads. Save the
file using the filename COMMODORE.MUS. The .MUS exten­
sion is used to identify all music files. Use the starting and
ending addresses noted before this listing, as well as the next
two programs, as your responses to MLX's queries.
Program 7-5 is the ''March of the Wooden Soldiers." Save
this file with the filename WSOLDIER.MUS. The final
demonstration, Program 7-6, is an original composition written
using the Sidplayer Editor. The filename for this file is
ETAL.MUS.
When you run "PLAYER" (whether tape or disk), it dis­
plays the message TUNING INSTRUMENTS while it initial­
izes and loads the SID.OBJ file. If you're using disk, the
program also lists a directory of all music files on the disk in
three columns. In response to the prompt YOUR REQUEST?,
you should type the name of the song you want to play. Do
not include the .MUS extension. The song loads, the full title
and credit information print, and the song starts playing. It
will go something like this:
YOUR REQUEST? COMMODORE
TWO PART INVENTION #13
J.S. BACH
COURTESY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN
When the song is finished, you'll be prompted for another
selection. You can enter another song name to load and play
another tune.
If you're using disk and the requested file is not on the
disk in the drive, PLAYER tells you that it doesn't know that
song, and asks for a new selection.

190
 Chapter 7

If you press only RETURN in response to the song name

prompt and are using tape, the last song will be replayed. If
you're using disk, PLAYER prints a new directory. This is use­
ful if the old directory has scrolled off the screen or if you
want to switch disks.
To make a song stop playing before its end, hit any key.
PLAYER cancels the current song and prompts you for a new
selection. To end the program, press RUN/STOP-RESTORE.
The demonstration tunes cover a variety of music, from
classical to modern. Enjoy listening to the music produced by
Sidplayer.
Program 7-3. SID.OBJ
To enter this program, you must use “The Machine Language Editor (MLX)," a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49349
Ending Address: 51118
Filename: SID.OBJ
49349 :076,086,194,076,015,197,073
49355 :236,193,000,000,213,192,013
49361 :213,192,213,192,096,001,092
49367 :002,004,000,007,014,001,243
49373 :000,255,000,002,004,005,231
49379 :007,009,011,030,024,139,191
49385 :126,250,006,172,243,230,236
49391 :143,248,046,134,142,150,078
49397 :159,168,179,189,200,212,072
49403 :22 5,238,253,140,120,100,047
49409 :080,060,040,020,000,000,201
49415 :002,003,005,007,008,010,042
49421 :012,013,015,017,018,000,088
49427 :224,000,004,008,012,249,004
49433 :000,245,120,162,002,189,231
49439 :019,003,157,204,192,189,027
49445 :202,192,157,019,003,202,044
49451 :208,241,142,000,192,088,146
4945 7 :096,169,000,141,000,192,135
49463 :134,251,132,252,160,196,156
49469 :153,000,192,136,208,250,232
49475 :141,023,212,141,021,212,049
49481 :141,022,212,169,008,141,254
49487 5029,192,141,024,212,169,078
49493 5144,141,030,192,169,012,005
49499 5141,031,192,169,212,133,201
49505 s254,162,002,169,001,157,074
49511 5033,192,169,004,157,039,185

191
49517 :192,169, 004 ,157,111,192,166 49703 :240,025, 189 ,217,192,133,011
49523 :189,020, 193 ,157,138,192,236 49709 :251,189, 005 ,192,160,000,074
49529 5189,217 f192 ,133,253,169,250 49715 :145,251, 189 ,008,192,200,012
49535 :000,160, 002 ,145,253,169,088 49721 :145,251, 189 ,120,192,160,090
Chapter 7

49541 5008,157, 014 ,192,157,099,248 49727 :004,145, 251 ,202,016,220,133

49547 5192,200, 145 ,253,200,145,250 49733 :173,000, 192 ,041,127,044,134
49553 5253,169, 064 ,157,017,192,229 49739 :169,008, 141 ,000,192,108,181
49559 5145,253, 169 ,032,157,020,159 49745 s205,192, 108 ,207,192,189,150
49565 5192,200, 145 ,253,169,245,081 49751 :217,192, 133 ,251,222,033,111
49571 5157,023, 192 ,200,145,253,109 49757 :192,240, 079 ,189,036,192,253
49577 5202,016, 184 ,165,251,024,243 49763 s048,238, 208 ,014,189,039,067
49583 s105,006, 133 ,253,169,000,073 49769 :192,221, 033 ,192,144,006,125
49589 5170,168, 101 ,252,133,254,235 49775 :189,017, 192 ,157,120,192,210
49595 5157,126, 192 ,157,132,192,119 49781 :189,042, 192 ,240,086,010,108
49601 5165,253, 157 ,123,192,157,216 49787 :189,005, 192 ,176,049,125,091
49607 sl29,192, 024 ,113,251,133,017 49793 :045,192, 157 ,005,192,168,120
49613 5253,165, 254 ,200,113,251,161 49799 :189,008, 192 ,125,048,192,121
49619 s200,232, 224 ,003,208,224,022 49805 :157,008, 192 ,072,152,221,175
49625 5166,253, 168 ,096,120,173,169 49811 :084,192, 104 ,253,087,192,035
49631 s205,192, 141 ,020,003,173,189 49817 :144,051, 189 ,084,192,157,202
49637 5206,192, 141 ,021,003,088,112 49823 :005,192, 189 ,087,192,157,213
49643 5096,173, 013 ,220,173,000,142 49829 :008,192, 169 ,000,157,042,221
49649 5192,048, 087 ,009,128,168,105 49835 :192,024, 144 ,031,240,117,151
49655 5041,007, 240 ,085,216,140,208 49841 :253,045, 192 ,157,005,192,253
49661 5000,192, 169 ,212,133,252,187 49847 s189,008, 192 ,253,048,192,041
49667 5088,162, 000 ,173,000,192,106 49853 :157,008, 192 ,189,084,192,243
49673 5061,214, 192 ,240,013,142,103 49859 :221,005, 192 ,189,087,192,057
49679 5032,192, 032 ,197,192,173,065 49865 :253,008, 192 ,176,205,144,155
49685 5000,192, 041 ,120,208,050,120 49871 :101,189, 051 ,192,240,096,052
49691 s232,224, 003 ,208,230,202,102 49877 :160,000, 222 ,054,192,208,025
49697 5173,000, 192 ,061,214,192,097 49883 :049,189, 057 ,192,029,060,027
49889 :192,208, 027 ,189,069,192,078 50075 :133,255,200,177,253,168,061
49895 5157,063, 192 ,157,054,192,022 50081 s165,253,024,105,002,133,075
49901 :189 ,051, 192 ,010,189,066,166 50087 s253,157,123,192,165,254,031
49907 :192,144, 004 ,073,255,105,248 50093 :105,000,133,254,157,126,180
49913 :000, 157, 051 ,192,208,016,105 50099 :192,165,255,041,003,208,019
49919 :189,063, 192 ,157,054,192,078 50105 :210,189,084,192,157,005,254
49925 :152,056, 253 ,051,192,157,098 50111 .-192,189,087,192,157,008,248
49931 .-051,192, 201 ,000,016,001,216 50117 192,152,157,002,192,041,165
49937 2136,024, 125 ,057,192,157,196 50123 s056,074,074,074,125,072,166
49943 2057,192, 072 ,152,125,060,169 50129 :192,133,253,152,041,192,148
49949 2192,157, 060 ,192,168,104,134 50135 s010,042,042,168,185,219,113
49955 2024,144, 002 ,240,085,125,143 50141 :192,133,254,189,002,192,159
49961 2084,192, 157 ,005,192,152,055 50147 :041,007,240,104,208,002,061
49967 2125,087, 192 ,157,008,192,040 50153 .-240,146,168,185,222,192,106
49973 2189,090, 192 ,240,023,024,043 50159 :101,254,024,125,075,192,242
49979 2125,011, 192 ,157,011,192,235 50165 :016,005,024,105,012,230,125
49985 2160,002, 145 ,251,189,093,137 50171 :253,201,012,144,004,233,074
49991 2192,125, 014 ,192,157,014,253 50177 :012,198,253,133,254,168,251
49997 2192,200, 145 ,251,160,000,001 50183 :165,255,072,185,242,192,094
50003 2189,105, 192 ,240,034,016,091 50189 :133,255,185,230,192,164,148
50009 2001,200, 024 ,109,026,192,129 50195 :253,136,048,006,070,255,019
50015 2072,041, 007 ,141,026,192,062 50201 .-106,136,016,250,024,125,170
50021 2141,021, 212 ,104,106,074,247 50207 s078,192,157,084,192,165,131
50027 2074,024, 121 ,018,193,024,049 50213 :255,125,081,192,157,087,166
50033 2109,027, 192 ,141,027,192,033 50219 .-192,104,133,255,041,028,028
50039 2141,022, 212 ,108,207,192,233 50225 .-240,182,189,045,192,029,158
50045 2189,123, 192 ,133,253,189,180 50231 s048,192,240,022,189,005,239
50051 2126,192, 133 ,254,208,006,026 50237 :192,221,084,192,189,008,179
50057 2108,209, 192 ,032,200,192,046 50243 5192,253,087,192,169,254,190
50063 2173,000, 192 ,061,214,192,207 50249 5106,157,042,192,144,017,219
50069 50255 s240,087,157,042,192,189,218
Chapter 7

2240,242, 160 ,000,177,253,197

 50261 :084, 192, 157 ,005,192,189,136 50447 :152,072, 165 ,255,074,176,141

194
50267 s087, 192, 157 ,008,192,189,148 50453 :113,074, 074 ,176,031,074,051
50273 :036, 192, 010 ,208,066,189,030 50459 :176,015, 157 ,099,192,160,058
50279 :090, 192, 240 ,019,189,096,161 50465 :003,145, 251 ,104,157,096,021
Chapter 7

50285 :192, 157, 011 ,192,160,002,055 50471 :192,136, 145 ,251,096,074,165

50291 5145,251, 189 ,099,192,157,124 50477 :144,002, 009 ,248,157,081,174
50297 :014,192, 200 ,145,251,189,088 50483 s192,104, 157 ,078,192,096,102
50303 5102,192, 240 ,015,164,253,069 50489 :074,144, 011 ,074,104,176,128
50309 5024,121, 254 ,192,164,254,118 50495 :006,157, 108 ,192,141,022,177
50315 5024,121, 006 ,193,024,144,139 50501 s212,096, 168 ,240,034,104,155
50321 5008,189, 105 ,192,240,017,128 50507 5136,240, 035 ,136,240,036,130
50327 5189,108, 192 ,141,027,192,232 50513 5136,240, 037 ,136,240,050,152
50333 5141,022, 212 ,169,000,141,074 50519 sl36,240, 051 ,136,240,060,182
50339 5026,192, 141 ,021,212,165,152 50525 5136,240, 061 ,136,240,089,227
50345 5255,168, 041 ,032,133,255,029 50531 sl36,240, 090 ,136,240,091,008
50351 8152,041, 064 ,157,036,192,049 50537 sl08,211, 192 ,104,141,030,123
50357 5152,041, 028 ,074,074,168,206 50543 5192,096, 141 ,031,192,096,091
50363 5173,031, 192 ,136,240,028,219 50549 5157,039, 192 ,096,157,135,125
50369 5173,030, 192 ,208,001,056,085 50555 s192,165, 253 ,157,129,192,187
50375 5136,240, 006 ,106,176,057,152 50561 s165,254, 157 ,132,192,096,101
50381 sl36,208, 250 ,164,255,133,071 50567 s176,085, 141 ,001,192,096,058
50387 s255,240, 007 ,074,176,045,240 50573 5157,090, 192 ,010,144,001,223
50393 ;101,255, 176 ,044,157,033,215 50579 5136,152, 157 ,093,192,096,205
50399 5192,189, 111 ,192,010,010,159 50585 5157,105, 192 ,096,168,208,055
50405 5029,114, 192 ,010,029,117,208 50591 5004,157, 051 ,192,096,157,048
50411 sl92,010, 157 ,017,192,056,091 50597 5066,192, 188 ,051,192,208,038
50417 sl89,002, 192 ,041,007,208,112 50603 5015,157, 051 ,192,152,157,127
50423 5003,126, 036 ,192,189,017,042 50609 5057,192, 157 ,060,192,169,236
50429 s192,105, 000 ,157,120,192,251 50615 5001,157, 054 ,192,096,157,072
50435 sl08,209, 192 ,169,016,044,229 50621 5069,192, 096 ,157,102,192,229
50441 5169,024, 141 ,000,192,096,119 50627 5096,074, 144 ,002,200,024,223
 50633 1072,041, 007 ,121,024,193,147 50819 s029,192, 041 ,015,077,029,002
50639 :157,072, 192 ,104,074,074,112 50825 s192,141, 029 ,192,141,024,088
50645 s0 7 4 , 0 2 4 , 121 ,025,193,157,039 50831 :212,096, 074 ,074,176,095,102
50651 s0 7 5 , 1 9 2 , 096 ,074,144,008,040 50837 :074,168, 240 ,023,136,240,006
50657 :157,048, 192 ,104,157,045,160 50843 s045,136, 240 ,057,136,240,241
50663 :192,096, 104 ,074,176,092,197 50849 :060,136, 240 ,063,173,029,094
50669 :074,176, 044 ,074,176,005,018 50855 s192,041, 127 ,144,098,009,010
50675 :074,160, 240 ,208,006,010,173 50861 :128,176, 094 ,172,029,192,196
50681 :010,010, 010 ,160,015,133,075 50867 :176,007, 200 ,152,041,015,002
50687 : 255,152, 160 ,005,176,011,246 50873 :208,007, 096 ,152,041,015,192
50693 :061,020, 192 ,005,255,157,183 50879 s240,007, 136 ,140,029,192,167
50699 :020,192, 145 ,251,096,061,008 50885 :140,024, 212 ,096,189,214,048
50705 :02 3 ,1 9 2 , 005 ,255,157,023,160 50891 s192,073, 255 ,045,028,192,220
50711 :192,200, 145 ,251,096,074,213 50897 j 144,026, 029 ,214,192,176,222
50717 :176,044, 074 ,176,082,133,202 50903 :021,152, 042 ,157,114,192,125
50723 s2 5 5 , 1 8 9 , 138 ,192,221,021,027 50909 :096,152, 042 ,157,117,192,209
50729 :193,240, 066 ,254,138,192,100 50915 s096,173, 028 ,192,041,247,236
50735 :168,165, 253 ,153,141,192,095 50921 :144,002, 009 ,008,141,028,053
50741 :165,254, 153 ,153,192,164,110 50927 :192,141, 023 ,212,096,074,209
50747 : 255,185, 181 ,192,240,042,130 50933 :176,030, 074 ,176,008,208,149
50753 :133,254, 185 ,165,192,133,103 50939 s002,169, 008 ,157,111,192,122
50759 :2 5 3 ,0 9 6 , 176 ,070,074,176,148 50945 :096,010, 010 ,010,010,077,214
50765 :052,168, 165 ,253,153,165,009 50951 :029,192, 041 ,112,077,029,231
50771 :192,165, 254 ,153,181,192,196 50957 :192,141, 029 ,192,141,024,220
50777 :189,138, 192 ,221,021,193,019 50963 :212,096, 074 ,168,208,021,030
50783 :240,013, 254 ,138,192,168,076 50969 :189,135, 192 ,240,005,222,240
50789 :169,000, 153 ,153,192,096,096 50975 :135,192, 240 ,010,189,129,158
50795 :169,048, 044 ,169,040,141,206 50981 :192,133, 253 ,189,132,192,104
50801 s000,192, 096 ,010,010,010,175 50987 s133,254, 096 ,136,208,032,134
50807 :010,077, 028 ,192,041,240,195 50993 :189,138, 192 ,221,020,193,234
Chapter 7

195
50813 5077,028, 192 ,144,107,077,238 50999 :240,018, 222 ,138,192,168,009
51005 :136 185.153.192, 240,007,206 49170 :038,001, 024 ,155,024,158,162
51011 s133 254,185,141, 192,133,081 49176 :024,145, 024 ,159,024,155,043
51017 :253 096,169,032, 141,000,252 49182 s024,159, 024 ,146,038,014,179
51023 :192 096.173.000, 192,093,057 49188 5020,145, 020 ,147,020,093,225
Chapter 7

51029 :214 192.141.000, 192,136,192 49194 5020,147, 030 ,002,038,006,029

51035 s152 145,251,200, 145,251,211 49200 5024,158, 038 ,001,024,155,192
51041 :096 142.203.192, 140,204,050 49206 5024,158, 024 ,145,024,159,076
51047 :192 138.024.105, 106,141,041 49212 5024,155, 024 ,159,024,146,080
51053 :198 192.152.105, 000,141,129 49218 5038,014, 020 ,145,020,158,205
51059 :199 192,138,024, 105,035,040 49224 5016,000, 030 ,003,024,000,145
51065 :141 201,192,152, 105.003.147 49230 5038,001, 024 ,147,024,145,201
51071 s141 202,192,134, 251,132,155 49236 5024,147, 024 ,158,024,145,094
51077 :252 169,236,133, 253,169,065 49242 5024,155, 024 ,157,038,014,246
51083 :193 133,254,162, 005,160,022 49248 5020,156, 020 ,158,020,146,104
51089 S000 177,253,145, 251.200.147 49254 5084,148, 030 ,004,038,007,157
51095 :208 249,230,252, 230,254,038 49260 5024,148, 038 ,001,024,146,233
51101 :202 208,242,177, 253,145,104 49266 5024,159, 024 ,146,024,157,136
51107 :251 200,192,118, 208,247,099 49272 5024,159, 024 ,154,024,156,149
51113 :096 130,128,128, 128,130,141 49278 5038,014, 020 ,155,020,157,018
49284 5020,145, 084 ,147,030,005,051
49290 5038,007, 024 ,147,038,001,137
Program 7'4. COMMODORE.MUS 49296 5024,145, 024 ,158,024,145,152
To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language
Editor (MIX)," a program found in Appendix C.
49302 5038,014, 020 ,156,084,146,096
49308 5038,007, 024 ,146,038,001,154
Starting Address: 49152 49314 5024,159, 024 ,157,024,159,197
Ending Address: 50849 49320 5038,014, 020 ,155,084,145,112
Filename: COMMODORE.MUS 49326 5030,006, 038 ,007,024,145,168
49332 5038,001, 024 ,158,024,156,069
49152 s084,003,042,000,224,002,099 49338 5024,158, 038 ,014,020,154,082
49158 :001,039,001,006,006,160,219 49344 5020,159, 020 ,145,020,000,044
49164 :001,236,030,001,024,000,048 49350 5016,000, 001 ,047,030,007,043
 49356 2001,006, 001 ,071,024,000,051 49542 :084,147, 024 ,147,038,001,063
49362 :038,001, 024 ,157,024,145,087 49548 :024,145, 024 ,158,024,145,148
49368 2024,147, 024 ,146,024,157,226 49554 5030,013, 038 ,007,024,092,094
49374 2024,146, 024 ,148,038,014,104 49560 5038,001, 024 ,149,024,084,216
49380 2020,147, 020 ,149,020,159,231 49566 5024,147, 024 ,082,024,084,031
49386 2020,149, 030 ,008,038,006,229 49572 5024,159, 024 ,082,038,014,249
49392 2024,145, 038 ,001,024,157,117 49578 5020,147, 020 ,000,016,000,117
49398 2024,145, 024 ,147,024,146,244 49584 5001,047, 030 ,014,001,039,052
49404 2024,157, 024 ,146,024,148,007 49590 5001,006, 024 ,000,038,002,253
49410 2038,014, 020 ,147,020,145,130 49596 5024,149, 024 ,215,024,149,005
49416 2020,149, 020 ,147,030,009,127 49602 5024,147, 024 ,149,024,081,131
49422 2038,001, 024 ,137,024,150,132 49608 5024,147, 024 ,149,024,147,203
49428 2024,147, 024 ,150,024,145,022 49614 5024,081, 024 ,147,024,158,152
49434 2024,147, 024 ,158,024*145,036 49620 5024,000, 020 ,000,030,015,045
49440 2038,014, 020 ,146,020,084,098 49626 5024,000, 001 ,047,001,006,041
49446 2020,150, 020 ,137,030,010,149 49632 5024,148, 024 ,150,024,148,230
49452 2038,001, 024 ,151,024,149,175 49638 5024,146, 024 ,148,024,159,243
49458 2024,146, 024 ,149,024,159,064 49644 5024,146, 024 ,148,024,146,236
49464 2024,146, 024 ,157,024,159,078 49650 5024,159, 024 ,146,024,157,008
49470 2038,014, 020 ,145,020,147,190 49656 5024,000, 020 ,000,030,016,082
49476 2020,149, 020 ,151,030,011,193 49662 5024,000, 001 ,047,001,006,077
49482 2038,001, 024 ,150,024,084,139 49668 5024,147, 024 ,149,024,147,007
49488 2024,082, 024 ,084,024,159,221 49674 5024,145, 024 ,147,024,158,020
49494 2024,082, 024 ,092,024,158,234 49680 s024,145, 024 ,082,024,145,204
49500 2038,014, 020 ,157,038,004,107 49686 5024,158, 024 ,145,024,092,233
49506 2084,149, 024 ,149,024,147,163 49692 5024,000, 020 ,000,030,017,119
49512 2024,145, 024 ,147,030,012,230 49698 5024,000, 001 ,047,001,006,113
49518 2038,014, 020 ,158,038,004,126 49704 5024,146, 024 ,148,024,146,040
49524 2084,084, 024 ,084,038,001,175 49710 5024,159, 024 ,146,024,093,004
49530 2024,146, 024 ,159,024,146,133 49716 5024,159, 024 ,146,024,159,076

197
49536 49722
Chapter 7

2038,014, 020 ,157,038,004,143 5024,093, 024 ,159,024,155,025

 49728 :024,000, 020 ,000,030,018,156 49914 s024,145, 024 ,147,024,146,248

198
49734 s024,000, 001 ,047,001,006,149 49920 s024,159, 024 ,146,024,148,013
49740 1024,155, 024 ,158,024,145,094 49926 2024,147, 024 ,145,024,147,005
49746 s024,159, 024 ,155,024,159,115 49932 :024,149, 024 ,148,024,147,016
Chapter 7

49752 :024,146, 038 ,010,020,145,215 49938 2024,146, 024 ,145,030,024,155

49758 :020,158, 020 ,093,020,155,048 49944 2024,159, 024 ,145,024,^46,034
49764 :030,019 ,038 ,005,024,158,118 49950 2024,147, 024 ,148,024,146,031
49770 :038,002, 024 ,145,024,147,230 49956 2024,085, 024 ,146,024,151,234
49776 :024,145 ,024 ,158,024,145,120 49962 2024,146, 024 ,145,024,150,043
49782 :024,092, 024 ,158,024,145,073 49968 2024,148, 024 ,146,024,159,061
49788 :024,158, 024 ,092,024,158,092 49974 2024,146, 030 ,025,024,093,140
49794 :024,090, 024 ,145,024,159,084 49980 2024,159, 024 ,145,024,158,082
49800 :024,158, 030 ,020,038,005,155 49986 2024,155, 024 ,158,024,159,098
49806 :024,093, 038 ,002,024,159,226 49992 2024,093, 024,,158,024,155,038
49812 :024,146, 024 ,159,024,093,106 49998 2024,153, 024 ,155,016,166,104
49818 :024,159, 024 ,154,024,156,183 50004 2016,000, 001 ,047,001,079,228
49824 :024,093, 024 ,156,024,154,123 50010 2001,059, 166 ,010,001,002,073
49830 :024,156, 024 ,167,024,156,205 50016 2001,051, 166 ,014,010,050,132
49836 :024,155, 024 ,154,030,021,068 50022 2001,002, 010 ,000,001,135,251
49842 :038,005, 024 ,153,038,002,182 50028 2001,059, 166 ,094,001,002,175
49848 :024,155, 024 ,158,024,155,212 50034 2166,190, 001 ,002,166,156,027
49854 :024,153, 024 ,155,024,166,224 50040 2001,002, 166 ,012,001,002,048
49860 :024,153 ,024 ,090,024,153,152 50046 2166,010, 001 ,002,001,079,129
49866 :024,166, 024 ,153,024,100,181 50052 2006,160, 001 ,071,118,005,237
49872 :024,153 ,024 ,167,024,166,254 50058 2134,002, 030 ,001,038,010,097
49878 :030,022, 038 ,010,020,101,179 50064 2020,174, 038 ,002,016,166,048
49884 :020,159 ,020 ,093,020,155,175 50070 2020,101, 024 ,166,024,163,136
49890 :024,000, 038 ,004,024,155,215 50076 2024,166, 024 ,153,024,167,202
49896 :024,158, 024 ,145,024,159,254 50082 2024,163, 024 ,167,024,154,206
49902 :024,155, 024 ,159,024,146,002 50088 2030,002, 038 ,010,020,153,165
49908 :030,023, 024 ,145,024,158,136 50094 2020,166, 020 ,101,020,163,152
50100 s038,005, 024 ,166,038,002,197 50286 :024,154,024,156,030,008,250
50106 s024,163, 024 ,166,024,153,228 50292 .-038,010,020,155,020,153,000
50112 :024,167, 024 ,163,024,167,249 50298 :016,000,024,000,038,002,202
50118 s024, 154, 030,,003,038,010,201 50304 s024,157,024,155,024,157,157
50124 :020, 153 ,020,,166,020,153,224 50310 :024,153,024,155,024,165,167
50130 5020,166, 038,,005,024,154,105 50316 2024,167,030,009,038,010,162
50136 :038,002, 024,,166,024,164,122 50322 2020,166,020,153,020,155,168
50142 5024,166, 024 ,162,024,164,018 50328 2020,157,038,002,024,092,229
50148 5024,174, 024,,161,030,004,133 50334 2024,158,024,154,024,092,122
50154 5038,010, 020 ,175,020,162,147 50340 2024,166,024,154,024,100,144
50160 5020,165, 084,,167,038,005,207 50346 2024,166,030,010,038,010,192
50166 5024,167, 038 ,002,024,165,154 50352 .-020,165,020,167,020,154,210
50172 5024,163, 024,,165,024,161,045 50358 2020,092,038,002,024,155,001
50178 5024,163, 024 ,173,024,175,073 50364 2024,157,024,153,024,155,213
50184 5030,005, 038 ,010,020,174,029 50370 2024,165,024,153,024,163,235
50190 5020,161, 038 ,002,024,162,165 50376 2024,165,030,011,038,010,222
50196 5024,164, 024 ,175,024,162,081 50382 2020,100,020,166,020,167,187
50202 5038,010, 020 ,173,020,175,206 50388 2020,090,024,000,038,002,130
50208 5038,002, 024 ,161,024,163,188 50394 2024,155,024,153,024,155,241
50214 5024,174, 024 ,161,030,006,201 50400 2 024,166,024,153,024,155,002
50220 5038,010, 020 ,172,020,170,218 50406 2024,157,030,012,038,005,240
50226 5038,005, 024 ,173,038,002,074 50412 2024,092,038,002,024,154,058
50232 5024,165, 024 ,164,024,165,110 50418 2024,167,024,154,024,165,032
50238 5038,005, 024 ,161,038,002,074 50424 2024,167,024,154,024,092,221
50244 5024,165, 024 ,153,024,155,101 50430 2038,005,024,155,038,002,004
50250 5024,154, 024 ,165,024,154,107 50436 2024,153,024,166,024,153,036
50256 5024,156, 030 ,007,038,010,089 50442 2024,100,024,166,084,153,049
50262 5020,155, 020 ,153,020,167,109 50448 2030,013,038,004,024,153,022
50268 5020,165, 038 ,005,024,153,241 50454 2038,002,024,167,024,153,174
50274 5038,002, 024 ,165,024,153,248 50460 2024,166,038,010,020,167,197
Chapter 7

50280 5024,155, 024 ,154,024,165,138 50466 2020,175,038,005,024,163,203

 50472 :038,002, 024 ,155,024,167,194 50658 2024,098, 024 ,100,030,020,010

200
50478 :024, 165, 024 ,163,024,175,109 50664 2038,010, 020 ,163,020,101,072
50484 :024, 173 ,024 ,175,030,014,236 50670 2020,167, 020 ,101,020,163,217
50490 :038, 010, 020 ,171,020,163,224 50676 2020,175, 020 ,109,020,171,247
Chapter 7

50496 :020,165, 020 ,231,020,097,105 50682 2030,021, 038 ,004,020,174,025

50502 :020,000, 024 ,000,038,002,154 50688 2020,161, 020 ,163,020,161,033
50508 :024, 157 ,024,,156,024,155,104 50694 2020,174, 020 ,161,020,106,251
50514 5030,015, 038 ,010,020,154,093 50700 2020,000, 030 ,022,024,000,108
50520 :020,162, 020 ,164,020,230,192 50706 2038,002, 024 ,167,024,101,118
50526 5020,175, 020 ,000,024,000,077 50712 2024,163, 024 ,162,024,167,076
50532 5038,002, 024 ,156,024,155,243 50718 2024,101, 024 ,162,001,136,222
50538 5024,154, 030 ,016,038,010,122 50724 2038,010, 020 ,161,020,163,192
50544 5020,153, 020 ,161,020,163,137 50730 2020,109, 020 ,163,030,023,151
50550 5020,100, 020 ,174,020,000,196 50736 2020,174, 020 ,100,020,175,045
50556 5024,000, 038 ,002,024,155,111 50742 2020,101, 020 ,161,020,166,030
50562 5024,090, 024 ,089,030,017,148 50748 2020,162, 020 ,231,030,024,035
50568 5038,010, 020 ,167,020,175,054 50754 2020,101, 020 ,164,020,162,041
50574 5020,162, 020 ,164,020,109,125 50760 2020,175, 020 ,109,020,174,078
50580 5020,000, 024 ,000,038,002,232 50766 2020,170, 020 ,171,030,025,002
50586 5024,154, 024 ,153,024,167,188 50772 2020,172, 020 ,106,020,171,081
50592 5030,018, 038 ,010,020,153,173 50778 2020,163, 038 ,004,012,174,245
50598 5020,166, 020 ,101,020,163,144 50784 2016,000, 001 ,079,084,087,107
50604 5038,005, 024 ,166,038,002,189 50790 2079,032, 080 ,065,082,084,012
50610 5024,163, 024 ,166,024,153,220 50796 2032,073, 078 ,086,069,078,012
50616 5024,167, 024 ,163,024,167,241 50802 2084,073, 079 ,078,032,035,239
50622 5024,154, 030 ,019,038,005,204 50808 2049,051, 013 ,074,046,083,180
50628 5024,153, 038 ,002,024,155,080 50814 2046,032, 066 ,065,067,072,218
50634 5024,158, 024 ,155,024,153,228 50820 2013,067, 079 ,085,082,084,030
50640 5024,155, 024 ,166,024,153,242 50826 2069,083, 089 ,032,067,082,048
50646 5024,100, 024 ,166,024,153,193 50832 2065,073, 071 ,032,067,072,012
50652 5024,166, 024 ,100,024,166,212 50838 2065,077, 066 ,069,082,076,073
50844 2065,073, 078 ,013,013,000,142
 Program 7-5. WSOLDIER.MUS 49290 s020,154, 020 ,000,020,157,253
To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language 49296 5020,157, 020 ,157,001,047,034
Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C. 49302 5001,018, 030 ,008,024,157,132
49308 5024,157, 020 ,158,020,158,181
S ta rtin g A d d re ss: 4 9 1 5 2 49314 5020,158, 020 ,158,024,158,188
E n d in g A d d re ss: 50465 49320 5024,157, 024 ,156,024,155,196
F i l e n a m e : W S O L D I E R .M U S 49326 5024,154, 030 ,009,024,155,058
49332 5024,156, 024 ,157,020,158 r207
49152 :248,001, 084,001,116,001,195 49338 5024,156, 024 ,158,020,157,213
49158 .-006,128,001,039,001,028,209 49344 5024,155, 024 ,157,020,156,216
49164 :001,000,001,244,001,072,075 49350 s020,155, 020 ,154,030,010,075
49170 5038,001,166,010,022,005,004 49356 5024,157, 024 ,157,020,157,231
49176 5054,002,004,000,004,000,088 49362 5020,157, 020 ,157,020,157,229
49182 s0 0 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 4 2 49368 s024,157, 024 ,156,024,155,244
49188 50 0 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 4 8 49374 5024,154, 024 ,153,030,011,106
49194 s0 0 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 8 , 0 0 0 , 0 1 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 6 6 49380 5024,154, 024 ,155,024,156,253
49200 s0 2 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 1 , 0 1 5 , 0 0 1 , 0 2 2 , 1 0 7 49386 5020,157, 024 ,155,024,157,003
49206 5030,001,024,157,024,157,191 49392 s020,156, 024 ,154,024,156,006
49212 5020,155,020,157,020,157,077 49398 5020,155, 020 ,154,020,153,000
49218 5030,002,024,157,024,157,204 49404 5030,012, 024 ,153,024,153,136
49224 5020,156,020,157,020,157,090 49410 5020,153, 024 ,153,024,153,017
49230 5030,003,024,157,024,157,217 49416 5020,153, 024 ,153,024,153,023
49236 5020,155,020,157,020,159,103 49422 5020,153, 020 ,154,020,153,022
49242 5030,004,020,158,024,157,227 49428 5030,013, 024 ,165,024,165,185
49248 5024,092,024,091,024,155,250 49434 5020,165, 020 ,092,020,157,244
49254 5020,154,030,005,024,157,236 49440 5024,165, 024 ,165,020,165,083
49260 5024,157,020,155,020,157,129 49446 5020,092, 020 ,157,024,165,004
49266 5020,157,030,006,024,157,252 49452 5024,165, 020 ,165,020,092,018
49272 5024,157,020,154,020,159,142 49458 5020,157, 020 ,092,020,157,004
49278 5020,159,030,007,024,159,013 49464 5020,157, 020 ,157,030,014,198
49470 5001,018, 030 ,015,001,038,165

201
49284 5024,159,020,158,020,000,001
Chapter 7
 49476 :024,157, 024 ,157,020,145,083 49662 ,
s001,007, 0 0 1 ,004,001,144,156

202
49482 :020,145, 020 ,145,024,145,061 49668 :001,132, 001 ,152,038,001,073
49488 :024,145, 020 ,159,020,159,095 49674 :166,012, 006 ,128,022,005,093
49494 -.020,159, 030 ,016,024,157,236 49680 :054,002, 004 ,153,004,153,130
Chapter 7

49500 :024,157, 020 ,145,020,145,091 49686 :004,153, 020 ,153,020,153,013

49506 :020,145, 020 ,157,024,157,109 49692 :020,153, 004,,153,004,153,003
49512 :024,092, 024 ,091,024,155,002 49698 :004,153, 020 ,153,020,153,025
49518 :020,154, 030 ,017,024,157,000 49704 :020,153 ,004 ,153,004,153,015
49524 :024,157, 020 ,145,020,145,115 49710 :004,153, 024 ,153,024,153,045
49530 s020,145, 030 ,018,004,145,228 49716 :024,153 ,024 ,153,024,153,071
49536 :004,159, 004 ,094,020,158,055 49722 :024,153, 024 ,153,024,153,077
49542 :020,158, 020 ,158,030,019,027 49728 -.020,153, 020 ,153,020,153,071
49548 :004,158, 004 ,159,004,145,102 49734 -.001,015, 054 ,004,030,001,175
49554 :020,145, 020 ,000,020,159,254 49740 :001,246, 024 ,000,024,000,115
49560 :020,000, 020 ,145,020,145,246 49746 s020,153, 020 ,153,020,153,089
49566 :020,145, 030 ,020,004,145,010 49752 :001,047 ,030 ,002,001,242,155
49572 :004,159, 004 ,094,020,158,091 49758 :030,003, 001 ,230,024,153,023
49578 :020,158, 020 ,158,030,021,065 49764 :024,153, 020 ,153,020,153,111
49584 :004,158, 004 ,159,004,145,138 49770 :020,153, 020 ,153,016,153,109
49590 :020,149, 020 ,000,004,149,012 49776 :020,000, 001 ,047,001,015,196
49596 :004,084, 004 ,148,004,147,067 49782 s030,008, 001 ,214,024,000,139
49602 :004,082, 004 ,146,004,081,003 49788 :024,000, 020 ,153,020,153,238
49608 :004,145, 004 ,159,004,094,098 49794 :020,153, 020 ,153,020,153,137
49614 :004,158, 004 ,157,004,092,113 49800 :024,000, 024 ,000,024,000,208
49620 :004,156, 004 ,155,004,090,113 49806 :030,009, 024 ,000,024,000,229
49626 :004,154, 004 ,089,004,153,114 49812 :024,000, 020 ,153,024,000,113
49632 :004,167, 004 ,102,004,166,159 49818 :024,000, 020 ,153,024,000,119
49638 :020,165, 020 ,000,020,159,102 49824 :024,000, 020 ,153,020,153,018
49644 :020,000, 020 ,145,004,145,058 49830 :020,153, 001 ,047,030,010,171
49650 :004,145, 004 ,145,020,145,193 49836 :030,011, 001 ,210,030,012,210
49656 :001,079, 004 ,000,001,079,156 49842 5024,153, 024 ,153,020,153,193
 49848 :024,153, 024 ,153,020,153,199 50034 :008,000,012, 000 ,020,000,154
49854 s024, 153, 024 ,153,020,153,205 50040 :001,015,001, 054 ,030,001,222
49860 :020, 153, 020 ,153,030,013,073 50046 :024,000,024, 000 ,020,153,091
49866 s024,000, 024 ,000,020,153,167 50052 :020,000,020, 165 ,030,002,113
49872 2020,000, 020 ,000, 024,000,016 50058 5024,000,024, 000 ,020,154,104
49878 2024,000, 020 ,153,020,000,175 50064 5020,000,020, 165 ,030,003,126
49884 2020,000, 024 ,000,024,000,032 50070 5024,000,024, 000 ,020,153,115
49890 2020,153, 020 ,153,020,153,233 50076 5020,000,020, 165 ,030,004,139
49896 2020,153, 020 ,153,020,153,239 50082 5020,000,020, 165 ,020,000,131
49902 2020,153, 030 ,014,001,242,186 50088 5020,162,030, 005 ,024,000,153
49908 2001,242, 001 ,226,001,242,189 50094 5024,000,020, 153 ,020,000,135
49914 2001,242, 001 ,226,030,015,253 50100 5020,165,030, 006 ,024,000,169
49920 2001,242, 001 ,242,030,016,020 50106 5024,000,020, 165 ,020,000,159
49926 2024,000, 024 ,000,020,153,227 50112 5020,167,030, 007 ,024,000,184
49932 2020,153, 020 ,153,020,153,019 50118 5024,000,020, 154 ,020,000,160
49938 2020,153, 020 ,000,020,000,231 50124 5020,162,020, 000 ,020,165,079
49944 2030,017, 001 ,242,030,018,106 50130 5020,000,020, 173 ,001,047,215
49950 2001,242, 030 ,019,001,226,037 50136 5001,050,030, 008 ,024,000,073
49956 2030,020, 001 ,242,030,021,124 50142 5024,000,024, 000 ,024,000,038
49962 2004,153, 004 ,153,004,153,001 50148 5024,000,024, 000 ,024,000,044
49968 2020,153, 020 ,000,030,021,036 50154 5024,000,024, 000 ,024,000,050
49974 2054,022, 004 ,153,001,015,047 50160 5024,000,024, 000 ,024,000,056
49980 2020,153, 020 ,000,020,153,170 50166 5024,000,024, 000 ,024,000,062
49986 2020,000, 020 ,153,004,153,160 50172 5008,000,008, 000 ,008,000,020
49992 2004,153, 004 ,153,020,153,047 50178 5008,000,008, 000 ,008,000,026
49998 2001,079, 001 ,079,001,071,054 50184 5030,014,001, 050 ,030,015,148
50004 2001,044, 001 ,236,001,072,183 50190 5024,000,024, 000 ,020,153,235
50010 2038,001, 166 ,181,054,002,020 50196 5020,000,020, 000 ,024,000,084
50016 2004,000, 004 ,000,004,000,108 50202 5024,000,020, 165 ,020,000,255
50022 2004,000, 004 ,000,004,000,114 50208 5020,000,030, 016 ,024,000,122
50214 5024,000,020, 153 ,020,000,255

203
Chapter 7

50028 2004,000, 004 ,000,004,000,120

 50220 5020,000, 020,000,020,165,013 50406 5074,069,083,083,069,076,172

204
50226 :020,000,020,000,030,017,137 50412 5013,070,073,070,069,044,063
50232 :004,000,004,000,004,000,068 50418 5032,084,085,066,065,044,106
50238 :020,165,020,000,020,000,031 50424 5032,065,078,068,032,080,091
Chapter 7

50244 :030,018,004,000,004,000,124 50430 5069,082,067,085,083,083,211

50250 :004,000,020,164,020,000,026 50436 5073,079,078,013,067,079,137
50256 :020,000,030,019,004,000,153 50442 5085,082,084,069,083,089,246
50262 :004,000,004,000,020,165,023 50448 5032,082,079,066,069,082,170
50268 :020,000,020,165,020,000,061 50454 5084,032,072,073,071,071,169
50274 :020,153,020,000,020,000,055 50460 5073,078,083,013,000,253,016
50280 :030,020,004,000,004,000,162
50286 :004,000,020,164,020,000,062
50292 :020,000,030,021,004,000,191 Program 7-6. ETAL.MUS
50298 :004,000,004,000,020,165,059 To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language
50304 :020,000,038,000,004,173,107 Editor (MLX)/' a program found in Appendix C.
50310 :004,173,004,173,004,173,153 Starting Address: 49152
50316 :004,173,004,173,004,173,159 Ending Address: 49793
50322 5004,173,004,173,004,173,165
50328 5004,173,004,173,004,173,171 Filename: ETAL.MUS
50334 5004,173,004,173,004,173,177 49152 5248,000,244,000,116,000,096
50340 5004,173,004,173,004,173,183 49158 5066,000,086,025,001,012,196
50346 5004,173,004,173,004,173,189 49164 5001,144,001,132,001,008,043
50352 5038,001,020,161,020,000,160 49170 5030,001,001,102,054,003,209
50358 5020,165,020,000,020,161,056 49176 5024,239,024,161,024,162,146
50364 5004,000,004,000,004,000,200 49182 5020,227,052,162,024,174,177
50370 5020,169,001,079,077,065,093 49188 5024,239,024,161,020,162,154
50376 5082,067,072,032,079,070,090 49194 5020,161,020,174,052,172,129
50382 5032,084,072,069,032,087,070 49200 5030,002,024,239,024,161,016
50388 5079,079,068,069,078,032,105 49206 5024,162,020,227,052,162,189
50394 5083,079,076,068,073,069,154 49212 5024,174,024,239,024,161,194
50400 5082,083,013,066,089,032,077 49218 5020,239,020,174,020,239,010
 49224 :052, 173 ,001 ,015,001,246,048 49410 s134,002,050,132,001,039,104
49230 :024, 239, 024 ,174,024,173,224 49416 s001,006,008,000,008,000,031
49236 2020, 239, 052 ,170,024,174,251 49422 s012,000,001,022,000,154,203
49242 :024 1 1 3 024 ,172,020,169,160
, , 49428 :020,146,000,157,024,149,004
49248 :020, 172, 020 ,170,052,173,191 49434 :000,157,080,149,024,149,073
49254 2024,239, 024 ,174,024,173,248 49440 :000,156,052,148,000,158,034
49260 2020,239, 052 ,170,024,235,080 49446 :020,150,000,153,024,145,018
49266 2024,170, 024 ,169,020,172,181 49452 2 000,154,024,146,000,154,010
49272 2020,169, 001 ,047,020,170,035 49458 2080,146,024,146,030,001,221
49278 2052,181, 001 ,242,001,047,138 49464 2 000,154,020,146,000,157,021
49284 2020,170, 052 ,181,001,192,236 49470 2024,149,000,157,080,149,109
49290 2016,162, 001 ,144,030,003,238 49476 2 024,149,000,156,024,148,057
49296 2054,002, 024 ,170,024,171,077 49482 2 000,157,024,149,000,156,048
49302 2024,173, 020 ,170,052,183,004 49488 2024,148,001,047,000,154,198
49308 2024,182, 024 ,247,024,169,058 49494 2020,146,000,231,024,223,218
49314 2024,172, 020 ,173,020,181,240 49500 2 000,219,024,211,000,154,188
49320 2024,170, 024 ,171,024,173,242 49506 2 080,146,024,146,001,018,001
49326 2020,170, 052 ,183,001,160,248 49512 2000,154,020,146,000,154,066
49332 2016,169, 016 ,180,001,144,194 49518 2024,146,000,231,024,223,246
49338 2024,170, 024 ,171,024,173,004 49524 2 000,154,080,146,024,146,154
49344 2020,170, 052 ,183,020,247,116 49530 2 001,047,030,002,001,135,082
49350 2024,170, 020 ,172,024,169,009 49536 2 002,200,086,020,054,002,236
49356 2020,172, 016 ,173,016,173,006 49542 2020,149,024,138,080,138,171
49362 2024,173, 020 ,173,020,173,025 49548 2024,138,052,137,020,140,139
49368 2024,173, 024 ,173,024,173,039 49554 2020,137,080,138,024,138,171
49374 2001,015, 016 ,170,016,170,098 49560 2020,149,024,138,080,138,189
49380 2024,170, 024 ,170,024,170,042 49566 2024,138,052,141,020,140,161
49386 2024,170, 024 ,170,024,170,048 49572 2020,142,080,141,024,141,200
49392 2024,170, 024,,170,030,002,148 49578 2001,015,001,047,016,076,070
49398 2001,098, 084,,173,052,173,059 49584 2001,212,066,176,086,000,205
Chapter 7

205
49404 2001,079, 0 0 1 ,,118,118,026,083 49590 2 166,179,118,000,134,000,011
 Chapter 7

49596 :054,002,030,003,052,141,214
49602 :020,138,020,141,024,138,163
49608 :052,140,020,137,052,149,238
49614 :052,141,020,138,052,141,238
49620 5024,140,024,141,052,142,223
49626 5052,140,052,141,020,138,249
49632 s052,141,052,207,020,142,070
49638 5052,140,008,141,001,015,075
49644 5008,076,001,114,001,079,003
49650 5001,134,166,108,001,039,179
49656 5001,059,019,176,001,002,250
49662 5001,051,001,071,003,000,125
49668 5166,012,030,002,054,002,014
49674 5020,154,048,231,080,166,197
49680 5024,166,020,164,080,162,120
49686 5024,162,020,162,048,239,165
49692 5052,227,016,161,080,162,214
49698 5024,162,001,015,001,047,028
49704 5016,174,166,179,086,000,149
49710 s001,212,066,176,054,002,045
49716 5030,003,052,151,020,149,201
49722 5052,146,016,150,024,149,083
49728 5052,159,052,151,020,149,135
49734 5020,146,024,159,052,145,104
49740 5020,148,052,150,052,151,137
49746 5020,149,052,146,052,156,145
49752 5020,153,052,158,008,159,126
49758 5001,015,008,158,001,130,151
49764 5001,079,034,069,084,032,143
49770 5065,076,034,013,066,089,193
49776 5032,072,065,082,082,089,022
49782 5032,066,082,065,084,084,019
49788 5013,013,013,000,020,153,080

Fundamentals of Music Theory

Sidplayer is a lot more than just a music playing program. It's
also a complete system for entering and editing music. The
Player is accompanied by an Editor which is so easy to use
that you don't even have to know how to read sheet music.
You may want to skip this section for now and come back to
it later. This section offers the rudiments of elementary music
theory— it presents the fundamental concepts that will help
you get started.
Notation. If a piece is good, the melody will stick in your
mind, and you may find yourself humming the tune long after
it's finished playing. Sometimes a song can be so good you

206
 Chapter 7

can't get it out of your mind. By hearing the song, you've

learned it and can play it yourself. Songs such as those sung
in native American ceremonies have been passed from genera­
tion to generation in just this way. As songs get longer and
more complex, however, this method of communicating a
song becomes less reliable. This is when it's necessary to make
a permanent copy of the song on paper, which is the purpose
of sheet music. Today, orchestras can faithfully reproduce the
great symphonies of Beethoven. These symphonies have sur­
vived for nearly two centuries only because they were written
down.
To express music on paper, a special form of notation has
been developed. This notation is capable of describing every
facet of a piece of music, from the order in which to play the
notes to specifics, such as the style in which they are to be
played.
Each group of five horizontal lines is called a staff. At the
left edge of each staff is a clef symbol. The clef symbol for the
top staff indicates that the staff is a treble clef. The bottom
staff uses a different clef symbol and is called a bass clef. To­
gether, the two staves form a grand staff, which is most often
used for displaying notes. Figure 7-2 illustrates a grand staff.

Figure 7-2. Grand Staff

In the following text, the different characteristics of notes

are introduced one at a time. As each characteristic is dis­
cussed, the method for expressing it in notation is also shown.
Admittedly, music theory is an extremely complicated subject.
What follows is only a simplified explanation of the essential
concepts and isn't intended as a complete treatment. Once you
understand what's presented here, however, you should be
able to read a simple piece of sheet music.

207
Chapter 7

Pitch. When an object is vibrating, its vibrations pass

through the air and are detected by your ear as sound. Fre­
quency is the measure of the number of vibrations per unit of
time. The most common method of specifying a frequency is
in terms of vibrations per second. Such a measurement is in­
dicated by the unit hertz, abbreviated Hz.
The frequency of a sound is interpreted by your ear as a
pitch. Faster rates of vibration produce higher pitches. Usually,
the smaller an instrument, the higher the pitch it can produce.
A piccolo can produce a very high pitch, whereas a tuba pro­
duces a very low pitch.
Although a wide range of frequencies can be detected by
the human ear, only frequencies occurring at specific intervals
are commonly used in music. Let's start with one of these
pitches and label it C. This pitch has a frequency of 261.63 Hz,
or 261.63 vibrations per second. The sequence of pitches
continues, with pitches at the following intervals being named
D, E, F, G, A, and B.
B 493.88 Hz
A 440.00 Hz
G 392.00 Hz
F 349.23 Hz
E 329.63 Hz
D 293.66 Hz
C 261.63 Hz (Start here)
When you listen to the sequence of pitches in order, they
form what's called a scale, but the scale will seem incomplete.
One final note, after the B, is needed to complete the scale.
This note happens to be another C, related to the earlier C,
but at a higher pitch. (The actual mathematical relationship is
that the new C occurs at 523.25 Hz, exactly twice the fre­
quency of the first.) It doesn't stop here, though. There's an­
other D after the new C, and a second E after the new D, and
so on. In fact, the scale repeats several times, both above and
below the original C.
D 1174.70 Hz
C 1046.50 Hz
B 987.77 Hz
A 880.00 Hz
G 783.99 Hz
F 698.46 Hz
E 659.26 Hz

208
 Chapter 7

D 587.33 Hz
C 523.25 Hz
B 493.88 Hz
A 440.00 Hz
G 392.00 Hz
F 349.23 Hz
E 329.63 Hz
D 293.66 Hz
C 261.63 Hz (Original C)
B 246.94 Hz
A 220.00 Hz
G 196.00 Hz
F 174.61 Hz
E 164.81 Hz
D 146.83 Hz
C 130.81 Hz
B 123.47 Hz
The scale repeats with each C. By examining one se­
quence, from one C to the next, you can see that it consists of
eight pitches. Collectively, these eight pitches are called an oc­
tave. To distinguish this set of pitches from the next, the first
set is said to occur one octave lower than the second.
Just as the different pitches in an octave are labeled, so
are the different octaves. However, instead of using a letter of
the alphabet, a number is used. The piano key for the original
C is found at about the middle of the keyboard. This C is
called middle C, and begins octave 4. Other octaves are num­
bered relative to the octave containing middle C. The octave
immediately above octave 4 is octave 5. The octaves which are
of the most use musically are octaves 1 to 7.
In music notation, the pitch value of a note is represented
by its vertical position when drawn on a staff. Thus, C5 (C of
the fifth octave) is indicated by placing the note between the
second and third lines of the treble staff. The next higher
pitch, D5, is indicated by placing the note above the position
for C5, except that this time the note is placed on the line. The
positions for all notes alternate between being on a staff line
or between staff lines, for the entire grand staff. See Figure 7-3
for an illustration.

209
Figure 7^3. Grand Staff
Chapter 7
 Chapter 7

One special case is middle C. The staff line for C4 is

placed halfway between the treble and bass staves. The
pitches around middle C must take this variation into account.
The separation of the two staves creates some space used for
messages and special symbols which give additional infor­
mation to the performer.
Another special situation is when a note is so high or low
in pitch that it goes off the grand staff. In such instances, addi­
tional staff lines, called leger lines (see Figure 7-4), are added.
The pitch of notes drawn on leger lines is still determined in
the normal way, by counting staff lines and seeing whether
the note is placed on or between lines.

Figure 7-4- Leger Lines

By using the grand staff and leger lines, eight octaves (octaves
0-7) can be displayed.
Sharps and flats. Eight octaves, each containing 7 dif­
ferent pitches, would seem to make a total of 56 pitches. Ac­
tually, there are some intermediate pitches between some of
these notes. These are called sharps and flats.
C
B
A-sharp B-flat
A
G-sharp A-flat
G
F-sharp G-flat
F
E
D-sharp E-flat
D
C-sharp D-flat
C

211
Chapter 7

A note is sharp if its pitch is a half step above normal. A

note is flat if the pitch is a half step below the normal pitch.
Notes that are not sharp or flat are said to be natural. Figure
7-5 shows some of the natural notes on the piano keyboard.

Figure 7-5. Piano Keyboard

Two important observations should be made. First, every

sharp note is equivalent to a flat note. C-sharp and D-flat both
denote the same pitch. The difference lies in the viewpoint,
whether the intermediate pitch is a half step above C or a half
step below D.
Thus far, we've been using the words sharp and flat for
accidental pitches. Another way to indicate that a note is
sharp or flat is to use a special symbol. The symbol for a sharp
note looks like a slanted pound sign (J), while the symbol for
a flat note looks something like a lowercase letter B (b). The
natural symbol is normally not used in front of natural notes.
To show that a note on the grand staff is a sharp or flat
note, the appropriate accidental symbol is placed just before
the note. The C-sharp and B-flat notes in Figure 7-6 are sig­
nified with these symbols. Sharps and flats indicated in this
way last only one measure.

Figure 7-6. Accidentals

C C-sharp D E C B B-flat A

U L J i i i
FTTv ___ M ...tm
Vf
■ - _d ___J_
W _ _____m_______________

212
 Chapter 7

Including the sharps and flats, one octave consists of 12

different pitches. With eight octaves, the total is now 96 dif­
ferent pitches. Most songs use only notes that come from this
palette of 96 pitches.
Key signatures. Just because there are 96 pitches avail­
able, does that mean that each one will be used in a song? No,
a song may not play in every octave, nor every note within a
particular octave. Perhaps it uses just a subset of the 12
pitches within one octave. The selection of notes is determined
by the key in which the music is written.
The topic of pitch was introduced by starting with a C
scale. This is a sequence of notes, starting on C, that continues
for one octave. Let's examine the relationship of these notes to
the 12 in the entire octave. If the distance between each of the
12 pitches is called a half step, the sequence of notes forming
the C scale is determined by the following steps: whole,
whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half— where a whole step
equals two half steps.
C
B
A# /Bb
A
G# /Ab
G
F# /Gb
F
E
D# /Eb
D
C# /Db
C
Now apply that sequence of steps again, but this time start the
scale at note A.

A
G#
F#
E

B
A (Start here)

213
Chapter 7

This scale contains three sharp notes, as opposed to the

earlier scale which contained none. The sharp notes replaced
their natural counterparts. This scale is said to be written in
the key of A. A song written in the key of A will normally use
only this set of pitches in each octave. This means that we're
back to a situation where we have to deal with only seven
pitches per octave.
You can start a scale on any note, and for every starting
note, there is a different combination of sharp or flat notes
used. Here's another example, this time using flats:
Bi>
A
G
F
Eb
D
C
Bb (Start here)
This is the key of B-flat. The notes were determined by
using the sequence of half and whole steps given earlier. The
key of B-flat contains two flat notes, B-flat and E-flat. The
notes B-natural and E-natural will not normally be used by a
song written in the key of B-flat.
Table 7-1 is a complete listing of all the major keys. The
keys with less than five sharps or flats are the ones used most
often.
Table 7-1. Keys
Key Notes Sharps/Flats
c C D E F G A B C 0
G G A B C D E Ft! G 1# (F#)
D D E Ft! G A B ctt D 2tt (F(t, Ctt)
A A B ctt D E Ft! Gtt A 3# (F)t, Ctt, G(t)
E E Ft! Ft! A B Ctt Dft E 4# (Ft),Ctt,Gtt,Dtt)
B B ctt Dft E Ft! Gtt A# B 5# (F(t, C(t, G|t, D(t, Att)
Ft! Ft! G# Aft B Ctt DU Eft Ftt 6jt (Ftt,Ctt,Gtt,D(t,A)t,Ett)
Ctt Cl! Dtf Eft F# G« A# Btt Ctt n (Ftt,Ctt,Gtt,Dtt,Att,Ett,B)t
F F G A Bb C D E F lb (Bb ) '
Bb Bb C D Eb F, G A Bb 2b (Bb,E b )
Eb Eb F G Ab Bb C D Eb 3b (Bb,E b,A b)
Ab Ab Bb C D Eb F G Ab 4b (Bb, E b, Ab, Db )
Db E)b Eb F Gb Ab Bb C Db 5b (Bb,Eb, Ab,Db,Gb)
cj> Gb Ab Bb Cb Db Eb F Gb 6b (Bb, E b, Ab, Db, Gb, Cb)
Cb Cb Db Eb Fb Gb Ab Bb Cb 7b (Bb, E b, Ab, Db, Gb, Cb, Fb
214
 Chapter 7

If you study Table 7-1 carefully, you'll notice some pat­

terns. For example, each key which contains sharp notes con­
tains Fit. The key of G has F# as its only sharp note. The key
of D keeps the F # but adds C tt. Each successive key adds one
more sharp note, while retaining all the other sharp notes
from before. This pattern works in the same way for keys
containing flat notes, starting with the note .
Most of time you can determine the key in which a piece
of music is written by counting the number of sharp or flat
symbols near the clef symbols on the grand staff. If no sharp
or flat symbols appear there, the music is written in the key of
C. If one sharp symbol is displayed, the piece is written in the
key of G. Two sharp symbols mean that the key of D is to be
used, and so on. Likewise, one flat symbol indicates the key of
F, two indicate the key of B-flat, on up to seven flat symbols,
which indicate the key of C-flat.
Just as the number of sharp or flat symbols is important,
so is their position. The sharp symbol for F# is always placed
on the line that designates note F. Furthermore, when a sharp
symbol is put next to the clef symbol, it has the effect of auto­
matically placing a sharp symbol in front of every note on that
line. A sharp symbol on line F means that all notes placed on
the grand staff in F positions are to be played as F-sharps. Of
course, the same is true when flats are used. A flat symbol
placed near the clef on the line for B means that all B notes
should be played as B-flats.
Sharp and flat symbols placed after a clef symbol is called
a key signature. The use of a key signature saves a lot of work
when writing music, because it's no longer necessary to write
a sharp or flat symbol in front of every note that needs one.
Figure 7-7 contains some examples of key signatures.
Since all keys that contain sharps contain Fit, all of these keys
have a sharp symbol at the F position. Each successive key
adds a sharp symbol at a new position while retaining all the
old ones. Also notice that a sharp or flat on one line affects
not only the notes on that line, but the corresponding notes in
the octaves above and below as well.

215
Chapter 7

Figure 7*7. Key Signatures

Keyof C i KeyofG , KeyofD .
=£J J J J
S» ' = = <D>
C D E F C D E Fft Cft D E Fft

-y J *J J----
J f);
/ >1
J#J J=j= ^/ _ aL#L J J

KeyofA KeyofE KeyofF

J J J J= 7frVrJ-J..| [z =ft=f=t=H=
*
4 .. J J
G# A B Cft Dft E Fft Gft F G A bI>

_ z4_dL___^U W _ -y >"'----- TT-J-j---j—

Keyof KeyofEb KeyofAt>

-Jit* J J /f^i,>J1_Jr!..=
_§) ^ Q
/j!^
) b^t*="*....
f+
E^ D C Bl> E^ Al> C e!> d!> F B^

-=«^.J
yv =J * =j A j ~*T; »J..
•V -J —W..J.
tM .Jf J 1

216
 Chapter 7

Duration. The vertical position of a note on the grand

staff determines its pitch. The horizontal direction of the staff
indicates time. A sequence of notes is played in order from left
to right, just as text is read from left to right. By putting the
pitches together in a pleasing order, you'll create a melody,
the basis for a song.
Pitch, however, is only one major characteristic of a note.
Another important quality of a note is its duration. In a song,
notes are not always played at the rate of one note every beat.
Sometimes a note may be played for two beats. Other times,
two notes might be played within the span of one beat, mean­
ing that each note is half a beat long. Thus, every note on the
staff is going to have to specify not only its pitch, but also its
duration in terms of beats.
The duration of a note is indicated by its shape. The stan­
dard note you've been using thus far is formally called a quar­
ter note, and is drawn with a stem and a filled-in oval at the
bottom. If we assume a quarter note plays for a duration of
one beat, then twice that length, two beats, is indicated by a
half note, which looks like a quarter note except that the oval
is not filled in. Twice the length of a half note is a whole note,
which plays for four beats and looks like a half note without
a stem.
In the other direction, for durations less than one beat,
the symbol for a quarter note is used, but flags are added at
the top of the stem. An eighth note plays for half a beat and
has one flag. A sixteenth note has two flags. Four sixteenth
notes are equal in duration to one quarter note. Thirty-second
and sixty-fourth notes do exist, but they're not used very
often. Figure 7-8 shows these notes, and how they're written.
Take a moment to look over it.

Figure 7-8. Duration

4 beats Whole Note q► 1 /2 beat Eighth note

2 beats Half note J 1 /4 beat Sixteenth note

}

1 beat Quarter note J 1 /8 beat Thirty-second note J>

217
Chapter 7

The following combinations are all equivalent in duration

to one whole note.

, 1J J 1 1 1 11-H-k-
=*F=zt2t=FjF3= 4 &4 --1
&J J r J-----

One convention in displaying durations less than one beat

is to combine notes of equal duration in sets. Two eighth notes
can be drawn by extending the flag from the first one to the
top of the stem of the second one. This can also be done with
sixteenth notes, except that two lines connect the tops of the
stems, because sixteenth notes have two flags.

Notes of different durations can be combined. The notes

shown on the left are the same as those shown on the right.

Notes can even be drawn upside down. This is done only

when the notes would appear near the top of a staff. The oval
portion of the note stays in the same place, so the pitch is not
affected. Drawing a note upside down does not affect its dura­
tion either.

218
 Chapter 7

Dotted notes. With just a few different durations, it's pos­

sible to create a variety of different rhythms. But there are still
some durations that cannot be expressed using only the notes
you've seen so far. For example, how do you show that a note
should be played for three beats? Situations like this require
the use of dotted notes.
When a dot is placed after a note, it means that the note
should be played for one and a half times the normal dura­
tion. Given a dotted half note, the half note portion is two
beats, and half of that is one beat, for a total of three. A dot­
ted whole note plays for six beats (four beats for the whole
note and two beats for the dot). And a dotted quarter note?
That plays for one and a half beats.
Using the dot, here are some more note combinations
which total four beats.

r l- 4 . H h. i 1j j j } } H
J ---w-- ^ dm d d* m m
rn i1 ?}
a J . a J a J 1 1
d* d W W V
W Wrn zdin jmotzMZ

Notice that the dot always appears to the right of the

note. If you see a dot placed above or below a note, it has a
different meaning and does not affect the note's duration.
These dot placements are explained a bit later.
Measures. A song is just a long sequence of notes of dif­
ferent pitches and durations. To make it easier to deal with
pitches, they're separated into groups called octaves. Likewise,
to make it easier to work with a sequence of notes, the notes
are often divided into groups called measures, with each mea­
sure consisting of the same number of beats. A common num­
ber of beats per measure is four.
In sheet music, a measure is formed by placing a vertical
line called a bar between each group of notes on the staff.

'"V"
first measure second measure

219
Chapter 7

Measures are used mainly for organization and reference.

It's much easier to refer to a note as being the second note in
the twenty-third measure than it is to refer to the one hundred
forty-seventh note.
Each measure must have the same total duration. Since
this total duration is often four beats, or one whole note, you
can see why the note for one beat is called a quarter note.
Tempo. You've seen that the length of a note is expressed
in beats, and that notes can be organized into groups called
measures, which all have the same number of beats. The ques­
tion is, how long is a beat?
A beat is a unit of time. The shorter the amount of time
for each beat, the faster they'll occur. If the time is longer, the
beats won't occur as often.
The rate at which the beats occur is called the tempo. The
faster the tempo, the more quickly the notes are played. At a
slower tempo, each beat lasts for a longer amount of time. An­
other way to look at it is to say that for a fixed amount of
time, such as one minute, there will be more beats at a fast
tempo than there will be at a slow tempo.
The relationships of quarter notes to half notes and other
notes still hold; a half note will always be twice as long as a
quarter note. It's just the actual time lengths that change.
The standard method of measuring a tempo is to specify
the beats per minute. An average tempo is about 100 beats per
minute. A tempo of 60 means that there will be 1 beat every
second, which is rather slow. A tempo of 150 is more than 2
beats every second, which is relatively fast.
The tempo is a very important part of a song. A beautiful
melody can be ruined if it's played too fast or too slow. There­
fore, sheet music usually indicates the proper tempo. At the
top of the sheet music you should find the letters M.M., fol­
lowed by a number. This number indicates the beats per
minute, and defines the tempo that should be used in playing
the song.
M.M. 100

220
 Chapter 7

Another way’ to show the tempo is to replace the M.M.

with a quarter no>te and an equal sign. The quarter note is
used because it r<^presents one beat. Either way works just as
well.
J = 100
0 i I I
J
_~Jr __m .
Y7TS. M W m--------------------------------------------------------------

Using a number for the tempo is convenient because it

can be used when setting a metronome. But there's another
method of specifying the tempo. Often you'll see words such
as adagio or allegro on sheet music. What do they mean? Just
like numbers, they specify tempo. Here's a list of most of the
tempo terminology, in order from slowest to fastest:
lento Very slow
grave Slow, solemn
largo Broad
adagio Leisurely
andante Walking
andantino A little faster walk
moderato Moderate
allegretto Rather fast
allegro Fast
vivace Lively
presto Very fast
prestissimo As fast as possible
These values may be modified by one of the following words:
molto Very
meno Less
piu More
The tempo notation moderato indicates medium speed,
which roughly corresponds to M.M. 100.
Rests. Pitch and duration are the two most important
parts of a note. There's something similar to a note, however,
which has only duration and no pitch. It's called a rest. For
the specified amount of time, no tone is produced.
There's a different rest symbol for each duration. Because
the idea of pitch does not apply, the vertical position of a rest
does not matter, so it's usually placed in the middle of the
staff. A whole rest is drawn as a small block placed right below

221
Chapter 7

the second staff line. A half rest looks the same except that the
block is placed on top of the third staff line. A quarter rest is a
symbol that defies description. Eighth, sixteenth, and thirty-
second rests are all drawn as slanted stems with the proper
number of flags to the left of the stem. Figure 7-9 shows the
rest symbols.

Figure 7-9. Rests

Whole rest -m r Eighth rest y

Half rest -*■ - Sixteenth rest yf

Quarter rest \ Thirty-second rest

Here are some combinations of notes and rests. They've

been divided into measures to show that each group has a
total duration of four beats.

V V
■i --- ---- -----
A | y
.:.j ______ m. ^ __ t __ m __ f___
V V *

Ties and slurs. Another special symbol is called the tie

symbol. Two notes are tied together when connected by a
symbol that looks like a curved line or arc. The tie means that
the two notes are to be played together as one long note, with
no break in volume. Thus, two quarter notes tied together will
play just like a half note.

The reason for using ties is that the effect of a tie can ex­
tend across one measure or beat into another. In the following
two sequences of notes, each sequence sounds the same when
played, but the first one cannot be divided into measures.

222
 Chapter 7

iiii £
22. M.

The next example demonstrates the use of a tie to create a

note five beats long.

Another application of the tie symbol is to connect notes

of different pitches. In this case, the tie is called a slur and
may be used within a measure as well as between two mea­
sures. Playing two quarter notes slurred together is like play­
ing a half note that changes its pitch halfway through playing.

Sometimes a very long tie symbol is used over a long

stretch of notes. This produces a smooth, legato effect when
the notes are played.

Volume. Yet another major characteristic of a note is its

volume. Some parts of a song can be emphasized if they're
played loudly. Other parts may be subdued by being played
quietly. The level of loudness or softness of a piece of music is
referred to as dynamics.
Dynamics are indicated on sheet music by letters which
appear between the two staves of the grand staff. These letters
are listed below, in order from loudest to softest.
fff (fortississimo) mp (mezzo piano)
ff (fortissimo) p (piano)
f (forte) pp (pianissimo)
mf (mezzo forte) ppp (pianississimo)
223
Chapter 7

These volume levels range from very very loud (fff) to

very very soft (ppp). Extremes such as ffff or pppp are not
used very often.
The term dynamics should not be confused with the con­
cept of an envelope, which describes the changes in volume as
an individual note is played.
M ultiple voices. You've seen the essential characteristics
of individual notes and how notes can be combined into
groups called measures. The music can then be sung or played
on an instrument. The next step is to have several voices or
instruments playing at the same time.
A set of notes for one singer or one instrument is gen­
erally referred to as one voice. With two voices playing
simultaneously, one voice can play a melody while the other
voice plays a bass part to give a little more body to the song.
If a third voice is added, it can be used for harmony or for
percussion effects, like drums or cymbals.
Each voice is independent of the others and can play its
own notes of different pitches and durations. This brings up
only one problem; there must be a way of keeping the voices
synchronized. They should start together and end together.
Fortunately, the concept of tempo and the use of mea­
sures solve this problem. The voices may be independent, but
one thing they must have in common is the tempo. The tempo
establishes a beat which all voices can follow. The notes in
each voice are divided into measures. Then, even though the
durations within a measure may differ for each voice, at least
the voices will always be on the same measure at any given
instant. Figure 7-10 shows this concept.

Figure 7-10. Multiple Voices, Example 1

224
 Chapter 7

The horizontal direction of the grand staff corresponds to

time. Because multiple voices are synchronized according to
tempo, it's possible to represent more than one voice on just
one grand staff. Within each measure, the notes for all of the
voices are drawn. It's a rather simple matter to determine
which notes go with which voice. Usually, the topmost notes
are for the first voice, the notes below those are for the next
voice, and so on, with the bottommost notes assigned to the
last voice.

Figure 7-11. Multiple Voices, Example 2

Summary
• Notes are shown on a grand staff which consists of the treble
and bass staves. Each staff has its own clef symbol.
• The most important characteristics of a note are its pitch and
duration.
• Pitches occur in groups called octaves. Each octave contains
the pitches labeled C, D, E, F, G, A, and B, plus five inter­
mediate pitches called sharps and flats.
• Only some of the pitches in each octave are used, depending
on the key in which the music is written.
• Pitch is indicated by the vertical position of a note on the
grand staff. The note may be drawn on a staff line or be­
tween staff lines.
• An accidental (a sharp or flat symbol) may be placed im­
mediately before the note to indicate that the note is a sharp
or a flat.

225
Chapter 7

• A key signature is indicated by placing sharp or flat symbols

near the clef symbol.
• Durations are specified in terms of beats. Common units of
duration are whole note, half note, quarter note, and so on,
down to sixty-fourth note.
• Durations are indicated by the shapes of the notes.
• Placing a dot after the note means that its duration should be
one and a half times normal.
• Notes are organized into groups of equal total duration called
measures.
• Measures are indicated by a single vertical line, called a bar,
that crosses the staff lines.
• The rate at which the beats occur is called the tempo and is
measured in terms of beats per minute.
• The tempo is indicated by an M.M. marking at the beginning
of the music.
• A rest is similar to a note in that it plays for a certain dura­
tion, but it produces no tone so it has no pitch.
• Rests are indicated by special symbols, one for each duration.
• An arc-type symbol connecting two notes is used to indicate
a tie or slur.
• The general volume level of a piece of music is specified by
dynamics.
• Dynamics are indicated by letters that appear between the
two staves.
• The notes for one singer or one instrument form one voice.
• Several voices can be represented on the same grand staff.
• When played, multiple voices stay synchronized because
they share the same tempo.

226
Chapter 8

The Editor

You've been introduced to the Sidplayer, which plays songs.

You've even seen some of the elements of music. But in order
to play your own songs or tunes, you have to create them.
That's what the ''Editor'' is for. It's used to enter, edit,
and debug up to three voices of a song. The program contains
features which make music editing easy. Since there are so
many features and the program can appear to be rather
intimidating the first time you use it, be assured that you'll see
exactly how each feature works.
The first step, however, is to create a working editor pro­
gram. It's in two parts.
Type in Program 8-1, ''EDITOR,'' using the "Proofreader"
from Appendix D. Save it using the filename EDITOR. If
you're using the Datassette, change the statement DN = 8 in
line 1 to DN = 1 before you save the program. Be sure to make
note of the starting and ending number indicated by the tape
counter.

Program 8-1. EDITOR

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

1 DN=8 sGOTO 9200sREM EDITOR77 BY HARRY BRATT 10/26

/84' srem 250
5 JV=PEEK(56320):JB=1-(JV AND16)/16:JV=JV AND 15:
RETURN srem 180
8 POKE CY,3 SPRINT:POKE CX,18-8*AC:PRINTAC$(AC+1):R
ETURN srem 143
10 PRINTCHR$(19)CHR$(146)01$;sPOKE CX,2 5 sPRINT”MEM
:"FMCHR$(157)"{6 S P A C E S R E T U R N :rem 5
12 POKE 54283,129sPOKE54283,32sRETURN srem 122
19 V0=NT sV1=ACs V2=0Cs V3=LN sV4=RS+2 *SP sV5=TY:V6=1
srem 47
20 H=PEEK(MM+CN)SIFHAND3 THEN SP=1:RS=0 sTY=0 sRETUR
N srem 196
22 SP=0 sLN=7-(HAND31)/4-.5*((HAND32)=32):TY=-((HAN
D64)=64) srem 185
24 H=PEEK(MM+CN+1)sIF H=0 THEN RS=1sGOTO 28
srem 176
26 RS=0:NT=(HAND7)-1sOC=7-(HAND56)/8:AC=(HAND192)/
64-2 srem 58
28 RETURN srem 74

22 7
Chapter 8

30 POKE CY,21:PRINTC0$:POKE CX,X*5:H=PEEK(MM+CN):I

F H AND 3 GOTO 36 :rent 70
31 IF RS THEN PRINT"(R)"Y$;:GOTO 33 :rem 204
32 PRINTC0?NT?CHR?(ASC(AC$)+ 162*(ASC(AC$)=194))OC?
Y?; :rem 201
33 PRINTLN?LM?TY?(TY); :rem 120
34 IF V6 THEN NT=V0:AC=V1:OC=V2:LN=V3:RS=V4AND1:SP
=(V4AND2)/2:TY=V5:V6=0 :rem 170
35 RETURN :rem 72
36 POKE 251,PEEK(MM+CN+1-(HAND2)/2):POKE 252,-((PE
E K (MM+CN)AND3)< >1):SYS 1232 :rera 43
37 PRINTS?(PEEK(252)+l)Y$CHR$(157);:QI=ASC(MID?(S$
,PEEK(252)+l))-65 :rem 255
38 IF ABS(V(QI))<90 THEN QJ=PEEK(251):GOSUB80:GOTO
34 :rem 24
39 QJ=PEEK(MM+CN+1)+256*PEEK(251):GOSUB 80:GOTO 34
:rem 104
40 POKE 1216+SC,PK:SC=3:POKE 1219,1:PK=14:GOTO 510
:rem 56
45 GOSUB 5:IF JB=0 THEN RETURN srem 239
47 GOSUB 5:IF JB THEN 47 srem 15
48 JB=1:RETURN srem 128
50 FOR K=0 TO 6:AC%(AK%(ABS(K+6*(KY<0))))=(K<ABS(K
Y))*SGN(KY):NEXT:RETURN :rem 235
60 LN?=CHR?(196+LN):LM?=CHR?(46+14*(LN=INT(L N ))):R
ETURN :rem 218
65 NT?=CHR?(67+NT+7*(NT>4))sAC?=CHR?(194+AC):OC?=R
IGHT?(STR?(O C ),1):RETURN jrem 64
70 K=J-INT(j/256)*256:J = (J-K)/256:RETURN :rem 57
80 IF QI<>2 GOTO 84 :rem 226
82 IF QJAND1 THEN PRINT-(11-INT(Qj/16)+12*(QJ/2AND
7));:RETURN srem 50
83 QJ=INT(Qj/l6)+12*(7-(QJ/2AND7)):GOTO 87 :rem 86
84 IFQI=9 THEN QJ=(QJAND3584)/ 2 + (QJAND255)+((QJAND
256 )= 256)*2048:GOTO 87 srem 24
85 IF QI>10 THEN ON QI-10 GOTO 88,88,90,90,91,92
:rem 197
86 IF V (Q I )<0 THEN QJ=QJ+256*(QJ>127) srem 2
87 PRINT MID?(STR?(QJ),2+(QJ<0)); :RETURN :rem 138
88 IF QJ=0 THEN P R I N T " N " R E T U R N :rem 170
89 PRINTFW?(QJ-1,QI-11)?:RETURN :rem 179
90 PRINTNU?(QJ,QI-13); :rem 59
91 RETURN :rem 74
92 QJ=QJ-256*(QJ=0):QJ=INT(14400/Q J ):GOTO 87
:rem 30
200 REM INPUT SBR :rem 237
210 A ? = "":L H = 0 :PRINTCHR?(164)C H R ? (157); :rem 146
215 GET B ? ;IF B?="" GOTO 215 :rem 95
220 B=ASC(B ? ):IF B=13 OR B=141 THEN PRINT ";:RETU
RN :rem 88

228
 Chapter 8

230 IF B< >20 OR LH=0 GOTO 240 :rem 179

232 LH=LH-1:A$=LEFT$(A$ ,LH-(LH=0)) :rem 122
235 PRINTCHR?(157)"{2 SPACES}"CHR$(157)CHR$(157)CH
R$ (164 )CHR$ (157) ; sIF LH=0 THEN A$ = ,,H :rem 46
237 GOTO 215 srem 109
240 IF LH=MX-(ASC(A$+" ")=45) GOTO 215 :rem 140
245 IF B=45 AND (FA AND 1) AND LH=0 GOTO 270
:rem 103
250 IF B>47 AND B<58 GOTO 270 :rem 161
260 IF B< 32 OR B> 90 OR (FA AND 2) = 0 GOTO 215
:rem 80
270 A$=A$+B$:LH=LH+1:PRINTB$;:POKE 212,0:PRINTCHR$
(164)CHR$(157);:GOTO 215 :rem 215
500 REM ** MAIN JOYSTICK PART ** :rem 237
501 IF NN<0 THEN NT=0:OC=4:LN=3:RS=0:SP=0:GOTO 507
:rem 145
502 IF GK=0 GOTO 507 :rem 250
503 TN=CN:FOR X = (TN/2-3)*(TN<5) TO 7-(4-(NN-TN)/2)
*-((NN-TN)<7) :rem 173
504 CN=TN-6+2*X:GOSUB19:GOSUB60:GOSUB65:GOSUB30:NE
X T :CN=TN+2*(TN>NN) :rem 72
505 GOSUB20:CN=TN :rem 38
507 GOSUB 555:GOSUB 545 :rem 19
509 LQ=0 :rem 168
510 GOSUB5:GET K$:IF K$="" THEN K$="":IF JV=15 AN
D JB=0 GOTO 510 :rem 83
511 IF JB OR ASC(K $ )=13 GOTO 600 :rem 90
512 IF JV<>15 THEN POKE 198,0:GOTO 530 :rem 14
513 ON ABS(ASC(K $ )-132) GOTO 8000,7000,4100,4000,4
050,4060 :rem 119
514 K=-2 *(K$=" + H)-3*(K$="£")-4*(K$="-"):IF K>0 TH
EN AC=K-3:GOTO 554 :rem 101
515 IF K$>"@" AND K$ <"H" THEN NT=ASC(K $ )-67:NT=NT-
7*(N T<0):RS=0:SP=0:GOTO 553 :rem 242
516 IF K$>,7" AND K$ <"8" THEN OC=VAL(K $ ):RS=0:SP=0
:GOTO 553 :rem 140
517 IF K$ >"G" AND K$ <"X" THEN K=KL%(ASC(K$)-72):IF
K>-1 THEN LN=K:GOTO 542 :rem 126
518 IF' K$="8" THEN LN=2:GOTO 542 :rem 155
519 IF K$="." AND LN>0 AND LN<6 THEN LN=INT(LN )+ .5
*(1-(LN*2)AND1):GOTO 542 :rem 162
520 IF (ASC(K $ ) AND 127)=20 GOTO 900 :rem 236
521 IF K$="R" THEN RS=1-RS:TY=0:GOSUB555:GOTO 510
:rem 51
522 IF K$ = ,7 ‘’ THEN TY=1-TY:RS=0 :GOSUB555 :GOTO 510
:rem 25
523 IF ASC(K $ )=17 OR ASC(K $ )=29 THEN JV=28-ASC(K $ )
:GOSUB650:JV=15 :rem 81
524 IF K$ = ,,M" THEN LQ=l:GOTO 740 :rem 175

229
Chapter 8

525 IF ASC(K$)=221 OR ASC(K$)=219 THEN K=220-ASC(K

$):LQ=1:GOTO 725 :rem 10
526 IF ASC(K $ )=147 GOTO 980 :rem 118
529 GOTO 510 :rem 111
530 IF JV>12 THEN RS=0:GOTO 550 :rem 182
535 K=.5*((JV>8)-(JV<8)):LN=LN+K:IF LN=.5 OR LN=6.
5 THEN LN=LN+K :rem 71
540 LN=LN+ 7.5 *(LN >7)-7.5*(LN <0) :rem 161
542 GOSUB12:IF SP GOTO 554 :rem 193
543 GOSUB 545:GOTO 510 :rem 195
545 POKE CY,17:PRINT 2 POKE CX,2l2lF SP THEN PRINTC0
$"— "SPC(2 )"-------" 2RETURN :rem 182
547 POKE CY,172 PRINT 2POKE CX,21s GOSUB 60 2PRINT C0$
LN$LM$SPC(2)LN$(LN) 2 RETURN :rem 126
550 NT=NT+(JV=13)-(JV=14) 2 rem 152
552 IF NT<0 OR NT>6 THEN OC=OC-(JV=14)+(JV=13)2NT=
3*(l-SGN(NT)) 2 rem 253
553 AC=AC%(N T ) 2 IF SP=0 THEN GOSUB 555 2GOTO 510
:rem 42
554 SP=0 2GOSUB5 55 :GOSUB545 2GOTO 510 2 rem 104
555 F1=02POKE CY,9 2 PRINTC0$ 2 POKE CX,162lF RS THEN
{SPACE}PRINT"(R)";GOTO 567 2 rem 8
556 IF SP THEN PRINT"-- " 2GOTO 567 2 rem 110
557 IF 0 0 7 OR (0C=7 AND NT=6 AND AC=-1) THEN 0C=7
;NT= 6 2 AC =0 2 rem 184
558 IF OC<0 OR (OC=0 AND NT=0 AND AC=1) THEN OC=0 2
NT=0;AC=0 2 rem 105
559 POKE 780, (l-RS)*(NT+l+8*(7-OC)+64*(AC+2) )2 SYS
{SPACE}1396 ;rem 59
560 POKE CY, 9 2 POKE 54276,64 2GOSUB 65 2 PRINT 2 rem 190
565 POKE CX,16:PRINTC0$NT$H MAC$sPOKE CY,14;PRINT 2
POKE C X ,17 2 rem 2
567 POKE CY,14 2PRINT:POKE CX,17:IF RS OR SP THEN P
RINT"-";GOTO 576 2 rem 81
568 PRINTOC$ :rem 230
576 POKE CY/19:PRINT 2 POKE C X ,9;PRINTC3 $CHR$(146-12
8*RS)"REST"CHR$(146 ) 7 :rem 194
577 PRINT" <— SELECT— > "CHR$(146-128*TY)"TIE"2IF
{SPACE}FI THEN RETURN 2 rem 99
579 IF AL=AC AND RS=0AND SP=0 THEN 582 :rem 24
580 PRINTC3? 2H=AC2AC=AL2GOSUB 8 2AC=H2lF RS OR SP T
HEN AL=2 2 RETURN :rem 187
582 AL=AC:PRINTC1$ 2GOSUB 8:RETURN 2 rem 88
600 REM ** BUTTON PRESSED ** 2 rem 20
605 FG=0 :rem 149
610 GOSUB 5:IF JB=0 THEN 680 srem 219
620 IF JV=15 THEN 610 2 rem 48
625 FG=1 2 IF JV<13 GOTO 610 2 rem 113
632 POKE 1216+SC,PK 2 rem 28
635 K = (JV=13)-(JV=14):SC=SC+K:SC=SC-K*(SC=5):SC=SC
+6*((SC>6)-(SC<1)) :rem 138
230
 Chapter 8

640 PK=PEEK(1216+SC):POKE 1216+SC,-(SC=3 OR SC=1)

:rem 188
645 FOR K=1 TO 90:NEXT:GOTO 610 :rem 206
648 GOSUB650:GOSUB45:IF JB THEN POKE 198,0:GOTO 40
:rem 104
649 GOTO 648 :rem 126
650 K=-(JV<8):IF(CN+(K=0))<0 OR(CN>NN AND K=l) OR
{SPACE}JV>11 OR IN THEN FG=1:RETURN :rem 70
651 IF K=0 THEN POKE CY,21:PRINT:POKE CX,35:PRINTZ
$(0); :rem 204
652 POKE CY,21:PRINT:PRINTZ$(1-K);:X=K*7 :rem 179
656 CN=CN-2+4*K:IF CN-2=NN THEN FG=1:RETURN :rem 9
658 TN=CN:IF SQ=0 THEN GOSUB 20:GOSUB 545:GOSUB 55
5 :rem 175
660 CN=CN-6-14*(JV<8):IF CN<0 OR CN>NN GOTO 670
:rem 39
662 GOSUB19:GOSUB60:GOSUB65:GOSUB30 :rem 234
670 FG=1:CN=TN:GOSUB20:RETURN :rem 120
680 IF FG THEN ON SC GOTO 648,800,510,750,510,700
:rem 202
682 IF (FM=0 AND CN>NN) OR (LN=7 AND (TY OR RS)) G
OTO 510 :rem 164
684 IN=IN+(IN>0):POKE MM+CN,4*(7-INT(L N ))-32*(LN>I
NT(LN))+64*TY :rem 137
686 POKE MM+CN+1,(1-RS)*(NT+1+8*(7-OC)+64*(AC+2)):
GOSUB 6 0 :GOSUB 65 :rem 136
687 IF Ml THEN AC%(NT)=AC :rem 62
688 IF NN<CN THEN NN=NN+2:FM=FM-1:GOSUB10 :rem 181
689 X=3:GOSUB30:POKE 780,PEEK(MM+CN+1):SYS 1396:PO
KE CY,21:PRINT :rem 79
690 POKE 54276,64:PRINTZ$(0);:TY=0:Fl=l:GOSUB576:C
N=CN+2 :rem 50
691 IF NN-CN<8 OR IN>4 GOTO 510 :rem 118
692 TN=CN:CN=CN+8:X=7:GOSUB19:GOSUB60:GOSUB65:GOSU
B30:CN=TN:GOTO 510 :rem 76
700 REM ** KEY CHANGE ** :rem 178
710 GOSUB 45:IF JB GOTO 40 :rem 115
715 IF JV>12 AND JV<15 GOTO 740 :rem 86
720 K = (JV=11)-(JV=7):IF K=0 THEN 710 :rem 139
725 KY=KY+K:KY=KY+15*(SGN(K Y )*(ABS(KY)=8)):GOSUB12
:rem 25
730 POKE CY,1:PRINT:POKE C X ,10:PRINTC1$ABS(KY)CHR$
(157)CHR$(193-2*(KY<0)); :rem 71
732 PRINT" ("KY$(KY+7)")":GOTO 745 :rem 52
740 M1=1-M1:GOSUB12:POKE CY,1:PRINT:POKE CX,30:PRI
NTC1$MID$("ON OFF",4-Ml*3,3) :rem 60
745 GOSUB 50:ON LQ+1 GOTO 710,509 :rem 240
750 REM ** ACCIDENTAL CHANGE ** :rem 150
760 RS=0:GOSUB 45:IF JB GOTO 40 :rem 196
770 K = (JV=7)-(JV=11):IF K=0 THEN 760 :rem 149

231
Chapter 8

775 AC=AC+K:AC=AC+3*(SGN(K))*(ABS(AC)=2):IF SP=0 T

HEN GOSUB 555:GOTO 760 :rem 6
780 SP=0:GOSUB 555:GOSUB 545:GOTO 760 :rem 112
800 REM ** REST <— > TIE ** :rem 24
810 GOSUB 45:IF JB GOTO 40 :rem 116
815 IF JV<>11 GOTO 825 :rem 129
820 RS=1-RS:TY=0:GOTO 840 :rem 226
825 IF JV< >7 GOTO 810 :rem 81
830 TY=1-TY:RS=0:GOTO 840 :rem 235
840 IF SP=0 THEN GOSUB 555:GOTO 40 :rem 96
845 SP=0:GOSUB555:GOSUB545:GOTO 40 :rem 57
900 REM ** INS/DEL ** :rem 19
910 K=-(ASC(K$)=20) :rem 214
920 IF CN>NN OR (FM=0 AND K=0) THEN ON SQ+1 GOTO 9
70,7375 :rem 185
923 GOSUB12:IN=IN-K*2+1:IN=IN-(IN<0) :rem 124
925 IF K=0 THEN POKE CY,21:PRINT:POKE CX,35:PRINTZ
$(0); :rem 208
927 POKE CY,21:PRINT:POKE CX,15:PRINTZ$(1-K);
:rem 211
930 IF K GOTO 939 :rem 84
932 FOR 1=0 TO 2 STEP 2:J=MM+CN+I:GOSUB 70:POKE 25
1+1,K :POKE 252+1,J:NEXT I :rem 196
936 J=NN-CN+2:GOSUB 70:POKE 781,K:POKE 782,J:SYS 1
024:NN=NN+2 :rem 13
938 FM=FM-l:ON SQ+1 GOTO 970,7375 :rem 23
939 IF CN=NN GOTO 950 :rem 117
940 FOR 1=0 TO 2 STEP 2:J=MM+CN+2-I:GOSUB 70:POKE
{SPACE}251+1,K:POKE 252+1,J:NEXT I :rem 34
942 J=NN-CN:GOSUB 70:POKE 781,K:POKE 782,J:SYS 102
4 :rem 161
950 NN=NN-2:FM=FM+1:IF NN-CN<8 OR IN>4 THEN ON SQ+
1 GOTO 970,7375 :rem 83
960 TN=CN:CN=CN+8:X=7:GOSUB19:GOSUB60:GOSUB65:GOSU
B30:CN=TN:ONSQ+1GOTO 970,7375 :rem 243
970 GOSUB10:GOTO 510 :rem 138
980 PRINTCHR?(19)SPC(25)Cl$"CLEAR TO END?":rem 132
982 GET K $ :IF K$="" GOTO 982 :rem 135
985 IF K$<>"Y" GOTO 995 :rem 155
990 FOR K=1 TO 5:POKE CY,21:PRINT:POKE CX,15:PRINT
Z$(0);:NEXT :rem 133
992 FM=FM+(NN-CN+2 ) / 2 :NN=CN-2:IN=0 :rem 220
995 GOSUB10:GOTO 510 :rem 145
4000 REM ** ENTER MEASURE ** :rem 224
4010 IF Ml THEN GOSUB 50 :rem 230
4015 MZ=MZ+1+1000*(MZ >999):J=MZ:GOSUB70 :rem 49
4020 POKE MM+CN,J*64+30:POKE MM+CN+1,K :B=1:GOTO 73
00 :rem 156
4050 K=0:GOTO 4065 :rem 195
4060 K=NN+2 :rem 75

232
 Chapter 8

4065 IF IN GOTO 510 :rem 196

4067 CN=K :rem 234
4070 GK=1:SYS 1802:GOSUB10:GOTO501 srem 243
4100 IF NN<2 OR IN GOTO 510 :rem 101
4105 PRINTCHR?(19)SPC(25)C1$"MEASURE:{10 SPACES}";
:POKE CX,33 :rem 170
4110 FA=0:MX=3:GOSUB 200:IF A$="" THEN GOSUB10:GOT
O 510 :rem 29
4115 J=VAL(A$):GOSUB 70:POKE 1394,J*64+30:POKE 139
5,K :rem 144
4120 J=MM(V C ):GOSUB 70:POKE 251,K:POKE 252,J
:rem 227
4125 J=MM(VC)+NN:GOSUB 70:POKE 1392,K:POKE 1393,J:
SYS 1350 :rem 31
4130 CN=PEEK(251)+256*PEEK(252)-MM(VC):GOTO 4070
:rem 148
5000 POKE CY,3:PRINTC0$:POKE CX,10:PRINTCHR$(18)"P
RESS ’Y' TOCONFIRM" :rem 137
5010 GET K$:ON 1-(K$=”")-2*(K$="Y") GOTO 8005,5010
,5040 :rem 155
5040 POKE 781,237:POKE 782,246:SYS 1813:POKE 55,PE
EK(1020):POKE56,PEEK(1021) :rem 170
5050 POKE 53269,0:POKE 648,4:POKE 56576,PEEK(56576
)OR3:SYS 65409:CLR:END :rem 47
7000 GOSUB 7905:POKE 53280,2:POKE 53265,19:rem 233
7001 POKE 780,24:SYS 1596 :rem 54
7002 POKE CY,3:PRINTC6$:POKE 53288,3:GOTO 7200
:rem 101
7004 PRINTC2$CHR$(147);:P$="{19 SPACES}":REM 19 SP
ACES 1 :rem 177
7006 PRINTCHR$(18)P$P$" "CHR$(1d 7)CHR$(148)" "CHR$
(19); :rem 90
7008 U1$=CHR$(18):PRINTC6$:FOR K=1 TO 10:PRINTCHR$
(185); :U1$=U1$+CHR$(192):NEXT :rem 2
7110 H=0:FOR K=1 TO 10:PRINT:PRINTC2$CHR$(18);:J=5
-LEN(SC$(K ))/2 :rem 131
7114 PRINTLEFT?(P$,J )SC$(K )LEFT?(P$,J + .5);CHR$(146
)? :rem 181
7115 FOR J=1 TO N(K):H=H+1:PRINT" "C0$S$(H)" ";:NE
XT:PRINT:PRINTC6$U1$;:NEXT :rem 144
7116 PRINTCHR?(145):FOR K=1 TO 10:PRINTCHR?(184);:
NEXT :rem 144
7120 POKE CY,1:PRINTC6?:FOR K=0 TO 4:POKE CX,20:PR
INTCHR$(18)P$:NEXT:RETURN :rem 33
7200 IF UY>9 THEN POKE 53255,0:POKE 53288,13:GOTO
{SPACE}7375 :rem 135
7201 POKE 53288,3:POKE 53264,-((UX*40)>147)*8:POKE
53254,(108+UX*40)AND255 :rem 152
7202 POKE 53255,59+UY*16:POKE CX,21 :rem 149
7205 PRINT CHR$(18)SC$(U Y + 1 S S $(N N (U Y )+UX+1)R
IGHT$(1$,38-POS(0)); :rem 219
233
Chapter 8

7207 G0SUB5:GETK$:K=ASC(K$+" "):IF K<>17 AND K<>29

GOTO 7209 srem 218
7208 JV=-7 *(K=29)-11 *(K=17)sSQ=1;GOSUB650:SO=0:POK
E CY,3 sPRINTC6$:GOTO 7207 srem 113
7209 IF (KAND127)=20 THEN SQ=l.lsGOTO 900 srem 181
7211 JV=-JV*(JV<15)-(JV=15)*(15+(K=7 3)+2 *(K=7 7)+4*
(K=74)+8*(K=75)) srem 175
7212 IF JV<15 THEN GOSUB12 sGOTO 7216 srem 242
7213 IF (JB OR K$=CHR$(13)) AND NOT (FM=0 AND CN>N
N) GOTO 7250 srem 150
7214 IF K$ <>CHR$(133) GOTO 7207 srem 56
7215 POKE 53255,0s GK=0 sGOTO 9000 srem 211
7216 UX=UX+(JV=11)-(JV=7)sUX=UX+N(UY+1)*(UX=N(UY+1
))-6*(UX<0) srem 94
7217 UY=UY+(JV=14)-(JV=13)sUY=UY+ll*(UY=11)-ll*(UY
<0) srem 51
7218 IF UY>9 THEN POKE 53255,0sPOKE 53288,13sGOTO
{SPACE}7350 srem 137
7219 IF N (UY+1)<=UX THEN UX=N(UY+1)-1 srem 81
7220 GOTO 7200 srem 205
7250 K=ASC(MID$(S$,N N (U Y )+UX+1))-65 sPOKE CY,1 sPRIN
TsPOKE CX,21sPRINTCHR$(18); srem 80
7255 IF K>10 THEN PRINTV?(K-ll)sGOTO 7265 srem 244
7260 PRINT"(";-(V(K)<0)*(V(K))"TO"ABS(V(K))")"
srem 185
7265 POKE CY,5 sPRINTsPOKE CX,21 srem 90
7267 MX=LEN(STR$(ABS(V(K))))-1 $FA=-(V (K )< 0)
srem 167
7270 PRINTCHR$(18)"ENTERs";sGOSUB 200 sIF A$ = "" GOT
O 7001 srem 75
7280 J=VAL(A $ )sIF ABS(J )>ABS(V (K )) OR (K=16 AND J<
56) GOTO 7001 srem 40
7282 IF K=16 THEN J=INT(1800/J+.5)*8sJ=-J*(J<256)
srem 75
7283 IFK=9THENPOKEMM+CN+l,JAND255 sPOKE MM+CN,(JAND
1792)/8+10-16*(J<0)sGOTO7300 srem 58
7284 IF K<>2 THEN J=J-256*(J <0)sGOTO 7289 srem 163
7286 H=16*(-11*(J<0)+12*(J/12-SGN(J )*INT(ABS(J )/12
))) srem 252
7287 J=INT(H+2*(-7 *(J >=0)-SGN(J )*INT(ABS(J )/12))-(
J<0)+.5) srem 106
7289 IF K=6 THEN MZ=J srem 132
7290 IF ABS(V ( K ))>90 GOTO 7295 srem 49
7292 POKE MM+CN,1 sPOKE MM+CN+1,PEEK(1278+NN(U Y )+UX
)+M (K )*J sGOTO 7300 srem 168
7295 Jl=KsIF J<0 THEN J=-J*(V(C)+1)+l srem 163
7297 GOSUB 70sPOKE MM+CN,PEEK(1278+NN(U Y )+UX)+ M (J1
)*JsPOKE MM+CN+1,K srem 219
7300 IF NN<CN THEN NN=NN+2sFM=FM-1sIF B=1 THEN GOS
UB10 srem 71
234
 Chapter 8

7303 IN=IN+(IN>0) :rem 185

7305 POKE CY,22 SPRINT:POKE C X ,16:PRINT"{4 SPACES}"
;:REM 4 SPACES :rem 223
7310 X=3:GOSUB30sPOKE CY,21:PRINT:PRINTZ$(0);:CN=C
N+2 srem 2
7315 IF NN-CN<8 OR IN>4 GOTO 7320 srem 220
7316 TN=CNs CN=CN+8:X=7:GOSUB19:GOSUB60:GOSUB65:GOS
UB30:CN=TN srem 115
7320 ON 1-(B=13)-2*(B=1) GOTO 7001,7215,510:rem 67
7350 POKE CX,21sPRINT"{17 S P A C E S s R E M 17 SPACES
srem 179
7355 GOSUB5:GETK$:K=0:IF K$<>"" THEN K=ASC(K$):K=K
-57*(K=17)-46*(K=29) srem 94
7356 JV=-JV*(JV<15)-(JV=15)*(15+(K=73)+2*(K=77)+4*
(K=74)+8 *(K=7 5)) srem 185
7357 IF JV=7 OR JV=11 THEN SQ=1:GOSUB650:SQ=0sPOKE
CY,3 :PRINTC6$ sGOTO 7355 srem 73
7358 IF JV=13 OR JV=14 THEN FOR K=1 TO 100*-(K$=”"
):NEXTsGOSUB12sGOTO 7217 srem 255
7360 IF K$ <>"" THEN IF(ASC(K $ )AND127)=20 THEN SQ=
1 sGOTO 900 srem 139
7365 IF K$=CHR$(133) GOTO 7215 srem 1
7370 GOTO 7355 srem 222
7375 K=SQsSQ=0sPOKE CY,3 sPRINTC6$:ON 1-(K>1) GOTO
{SPACE}7355,7207 srem 94
7500 NV(VC)=NN:C N (V C )=CN srem 182
7510 IF VC=30R(VC=2 AND N V (3)=-2)O R (VC=1 AND N V (2)
=-2 AND NV{3 )=-2) GOTO 7530 srem 36
7520 J=K5-NV(3)-4+(VC=1)*(N V (2)+4)sGOSUB 70:POKE 2
51,Ks POKE 252,J srem 32
7525 J=MM(1 )+NV(1)+4-(VC=2)*(N V (2)+4)sGOSUB 70sPOK
E 253,K:POKE 254,J srem 194
7527 J=NV(3)+4-(VC=1)*(N V (2)+4)sGOSUB 70:POKE 781,
K :POKE 782,J :SYS 1024 srem 138
7530 M M (2)= MM{1)+NV(1)+4 sM M {3) = M M (2)+NV(2)+4
:rem 88
7535 GOSUB8690 srem 43
7900 POKE 241,PEEK{241)OR128:POKE 53251,0:POKE 532
81,10 srem 201
7905 POKE 1140,255 sPOKE 1145,240:POKE 1160,K8:POKE
1165,K9 sSYS 1138 srem 84
7910 POKE 53280,10:POKE 53281,IsPOKE 53249,0:POKE
{SPACE}53253,0:RETURN srem 5
8000 IF IN GOTO 510 srem 189
8001 GOSUB 7500 srem 21
8005 POKE 780,9:SYS 1596sPOKE 53269,0:GOTO 8225
srem 32
8010 P$=CHR$(18)+"{39 SPACES}":REM 39 SPACES
srem 237

235
Chapter 8

8015 PI$=CHR$(162):FOR K=1 TO 4:P1$ = P1$ + P1$:NEXT sP

1$=P1$+LEFT$(PI $,6) :rem 233
8020 P2 $=CHR$(192):P2$=P2$+P2$+P2$:P2$=P2$+P2$+P2$
+P2$ :rem 54
8100 PRINTCHR?(147)? srem 127
8110 FOR K=1 TO 6:PRINTCHR?(150)P$:NEXT :rem 223
8120 PRINTCHR?(18)" "C7$LEFT$(P$,39) srem 161
8130 FOR K=1T013:PRINTCHR?(18)CHR$(150)" "C7$" "CB
$" "SPC(34)" "C7$" ":NEXT :rem 45
8140 PRINTCHR$(150)CHR$(18)" "C7$LEFT$(P$ ,39);
:rem 198
8141 FOR K=0 TO 960 STEP 40sPOKE 55335+K,10sPOKE 5
1239+K,160:NEXT :rem 223
8142 POKE CY,19sPRINT srem 247
8145 FOR K=1 TO 4 sPRINT sPRINTCHR$(150)LEFT$(P$ ,4)C
2$LEFT$(P $ ,35)CHR$(150)"{2 SPACES}"? srem 219
8146 NEXT srem 18
8150 PRINTCHR?(19)C6$SPC(13)sPRINTCHR$(18)K1$P2$K2
$ srem 184
8152 PRINTSPC(13):PRINTCHR$(18)CHR$(221)" SID PLAY
ER "CHR$(221) srem 57
8154 PRINTSPC(13)sPRINTCHR?(18)K3$P2$K4$ srem 103
8162 POKE CY#6 SPRINTsPOKE CX,3 srem 40
8165 PRINTCB$LEFT$(P$ #7)P1$LEFT$ ( P $ , 7 ) srem 157
8170 FOR K=1 TO 11sPRINTSPC(3)LEFT$(P$,7)CHR$(146)
MID$(P$,2/22)LEFT?(P$,7)sNEXT srem 171
8175 PRINTSPC(3)LEFT$(P$,7)CHR$(146)PI?LEFT$(P?,7)
srem 76
8180 POKE CY,7:PRINTC6$ srem 99
8190 FOR K=0 TO 5:PRINTSPC(10)K+1;CHR$(157)") "M$(
K)SPRINTsNEXT:RETURN srem 77
8225 GET K$ sIF K$ <"1" OR K$>"6" GOTO 8225 srem 219
8230 J=ASC(K $ )-48 sPOKE CY,5+J*2 sPRINT sPRINTSPC(14)
CHR$(18)C2$M$(J-l) srem 163
8260 ON J GOTO 8900,8500,8450,8400,8300,5000
srem 151
8300 REM ** DIRECTORY ** srem 12
8310 IF DN=1 GOTO 8005 srem 97
8312 POKE 780,Is POKE 781,8sPOKE 782,0 sSYS 65466sPO
KE 581,36 srem 172
8314 POKE 780,1sPOKE 781,69sPOKE 782,2sSYS 65469sS
YS 65472 srem 143
8316 POKE 581,46sPOKE 582,77sPOKE 583,85sPOKE 584,
83 srem 26
8318 P$=CHR$(18)+"{39 SPACES)"sREM 39 SPACES
srem 248
8320 POKE CY,3 sPRINTsPOKE CX,15sPRINTCHR$(18)C0$”D
IRECTORYs" srem 160
8330 POKE CY,6 sPRINT sPRINTSPC(3)CB$CHR$(18)LEFT$(P
1$,16)CHR$(187)CHR$(172); srem 72
236
 Chapter 8

8335 PRINTLEFT$(Pl$,16) srem 56

8340 FOR K=1 TO 11sPRINTSPC(3)MID$(P$,2,16)CHR$(18
)CHR$(161)CHR$(146)CHR$(161); srem 16
8345 PRINTMID$(P$,2,16)sNEXT srem 142
8350 PRINTSPC(3)LEFT$(PI$,16)CHR$(18)CHR$(190)CHR$
(188)CHR$(146)LEFT$(Pl$,16) srem 254
8355 J=0sK=0sPOKE CY,7 sPRINTC0? srem 68
8360 POKE CX,18*K+3 sSYS 1710:H=PEEK(251)+256*PEEK(
252)sIF ST<>0 GOTO 8376 srem 254
8365 POKE CX,18*K+15 sPRINTLEFT?("{2 S P A C E S ( H < 1
00)-(H<10));H srem 139
8373 J=J+1sIF J>10 THEN J=0 sPOKE CY,7 sPRINTsK=l-Ks
IF K=0 THEN K=-lsGOTO 8380 srem 16
8374 GOTO 8360 srem 224
8376 CLOSE 1 sSYS 65484 srem 195
8380 POKE 198,0sPOKE CY,3sPRINTsPRINTSPC(7)CHR$(18
)C0$"PRESS ANY KEY srem 143
8382 IF K<0 THEN PRINT"TO CONTINUE";sGOTO 8385
srem 169
8383 PRINT"FOR MAIN MENU";sPOKE CY,19sPRINT
srem 133
8384 PRINTTAB(12)LEFT$("{BLU}{RVS}{2 S P A C E S 2-(H
<100)-(H<10))H"{LEFT} BLOCKS FREE{2 SPACES}"
srem 97
8385 WAIT 198,15 srem 65
8387 POKE CX,7 sPRINTCHR$(150)LEFT$(P$,30) srem 89
8390 IF K>=0 GOTO 8005 srem 95
8395 K=0sGOTO 8330 srem 210
8400 REM ** SAVE ** srem 135
8402 IF N V (1)<0 AND N V (2)<0 AND NV(3)<0 GOTO 8005
srem 194
8404 FOR 1=6 TO 2 STEP - 2 sJ=NV(4-1/2)+4sGOSUB 70sP
OKE M M (1)-I,K srem 150
8406 POKE M M (1)-1+1,J sNEXT srem 222
8408 POKE CY,3 sPRINTSPRINTTAB(10)CHR$(18)C0$" CHAN
GE TEXT LINES? " srem 80
8410 WAIT 198,15 sGET A$sON 1-(A$="N")-2*(A$="Y") G
OTO 8410,8428,8414 srem 141
8414 POKE 780,9sSYS 1596sGOSUB 8490 srem 161
8418 MX=32 sFA=2 sFOR K=0 TO 3 sPOKE CY,20+KSPRINTsPO
KE CX,4 sPRINTCHR$(18)C2$; srem 133
8420 GOSUB200;TX$(K)=A$ sNEXT srem 161
8424 POKE 780,3 sSYS 1596 srem 13
8428 POKE CY,3 SPRINTsPOKE C X ,6sPRINTI?;sPOKE CX,17
sMX=12sFA=2sGOSUB 200 srem 47
8429 IF A$="" GOTO 8005 srem 82
8430 POKE 780,1sPOKE 781,DNsPOKE 782,0sSYS 65466sA
$=A$+".MUS" srem 62
8432 POKE 780,LH+4 sFOR K=0 TO LH+3sPOKE TP+K,ASC(M
ID$(A$,K+1))sNEXT srem 3

237
Chapter 8

8434 J=TP:GOSUB70:POKE 781,K:POKE 782,JsSYS 65469

srem 102
8435 J=MM(1)-6:GOSUB70:POKE 251,K:POKE 252,J:POKE
{SPACE}780,251 srem 183
8436 J=MM(1 )+NV(1)+NV(2)+NV(3)+12:POKE CY,2:rem 95
8438 FOR K=0 TO 3:IF TX$(K)="" GOTO 8440 srem 11
8439 FOR 1=1 TO LEN(TX$(K))sPOKE J ,ASC(MID$(TX$(K )
,I))sJ=J+lsNEXT srem 204
8440 POKE J,13sJ=J+lsNEXTsPOKE J ,0sJ=J+1sGOSUB 70s
POKE 781,KsPOKE 782,J srem 80
8446 GOSUB 8495 sSYS 65496sPOKE 648,200sPRINTsIF PE
EK(783)AND1 THEN GOSUB8600 srem 105
8448 GOTO 8005 srem 222
8450 REM ** LOAD ** srem 125
8452 POKE CY,3 sPRINTsPOKE C X ,6sPRINTI$;sPOKE CX,17
sFA=2 sMX=12 sGOSUB 200 srem 44
8456 IF A$="" GOTO 8005 srem 82
8460 A$=A$+".MUS"sPOKE 780,lsPOKE 781,DNsPOKE 782,
0sSYS 65466 srem 65
8462 POKE 780,LH+4 sFOR K=0 TO LH+3sPOKE TP+K,ASC(M
ID$(A$,K+1))sNEXT srem 6
8464 J=TPsGOSUB70sPOKE 781,KsPOKE 782,JsSYS 65469s
POKE CY,1 srem 203
8466 POKE 780,0sJ=MM(l)-6SGOSUB70sPOKE 781,KsPOKE
{SPACE}782,JsGOSUB 8495sSYS 65493 srem 59
8468 POKE 648,200sPRINTsIF PEEK(783)AND1 THEN GOSU
B8600 sGOTO 8560 srem 216
8470 FOR J=6 TO 2 STEP-2 sNV(4-j/2) = PEEK(M M (1)- J )+2
56 *PEEK(M M (1)-J+1)-4 sNEXT srem 153
8474 M M (2)= M M (1)+NV(1)+4 sM M (3)= M M (2)+NV(2)+4 sC N (1)
=0sCN(2)=0sCN(3)=0 srem 145
8476 FOR K=0 TO 3 sTX$(K )=""sNEXT sK=0 sJ=MM(3)+NV(3)
+4 srem 113
8478 IF PEEK(J)=0 GOTO 8483 srem 167
8480 IF PEEK(J )=13 THEN J=J+1sK=K+lsGOTO 8478
srem 215
8482 TX$(K )=TX$(K )+CHR$(PEEK(J ))sJ=J+1sGOTO 8478
srem 221
8483 POKE 780,9 sSYS 1596 srem 24
8484 GOSUB8490sPOKE CY,20sFOR K=0 TO 3 sPRINTC2? sPO
KE C X ,4 sPRINTCHR$(18)TX$(K ); srem 92
8485 NEXTsPOKE 780,3sSYS 1596 srem 141
8486 FM=INT((K5-MM(3)-NV{3)-2)/2)-lsIF FM>=0 GOTO
{SPACE}8005 srem 130
8487 POKE CY,3 SPRINTC0?sPOKE C X ,10sPRINTCHR$(18)"I
NSUFFICIENT{2 SPACES}MEMORY" srem 26
8488 WAIT 198,2 55 sGET K$sGOTO 8560 srem 74
8490 POKE CY,20 sFOR K=0 TO 3 sPRINTC2$sPOKE CX,4sPR
INT CHR$(18)RIGHT$(1$,16); srem 81
8492 PRINT RIGHT$(1$,16);sNEXTsRETURN srem 37
238
 Chapter 8

8495 POKE 648,188:PRINT "£33":RETURN :rem 51

8500 POKE CY,3:PRINT:POKE CX,10:PRINTC0$CHR$(18)"
{SPACE}VOICE 1-3 (OR CLR) :rem 193
8505 GET A $ :IF A$ = "" GOTO 8505 :rem 209
8507 VC=VAL(A $ ):IF ASC(A$)=147 GOTO 8560 :rem 126
8510 IF VC<10RVC>3 GOTO 8005 :rem 20
8519 REM ** OH DEAR.{2 SPACES}THIS IS IT. **
:rem 227
8520 IF VC=30R(VC=2 AND NV(3)=-2)OR(VC=1 AND NV(2)
=-2 AND N V (3)=-2) GOTO 8540 srem 40
8530 J=MM(VC+1):GOSUB 70:POKE 251,K:POKE 252,J
:rem 72
8535 J=K5-NV(3)-4+(VC=1)*(NV(2)+4):GOSUB 70:POKE 2
53,K:POKE 254,J :rem 43
8537 J=NV(3)+4-(VC=1)*(N V (2)+4):GOSUB 70:POKE 781,
K :POKE 782,J:SYS 1024 :rem 140
8540 MM=MM(VC):NN=NV(VC):CN=CN(VC) :rem 80
8550 POKE 53269,15:GK=l:GOTO 9000 :rem 18
8560 POKE 780,9 sSYS 1596:GOSUB8490 :rem 163
8565 POKE 780,3 sSYS 1596:FOR K=1 TO 3 :TX$(K)="":NV
(K )=-2:O N (K )=0:NEXT:TX$(0)="" :rem 89
8570 MM(2)=MM(1 )+2:MM(3)=MM(1)+4:GOSUB8690 :rem 72
8575 FM=INT((K5-MM(1))/2)-67:GOTO 8005 :rem 58
8600 K=PEEK(780):POKE 780,9:SYS 1596 :rem 230
8605 POKE CY,3:PRINTC0$ sPRINTCHR$(18); srem 24
8610 IF K=4 THEN POKE CX,13:PRINT"FILE NOT FOUND":
GOTO 8620 :rem 126
8612 IF K=5 THEN POKE CX,11:PRINT"DEVICE NOT PRESE
NT":GOTO 8620 :rem 180
8614 POKE CX,15:PRINT"ERROR -"ST :rem 152
8620 GET K $ :IF K$="" GOTO 8620 :rem 225
8630 RETURN :rem 177
8690 FOR K=1 TO 3 :POKE MM(K)+NV(K )+2,1 :POKE MM(I<) +
NV(K)+3,79:NEXT:RETURN :rem 168
8900 REM PLAY OPTION :rem 196
8910 FOR 1=6 TO 2 STEP -2:J=NV(4-1/2)+4:GOSUB 70:P
OKE MM(1)-I,K :rem 152
8915 POKE M M (1)-1+1,J:NEXT :rem 227
8920 POKE CY,3:PRINT:POKE CX,6:PRINTCHR$(18)C0$"PL
AY VOICES:"; :rem 251
8925 B=0:FOR K=1 TO 3:POKE CX,16+K*5:PRINTK?CHR$(1
57)"?"CHR$(157); :rem 140
8930 GET A $ :IF A$="" GOTO 8930 :rem 213
8935 ON 1-(A$="Y")-3*(ASC(A$) = 13)-2 *(A$="N") GOTO
{SPACE}8930,8937,8938,8939 :rem 160
8937 B=B+2t(K-l):PRINT" ";:NEXT:GOTO 8940 :rem 88
8938 PRINTCHR$(157)CHR$(157)CHR$(150)"{3 SPACES}"C
0$;:NEXT:GOTO 8940 :rem 6
8939 POKE 198,2:POKE 631,89:POKE 632,89:GOTO 8937
:rem 155

239
Chapter 8

8940 POKE 198,0:SYS 49435:J=MM(1)-6:GOSUB 70:POKE

{SPACE}781,K:POKE 782,J:SYS 49458 :rem 236
8945 POKE 49152,B:J=0 :rem 109
8950 IF PEEK(198) THEN GET K $ :J = (K$="{F 7 }"):POKE 4
9152,0 :rem 79
8955 IF NOT PEEK(56320)AND16 THEN POKE 56325,22-PE
EK(678):GOTO 8960 :rem 144
8956 POKE 56325,SGN(15-PEEK(56320)AND15)*(132-4*PE
EK(678))+66-PEEK(678)*2 :rem 169
8960 IF PEEK(49152)AND7 GOTO 8950 :rem 250
8970 SYS 49629:POKE 54276,0:POKE 54283,0:POKE 5429
0,0 :rem 70
8972 POKE 56325,66-PEEK(678)*2:IF PEEK(49152)=0 AN
D J=0 GOTO 8980 :rem 151
8974 FOR K=1 TO 3 :H=PEEK(49289+K):J=PEEK(49274+K)+
256*PEEK(49277+K)-MM(K)-2 :rem 113
8975 IF J>=-2 AND J<=NV(K)+2 GOTO 8977 :rem 219
8976 J=PEEK(49292+H)+256 *PEEK(49304+H)-MM(K )-2:H=H
-1:GOTO 8975 :rem 174
8977 IF (BAND2t(K-l))=0 THEN J=CN(K) :rem 174
8978 C N (K )=J :C N (K )=CN(K )*-(C N (K )>=0):NEXT :rem 94
8980 IF PEEK(49152)-0 GOTO 8005 :rem 86
8981 POKE CX,6:PRINTCHR?(18)CHR$(150)"{28 SPACES}"
;:REM 28 :rem 119
8982 POKE C X ,6:PRINTCHR$(18)C2?PE?(PEEK(49152)/8-l
)" ERROR"; :rem 117
8984 PRINTCHR?(145);:POKE C X ,16:PRINT"VOICE"PEEK(4
9184)+lCHR$(157)":" :rem 242
8986 WAIT 198,255:GET A?:GOTO 8005 :rem 61
9000 POKE 53280,2:POKE 1140,127:POKE 1145,1:POKE 1
160,147:POKE 1165,4:SYS 1138 :rem 115
9002 POKE 53288,l:GOTO 9130 :rem 161
9004 PRINTCHR?(147) ; :rem 131
9010 P1?=C6?+CHR?(18)+CHR?(161)+C7? :rem 13
9012 P?=CHR?(162):P?=P?+P?+P?:P2?=P?+P?+P?+P?+P?:P
6?=CHR?(146) :rem 32
9014 P3?=C6?+P6?+CHR?(161):P4?=CHR?(192):P?=CHR?(2
9):P7?=CHR?(221) :rem 247
9016 P5?=P1?+" "+C0?+P?+" "+P?+" "+P6?+" "+P7?+" "
+CHR?(18)+" "+P?+" "+P?+" " :rem 162
9017 P5?=P5?+P?+C7?+" "+P6?+C6?+CHR?(161) :rem 233
9050 PRINT CHR?(146)C1?"{5 SPACES}VOICE:
{14 SPACES}MEM:" :rem 237
9051 P?=CHR?(183):P?=P?+P? :rem 108
9052 PRINT SPC(5)C7?P?P?P?P?SPC(12)P?P?P?P?P?
:rem 21
9054 POKE C X ,6:PRINTC1?"KEY:";:POKE CX,22:PRINT"ME
ASURE:" :rem 234
9057 PRINT:PRINTC3?:FOR AC=-1 TO 1 STEP 2:GOSUB 8:
NEXT:PRINTC1?:AC=0:GOSUB 8 :rem 44
240
 Chapter 8

9060 U1$=P4$+P4$:U1$=U1?+U1$+U1$+U1$ :rem 123

9100 PRINTC0$"{6 SPACES}m {15 SPACES}"C6$CHR$(172)P
2$CHR$(187) :rera 32
9102 PRINTC0?"{6 SPACES}L{8 SPACES}NOTE:{2 SPACES}
"P1$C7$"{15 SPACES}"P3$ :rem 158
9104 PRINTC0$" NO{3 SPACES}l {8 SPACES}"C6$K1$P4$P4
$P4$K2$"{2 SPACES}"P5$ :rem 98
9106 PRINTC0$"EM3PQLLLLLLLLL{3 SPACES}"C6$P7$"
{3 SPACES}"C6$P7$"{2 SPACES}"P5$ :rem 109
9108 PRINTC0$"|m 3RSLLLLLLLLL{3 SPACES}"C6$K3$P4$P4
$P4$K4$"{2 SPACES}"P5$ :rem 121
9109 P$=CHR$(163 ):P8$=P$+P$+P$+P$+P$ :rem 131
9110 PRINTC0$"iM3TO"P$P$P$P$P8$"{10 SPACES}"P5$
:rem 236
9111 P5$=" "+P7$:P5$=P5$+P5$+P5$+P5$+P5$+P5$+" ":P
9$=C7$+" "+CHR$(146) srem 113
9112 P5$=C6$+CHR$(18)+CHR$(161)+P9$+C0$+P5$+CHR$(1
8)+P9$+C6$+CHR$(161) :rem 84
9113 PRINTC0$"EM3{5 SPACES}"P$"{7 SPACES}OCTAVE: "
P5$ :rem 58
9114 PRINTC0$"§M3VWLLLLLLLLL{4 SPACES}"C6$K1$P4$K2
$"{3 SPACES}"P5$ :rem 42
9116 PRINTC0$"&M|XYLLLLLLLLL{4 SPACES}"C6$P7$" "P7
$ " {3 SPACES} "Pl$’’{15 SPACES }"P3$ :rem 200
9118 PRINTC0$"Z"P8$"L"P8$"{4 SPACES}"C6$K3$P4$K4$"
{3 SPACEST"CHR$Tl88)CHR$(18); :rem 120
9119 PRINTP2$CHR$(146)CHR$(190) :rem 224
9120 P$=P4$+P4$+P4$:P$=P$+P$+P4$ :rem 156
9121 PRINTC0$"{6 SPACES}L{13 SPACES}"C6$K1$P4$P4$K
2?K1?P$K2$ :rem 228
9122 PRINTC0$"{6 SPACES}L{6 SPACES}LENGTH:"C6$P7$"
{2 SPACES}"P7$P7$"{7 SPACES}"P7$ :rem 207
9124 PRINT"{20 SPACES}"K3$P4$P4$K4$K3$P$K4$
:rem 239
9126 PRINTC3$"{9 SPACESjREST <— SELECT— > TIE"
:rem 75
9128 PRINT SPRINT SPRINT"{40 SPACES}"CHR$(19):RETURN
:rem 9
9130 IF GK THEN POKE 241,PEEK(241)AND127 :rem 137
9132 POKE 780,16+GKsSYS 1596 :rem 251
9135 POKE 53250,140SPOKE 53251,224sPOKE 53264,0
srem 183
9140 FOR K=54272 TO 54295sPOKE K,0:NEXT:K=54272
srem 60
9150 POKEK+3,8 sPOKEK+5,0 sPOKEK+6,247 sPOKEK+24,10:P
OKEK+16,240:POKEK+8,120 srem 9
9160 PRINTCHR?(19)CHR$(146)C1$;sPOKE CX,11sPRINTVC
; srem 6
9170 POKE CX,29 sPRINT FM srem 140
9180 POKE CY,IsPRINTsPOKE CX,10 srem 82

241
Chapter 8

9185 PRINTABS(KY)CHR$(157)CHR$(193-2*(KY<0))" ("KY

$(KY+7)" )" ; srem 42
9190 POKE CX,30:PRINTMID$("ON OFF",4-Ml*3,3)
srem 197
9199 GOTO 500 srem 170
9200 PRINT "{CLR}"SPRINT " SIDPLAYER EDITOR"sPRINT
" BY HARRY BRATT"sPRINT srem 30
9210 POKE 780,1sPOKE 781,DNsPOKE 782,lsSYS 65466
srem 105
9220 A$="EDITOR.OBJ"sFOR K=1 TO 10sPOKE 584+K,ASC(
MID?(A?,K))sNEXT srem 217
9230 POKE 780,10s POKE 781,73sPOKE 782,2sSYS 65469
srem 119
9240 POKE 780,0sSYS 65493 sIF PEEK(783)AND1 THEN PR
INT " ERROR"sEND srem 189
40000 REM *** INITIALIZATION *** srem 252
41000 POKE 251,DN sPOKE 53280,7sPOKE 53265,8sK=PEEK
(49)+256*PEEK(50)+4096 srem 138
41010 POKE 1020,PEEK(55)sPOKE 1021,PEEK(56)sPOKE 5
5,KAND255sPOKE 56,K/256sCLR srem 25
41012 K5=PEEK(1020)+256*PEEK(1021) srem 26
41013 K=0 sJ=0 s1=0 sH=0 sJV=0 sLN=3 sCX= 211s CY= 214 sAC=0
sSC=3 sPK=14 sNN=-2 sNT=0 sOC=4 srem 54
41014 DIM KY?(14),S ?(36),SS$(36),V(16),M(16),N V (3)
,C N (3),M M (3), PE?(5),V ? (5) srem 64
41015 DIM FW$(6,1),NU$(1,1),K L%(15) srem 235
41017 M M (1)=PEEK(55)+256*PEEK(56)+6sMM(2)=MM(1)+2s
MM(3)=MM(1)+4 sDN=PEEK(251) srem 158
41018 FM=INT((K5-MM(1))/2)—6 7 sNV(1)=NN sNV(2)=NN sNV
(3 )=NN srem 205
41019 CN(1)=K sC N (2)=K sGN(3)= K sPOKE 648,200sPOKE 53
272,36sZ=PEEK(56576) srem 101
41020 FOR TP=1024 TO 1137sREADJsPOKE TP,JsNEXTsTP
=1827 srem 126
41021 POKE 251,98sPOKE 252,199sPOKE 253,114sPOKE 2
54,4 sSYS 1030 srem 83
41022 POKE 781,30 sPOKE 782,7sSYS 1813sPOKE 657,128
srem 156
41023 K8=PEEK(788)sK9=PEEK(789)sPOKE 1213,K8sPOKE
{SPACE}1214,K9 srem 176
41024 FOR K=1 TO 36 sREAD S$(K),SS$(K)sNEXT srem 27
41025 N N (0)=0 sFOR K=1 TO 10 sREAD SC?(K ),N (K )sNN(K )
=NN(K-1)+N(K)sNEXT srem 249
41026 C0?=CHR?(144)sCl?=CHR?(5)sC3?=CHR?(159)sC6?=
CHR?(31)sC7?=CHR?(158) srem 35
41027 CB?=CHR?(154)sC2?=CHR?(28) srem 156
41028 K1?=CHR?(176)sK2?=CHR?(174)sK3?=CHR?(173)sK4
?=CHR?(189) srem 230
41030 FOR K=0 TO 18 sREAD ACsAC?(0)=AC?(0)+CHR?(AC)
sNEXTsAC=0 srem 235

242
 Chapter 8

41032 FOR K=1 TO 2: AC$(K)=LEFT$(AC$(0 ),9 )+CHR$(193

+K)+RIGHT$(AC$(0),9):NEXT :rem 13
41034 FOR K=0 TO 5:READ M$(K):NEXT :rem 79
41035 IF DN=1 THEN M$(4)="(NOT AVAILABLE)":rem 245
41060 GOSUB 9004:POKE 780,5:SYS 1596:GOSUB 7004:PO
KE 780,7:SYS 1596 :rem 189
41064 GOSUB 8010:POKE 780,3:SYS 1596:POKE 53280,10
:rem 181
41070 POKE 56578,PEEK(56578)OR3:POKE 56576,(PEEK(5
6576)AND252 ) :rem 161
41080 POKE 251,0:POKE 252,208:POKE 253,0:POKE 254,
208:POKE 781,0:POKE 782,8 :rem 228
41085 POKE 56334,PEEK(56334)AND254:POKE 1,PEEK(1)A
ND251:SYS 1024 :rem 35
41090 FOR K=0 TO 223:READ J:POKE 53768+K,J :POKE 54
792+K,255-J:NEXT :rem 123
41095 POKE 1,PEEK(1) OR 4:POKE 56334,PEEK(56334) O
R 1 :rem 242
41122 FOR K=0 TO 7:READ LN$(K):NEXT K :rem 231
41125 FOR K=53248 TO 53254 STEP 2:POKE K,0:NEXT:PO
KE 53264,0 :rem 216
41130 POKE 52216,48:POKE 52217,49:POKE 52218,50:PO
KE 52219,49:POKE 53276,11 :rem 194
41135 POKE 53287,7:POKE 53285,6:POKE 53289,0:POKE
{SPACE}53290,13 :rem 55
41138 POKE 53275,10:POKE 53277,10:FOR K=52224 TO 5
2415:POKE K,0:NEXT :rem 150
41140 J=52225:POKE J,85:FOR K=1 TO 6:POKE J+K*3,10
5 :NEXT:POKE J+21,85 :rem 27
41142 J=52288 :FOR 1=0 TO l.-FOR K=0 TO l:POKE J+K*3
+1*57,85:POKE J+K*3+I*57+l,85 :rem 146
41143 NEXT:NEXT:FOR K=6 TO 54 STEP 3:POKE J+K,106:
POKE J+K+l,169:NEXT :rem 197
41145 J=52398:POKE J,63:POKE J+3,127:POKE J+6,255:
POKE J+9,254:POKE J+12,124 :rem 110
41147 FOR I=J-30 TO J-3 STEP 3:POKE I,1:NEXT
:rem 140
41160 P$=” "+CHR$(20):P$=P$+P$+P$+P$+P$:P$=P$+CHR$
(17)+P$:Z$(0)=P$ :rem 120
41162 P$=CHR$(148)+" "+CHR$(157):P$=P$+P$+P$+P$+P$
:P$=P$+CHR$(17)+P$:Z$(1)=P$ :rem 208
41165 Y$=CHR$(157):Y$=Y$+Y$+Y$+CHR$(17)+" "
srem 191
41175 FOR K=0 TO 14:READ KY$(K) :rem 99
41177 IF K<6 THEN KY$(K)=KY$(K )+"C" :rem 182
41178 IF K>12 THEN KY$(K)=KY$(K )+ "A" :rem 228
41179 NEXT K :rem 144
41180 FOR K=0 TO 6:READ AK%(K):NEXT K :rem 221
41185 TY$(0)="{2 SPACES}":TY$(l)="+E-3 :rem 155
41196 I$=CHR$(18)+CHR$(150)+"FILENAME: M+CHR$(146)
+CHR$(161)+C0$ :rem 86
243
Chapter 8

41197 I$=I$+"{16 SPACES}":REM 16 SPACES srem 208

41220 S$="QFDOFPDDPLEDNEFNADADFMKENNBFHJCGNFPF"
:rem 28
41225 FOR K=0 TO 16:READ V(K),M(K)sNEXT :rem 125
41230 FOR K=0 TO 5:READ V$(K)sNEXT :rem 86
41235 FOR K=0 TO 6:READ FW$(K ,0),FW$(K ,1):NEXT
:rem 229
41237 FOR K=0 TO 1:READ NU$(K,0),NU$(K ,1)sNEXT
:rem 238
41240 GOSUB50:AL=2 :rem 22
41250 FOR K=0 TO 5:READ PE$(K):NEXT :rem 151
41350 FOR K=0 TO 15:KL%(K)=-l:NEXT :rem 75
41360 FOR K=0 TO 5:READ I ,JsKL%(1-8)=J:NEXT
:rem 127
41370 POKE 53281,1:POKE 53265,27 :rem 145
49999 GOSUB8690:GOTO 8005 :rem 175
61100 DATA 142,112,4,140,113,4,165,253,56,229,251,
170,165,254,229,252,168,138 :rem 209
61101 DATA 205,112,4,152,237,113,4,144,35,160,0,17
4,113,4,240,14,177,251,145 :rem 128
61102 DATA 253,200,208,249,230,252,230,254,202,208
,242,174,112,4,240,8,177,251 ;rem 242
61103 DATA 145,253,200,202,208,248,96,173,113,4,16
8,101,252,133,252,152,24,101 srem 240
61104 DATA 254,133,254,172,112,4,240,9,136,177,251
,145,253,192,0,208,247,174 :rem 164
61105 DATA 113,4,240,16,198,252,198,254,136,177,25
1,145,253,192,0,208,247,202 :rem 221
61106 DATA 208,240,96,177,2 :rem 56
61150 DATA TEM,SET,UTL,UTILITY SET,VOL,SET,BMP,BUM
P srem 34
61151 DATA HED,HEAD,TAL,TAIL,CAL,CALL,DEF,DEFINE,E
ND,END srem 166
61152 DATA F-M,MODE,AUT,AUTO,RES,RESONANCE,FLT,THR
OUGH,F-S,SWEEP,F-C,CUTOFF srem 91
61153 DATA F-X,EXTERNAL,ATK,ATTACK,DCY,DECAY,SUS,S
USTAIN,RLS,RELEASE srem 198
61154 DATA PNT,R POINT,WAV,SET,P-W,P WIDTH,P-S,P S
WEEP,SNC,SYNC,RNG,RING MOD srem 7
61155 DATA VDP,VIB DEPTH,VRT,VIB RATE,POR,PORTAMEN
TO,DTN,DETUNE,TPS,TRANSPOSE srem 76
61156 DATA MS#,MEASURE #,3-0,VOICE 3 OFF,FLG,FLAG,
HLT,HALT,AUX,AUXILIARY srem 126
61157 DATA TEMPO,2,VOLUME,2,REPEAT,2,PHRASE,3,FILT
ER,3,FILTER,4,ENVELOPE,5 srem 138
61158 DATA WAVEFORM,5,FREQ,5,MISC,5 srem 91
61190 DATA 162,162,162,18,17,157,157,157,32,193,32
,146,17,157,157,157 srem 99
61192 DATA 183,183,183 srem 73
61194 DATA PLAY MUSIC,EDIT MUSIC,LOAD MUSIC FILE,S
AVE MUSIC FILE,DISK DIRECTORY srem 158
244
 Chapter 8

61195 DATA QUIT srem 99

61200 REM *** CHR DATA *** :rem 208
61201 DATA 108,254,108,254,108,0,0,0,96,124,108,10
8.124.12.0. 0 :rem 203
61202 DATA 192,192,240,216,240,0,0,0 :rem 214
61203 DATA 30,27,30,27,30,123,248,240,30,27,30,27,
24.120.248.240 :rem 52
61204 DATA 30,27,24,24,24,120,248,240 srem 16
61205 DATA 24,24,24,24,24,120,248,240,12,12,12,12,
12,124,204,248 :rem 43
61206 DATA 0,0,0,0,120,204,204,120,0,0,99,99,99,99
,110,0 :rem 169
61207 DATA 0,24,60,102,126,102,102,102 :rem 47
61208 DATA 255,0,0,0,255,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,255,0,0,0
:rem 243
61209 DATA 0,0,0,7,12,24,24,24,0,0,0,128,192,192,1
92,192 :rem 167
61210 DATA 255,13,15,6,255,14,27,27,255,128,0,0,25
5.0. 0.0 :rem 218
61211 DATA 255,49,55,55,255,54,24,12,255,224,176,1
52.255.216.216.240 srem 34
61212 DATA 255,0,24,25,15,0,0,0,255,96,96,192,0,0,
0,0 :rem 15
61213 DATA 255,48,96,112,255,112,0,0,255,96,51,51,
255,48,51,99 :rem 253
61214 DATA 255,0,1,3,255,28,112,0,255,192,128,0,25
5.0. 0.0.3.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 :rem 184
61215 DATA 96,96,48,48,28,15,3,0,6,6,12,12,56,240,
192,0 srem 149
61300 DATA 32ND{3 SPACES},16TH{3 SPACES},EIGHTH ,Q
UARTER,HALF{3 SPACES},WHOLE{2 SPACES},UTILIT
Y,ABS SET srem 175
61306 DATA C,G,D,A,E,B,F ,C ,G ,D ,A ,E ,B ,F,C
srem 125
61310 DATA 3,0,4,1,5,2,6 srem 130
61450 DATA 15,8,127,256,-95,256,15,16,-127,256,255
,256,999,64,16383,4,2047,32 srem 253
61452 DATA -2047,16,4095,16,7,32,7,32,1,8,1,8,0,0,
900,256 srem 234
61454 DATA 1=L 2=B 4=H,0=N 1=T 2=S 4=P,( 0=NO / 1=
YES ),( 0=UP / l=DOWN ) srem 231
61456 DATA ( 0=YES ),( 56 TO 900 ) srem 243
61458 DATA L ,T ,B ,S ,LB,TS,H ,P ,LH,T P ,BH,SP,LBH,TSP,N
O ,U P ,YES,DWN srem 94
61460 DATA CLOBBER,ILLEGAL DURATION,DURATION OVERF
LOW,STACK UNDERFLOW srem 254
61462 DATA STACK OVERFLOW,UNDEFINED PHRASE CALL
srem 164
61470 DATA 20,0,19,1,17,3,8,4,23,5,21,6 srem 103

245
Chapter 8

Once the Editor has been saved, load the "MLX" program
from Appendix C. MLX is the same program you used to cre­
ate "BMG.OBJ” and “SID.OBJ.” If you already have a copy of
MLX from another COMPUTE! publication, you can use it to
enter the listings in this book. Tape users using another ver­
sion of MLX must change line 763 to match the MLX listing in
this book. (Tape users who have a copy of MLX which does
not have a line 763 must use the version of MLX from this
book.)
In order to avoid retyping the same data you entered for
SID.OBJ, you'll reload the SID.OBJ file through MLX and ap­
pend the additional data (actually, you'll be overwriting about
72 bytes and adding more than 650 others). Be sure to follow
these directions carefully in order to get a working copy of the
Editor.
Load and run MLX, and answer the prompts as follows:
Starting Address: 49349
Ending Address: 51736
If you're using a Datassette, insert the tape which contains
a copy of SID.OBJ, created in Chapter 7, and fast-foward past
the Sid Loader program to the beginning of SID.OBJ (you
should have earlier noted the tape counter number for the
start of this file).
If you're using disk, just insert the disk containing
SID.OBJ in your drive.
The cursor should be waiting for input on line 49349.
Press the L key while holding down the SHIFT key. When
you see the prompt for a filename, enter SID.OBJ and press
RETURN. Next, respond with T or D for tape or disk. SID.OBJ
will load into memory.
When MLX has finished loading SID.OBJ and the prompt
returns for line 49349, press the N key while holding down
the SHIFT key. You'll be asked for a new address: Enter 51041
and press RETURN.
Using the listing of Program 8-2, enter in the data as you
would any other MLX listing. When you're finished, save the
program using the filename EDITOR.OBJ. Tape users should
save the program immediately following program 8-1, EDITOR.
(The Editor uses most of the memory space from 49152 to
53247. For this reason you cannot run other utilities which use
this memory, such as the DOS wedge, when using the Editor.)

246
 Program 8-2* EDITOR.OBJ 51203 5007,002, 086 ,051,035,118,046
To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language 51209 5134,003, 010 ,166,030,083,179
Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C. Be sure to read 51215 5070,079, 182 ,255,255,014,102
the directions above before entering this program. 51221 s246,255 ,254 ,014,014,254,034
51041 s096,120,169,127,141,013,251 51227 5030,255, 014 ,246,255,031,090
51047 :220,169,001,141,026,208,100 51233 5246,134, 014 ,134,014,255,062
51053 :169,049,141,018,208,169,095 51239 5030,015, 255 ,246,246,255,062
51059 :027,141,017,208,169,147,056 51245 5255,003, 015 ,255,063,246,114
51065 :141,020,003,169,004,141,087 51251 5255,254, 255 ,160,000,177,128
51071 :021,003,088,096,173,025,021 51257 5251,205, 114 ,005,208,009,081
51077 :208,141,025,208,041,001,245 51263 5200,177, 251 ,136,205,115,123
51083 5240,020,172,191,004,185,183 51269 5005,240, 023 ,165,251,024,009
51089 5192,004,141,033,208,185,140 51275 s105,002, 133 ,251,144,002,200
51095 5200,004,141,018,208,206,160 51281 5230,252, 205 ,112,005,208,069
51101 5191,004,048,006,104,168,166 51287 5224,165, 252 ,205,113,005,027
51107 5104,170,104,064,160,007,004 51293 5208,217, 096 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0,102
51113 5140,191,004,076,000,000,068 51299 5000,170, 010 ,042,042,041,148
51119 5007,002,014,006,001,006,211 51305 5003,168, 138 ,041,007,208,158
51125 5002,002,002,050,246,222,193 51311 5009,169, 255 ,141,001,208,126
51131 s208,106,082,076,064,160,115 51317 5141,005, 208 ,096,133,253,185
51137 s255,200,185,034,005,170,018 51323 5198,253, 010 ,201,008,233,002
51143 5041,001,069,252,208,245,247 51329 5000,024, 121 ,008,006,168,200
51149 5138,009,001,170,037,251,043 51335 5185,012, 006 ,072,185,028,111
51155 5217,254,004,208,234,132,236 51341 5006,133, 251 ,138,041,056,254
51161 5252,138,073,255,037,251,199 51347 2074,074, 074 ,133,254,170,158
51167 5133,251,138,160,255,200,080 51353 5104,202, 048 ,009,192,015,211
51173 5074,176,252,070,251,136,164 51359 5102,251, 106 ,024,202,016,092
51179 5208,251,096,006,022,014,064 51365 5249,141, 000 ,212,165,251,159
51185 5003,054,015,002,006,047,112 51371 2141,001, 212 ,169,065,141,132
51191 5023,150,010,019,102,014,053 51377 5004,212, 185 ,044,006,170,030
Chapter 8

51383 5074,169, 160 ,144,002,169,133

247
51197 5067,004,000,132,008,038,246
 51389 :144,141, 001 ,208,138,041,094 51575 :173,006, 133 ,252,173,174,006

248
51395 :254,010, 141 ,000,208,169,209 51581 :006,133, 254 ,169,000,133,052
51401 :000,042, 141 ,016,208,169,009 51587 :251,133, 253 ,032,006,004,042
51407 ;007,056, 229 ,254,133,254,116 51593 :165,001, 009 ,002,133,001,192
Chapter 8

51413 2010 ,010, 010 ,101,253,056,141 51599 :088,096, 200 ,224,232,240,199

51419 :229,254, 010 ,133,251,169,241 51605 :216,228, 236 ,244,112,232,137
51425 :197,056, 229 ,251,201,141,020 51611 :003,003, 000 ,000,162,001,068
51431 :176,003, 056 ,233,008,208,147 51617 :032,198, 255 ,032,207,255,116
51437 :002,169, 137 ,141,005,208,131 51623 :032,207, 255 ,032,207,255,131
51443 2169,064, 141 ,004,208,096,157 51629 :133,251, 032 ,207,255,133,160
51449 2001 ,000, 255 ,151,030,024,198 51635 :252,032, 207 ,255,164,144,209
51455 2139,126, 250 ,006,250,006,008 51641 :208,062, 201 ,034,208,245,119
51461 :172,243, 230 ,143,248,046,063 51647 :160,000, 032 ,207,255,201,022
51467 2060,126, 134 ,142,150,159,014 51653 :034,240, 006 ,153,073,002,193
51473 2168,179, 168 ,179,189,200,076 51659 :200,208, 243 ,132,253,032,247
51479 2212,225, 238 ,253,012,152,091 51665 :207,255 ,168 ,208,250,164,181
51485 2104,109, 112 ,117,120,128,207 51671 :253,192, 005 ,144,200,162,147
51491 2120,128, 133 ,136,141,144,069 51677 :003,185, 072 ,002,221,069,005
51497 2149,152, 104 ,168,041,001,144 51683 :002,208, 190 ,136,202,016,213
51503 2170,189, 169 ,006,141,112,066 51689 :244,132 ,253 ,160,000,185,183
51509 2004,189, 171 ,006,141,113,165 51695 :073,002, 032 ,210,255,200,243
51515 2004,152, 074 ,170,041,003,247 51701 :196,253 ,208 ,245,096,169,132
51521 2168,138, 074 ,074,170,189,110 51707 :032,160, 079 ,153,112,203,222
51527 2161,006, 133 ,252,185,161,201 51713 :136,016, 250 ,096,120,142,249
51533 2006,133, 254 ,189,165,006,062 51719 :040,003, 140 ,041,003,088,066
51539 2141,173, 006 ,185,165,006,247 51725 5096,169, 255 ,201,127,096,189
51545 2141,174, 006 ,169,000,133,200 51731 5253,000, 255 ,000,255,000,014
51551 2251,133, 253 ,169,182,141,200
51557 2250,255, 169 ,004,141,251,147
51563 2255,120, 165 ,001,041,253,174
51569 2133,001, 032 ,006,004,173,206
 Chapter 8

Using the Editor

To use the Editor, plug a joystick into port 2. Then load Pro­
gram 8-1, EDITOR, and type RUN. The EDITOR.OBJ file auto­
matically loads and the screen blanks while the program
initializes. The Editor is a graphically complex program, using
redefined characters, sprites, and raster scan interrupts, so it
takes awhile to initialize. When the program is ready, it dis­
plays a main menu.
1) PLAY MUSIC
2) EDIT MUSIC
3) LOAD MUSIC FILE
4) SAVE MUSIC FILE
5) DISK DIRECTORY or
5) (NOT AVAILABLE)
6) QUIT

ED IT Music
Press the 2 key to select EDIT, and then the 1 key to choose
voice 1. The display changes to show the editing screen.
The first thing you'll notice is that it's divided into dif­
ferent levels. The top level shows the current voice number
and the amount of free memory remaining. The next level dis­
plays the current key signature and tells whether the measure
feature is on or off. The level below that has one of the three
accidental symbols highlighted.
The next level is the main level, where notes are selected.
The main level displays the current pitch in three different
forms: as a note on the grand staff, as a piano key, and as a
letter and octave number. The current duration is indicated by
a symbol and a word. The level below this main level is used
for entering rests and ties. The bottom level contains a box in
which entered notes appear.
In the main level, the method of using the joystick is:
1. Push the stick up or down to change the current pitch.
2. Push the stick left or right to change the current duration.
3. Press and release the joystick button to enter a note.
While you're in the main level, pushing the stick up or
down changes the pitch. The quarter note on the grand staff
moves, the next key on the piano is indicated, and the written
display changes. A full eight octaves is available by pushing
the joystick.

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Chapter 8

Take a moment to enter a few notes. Just select a pitch

and press the joystick button. A note appears in the box in the
bottom level and then scrolls to the left. The note looks like a
quarter note, the current duration, and has the note name and
octave number written above it. As you enter more notes, each
one displays in the box— all notes scroll to the left to make
room for the next.
If you press the button without changing the pitch, the
entered note is set at the same pitch as the previous note.
To change the duration, push the stick left or right. Notice
that all durations also have a dot option, except the thirty-
second note. Now press the button. The note which shows in
the box is in the current pitch, but has a new duration.
For the moment, ignore the durations marked UTILITY
and ABS SET.
Now that you've entered a few notes, you might like to
hear your musical creation. Return to the main menu by press­
ing the function key fl. Then press the 1 key for PLAY, fol­
lowed by the RETURN key to play the voice. When the voice
is through, the program waits for a new selection from the
main menu.
To continue editing, press the 2 key to select EDIT and
then the 1 key to choose voice 1 again. The display switches
back to the editing screen, and the notes that you've entered
appear in the same position as before.
As notes are entered, the previous notes are scrolled to
the left. Since the bottom level can display only a few notes,
notes have to scroll off the screen. Sometimes you'll want to
scroll those notes back onto the screen to review them.
Scrolling can be done manually by using the two cursor keys.
Press the cursor key on the left (ignore the up and down
markings). All the notes scroll to the right. The note which
scrolled off the screen appears at the left edge, and the most
recently entered note moves back into the box. Every time you
press this cursor key, the notes scroll one position.
As the notes move, the current pitch and duration change
to reflect each note which appears. You can scroll as far as you
want. Scrolling stops when you come to the beginning of the
voice.
Press the cursor key on the right to scroll in the opposite
direction. Scrolling stops at the end of the voice.

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Replacing notes. It's easy to correct a mistake made while

entering notes. Use the cursor keys to scroll the notes until the
one which needs to be changed appears in the box. Select the
correct pitch and duration and press the button. The old note
is replaced with the new one. You can then scroll back to the
end of the voice and continue entering notes.
Insert. If you miss a note and need to insert one, scroll
the notes until the insertion point is reached. The note in the
box will be to the right of the inserted note. Next, press SHIFT-
INST/DEL. The note in the box and all notes to its right
scroll to the right, creating a blank in which you can enter a
note.
If necessary, you can insert several blanks. The only thing
you cannot do while blanks exist is scroll or return to main
menu. You must fill in all of them to make the voice complete
before adding new notes at the end.
Delete. To get rid of an extra note or blank, just press the
DEL key (the unSHIFTED INST/DEL key). The note or blank
in the box is deleted, and the notes to its right scroll to the left
to fill in the gap.
When deleting notes, remember that the keyboard is buff­
ered for up to ten keystrokes. If you press the DEL key a sec­
ond time, before the Editor is finished deleting the first note, a
second note will also be deleted.
Clear. The clear feature is used when you want to delete
all the notes from the current note to the end of the voice.
This allows you to delete several notes at once. Press SHIFT-
CLR/HOME. Since clearing can be disastrous when done acci­
dentally, there's a confirmation prompt. Press the Y key to
erase the note currently in the box and all the notes to its
right, or hit the N key to cancel the clear.
By scrolling to the beginning of the voice and using
SHIFT-CLR/HOME, you can erase the entire voice.
Moving to the beginning or end of the voice. To move
to the beginning or end of a voice, use the function keys f2
and f4, respectively. Pressing SHIFT-fl will immediately take
you to the beginning of the voice. Likewise, pressing SHIFT-f3
takes you to the end of the voice.
Accidentals. Figure 8-1 shows three symbols, called
accidentals, that are often found in sheet music.

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Chapter 8

Figure 8*1. Accidentals

t sharp

b flat

ft natural

When you find one of these symbols placed before a note

in the sheet music, it means that the pitch of the note should
be adjusted up or down slightly. Say, for instance, that you
find an F note with a sharp in front of it, something like
Figure 8-2.

Figure 8-2. F-sharp

D E F-sharp G or D E F-sharp G

This means that you should enter the note with the pitch
F-sharp instead of just a natural F. To do so, use the joystick to
move to pitch F, then press the + key (it's on the top row of
the keyboard) to select the sharp before you press the button
to enter the note.
A sharp increases the pitch of a note. The pitch F-sharp is
halfway between pitches F and G. A flat, on the other hand,
decreases a note's pitch. To make a pitch flat, press the — key
(right beside the + key). If you see a flat symbol before a
note, you must move to the pitch, hit the — key, then press
the button to enter the note.
To cancel a sharp or flat, press the English pound sign (£)
to select the natural pitch.
Key signature. Sometimes you'll find one or more sharp
or flat symbols at the left edge of the staff, next to the clef
symbol. They might look like this:

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 Chapter 8

Figure 8-3. Key Signatures

Key of D F# A C# Fft Key of E-flat Eb D At> F

o # !I
Jr
r\
* If ___w__m * 7—
!•___________ k____ m
C " »----------------
rtttf = a 1 -/ l

These symbols form the key signature. The number of

sharps or flats in the key signature determines the key in
which the music is written. As shown in Figure 8-3, the key of
D has two sharps, and the key of E-flat has three flats.
The presence of a sharp or flat in a key signature means
that all notes at that position on the staff should be treated as
if they had a sharp or flat symbol in front of them. (See Chap­
ter 7 for more details on this and all other aspects of music
notation.) For example, a sharp appearing at the position for F
in a key signature means that all F notes, in all octaves, should
be entered as F-sharps.
Since having to remember which notes should have a
sharp or flat can make note entry much more difficult, the Edi­
tor has a feature to help. All you have to do is tell the Editor
how many sharps or flats are in the key signature, and the
Editor automatically selects the appropriate pitches for you.
Look at the level near the top of the screen which dis­
plays the number 0 and the letter C. The number tells how
many sharps or flats are in the current key, and the letter gives
the name of the key. The default key is C, which has no
sharps or flats.
Let's say that the key signature shows two sharp symbols,
at the positions for F and C. Press SHIFT-+ (plus key) twice
to select this key signature. The display changes to show two
sharps in the key of D. Now when you push the joystick, the
pitches F and C are automatically sharped.
To select a key with more sharps, press SHIFT-+ as nec­
essary. To reduce the number of sharps or to select a key with
flats, press SHIFT-— (minus key). Keep pressing until the de­
sired number of sharps or flats is displayed.
If the key has been set and you come across an accidental
symbol in front of a note, that accidental overrides what was
set by the key signature. You'll have to use the + , —, or £ key
to change the pitch for that note.
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Chapter 8

Rest. A voice does not have to play notes constantly. A

rest tells a voice how long it should be silent. Rests have dura­
tion but no pitch. Different rest symbols are used for different
durations. Figure 8-4 illustrates these symbols.

Figure 8-4. Rests

Whole rest Eighth rest

Half rest Sixteenth rest

Quarter rest ^ Thirty-second rest

To select a rest, press the R key. The note name in the

main level alters to read (R), and the word REST in the level
below the main level displays in reverse letters. All notes now
entered will be rests.
The Editor cannot display the duration symbols for rests.
Rests of different durations can be selected by pushing the
stick left or right, but the Editor will still display the duration
symbols for normal notes.
The rest mode stays in effect until canceled. To cancel it,
either press the R key again, or push the stick up or down to
change the pitch.
Tie/slur. Two notes are tied or slurred when they're con­
nected by a symbol which looks like an arc. When the symbol
joins two notes of the same pitch, it's called a tie. If the two
notes have different pitches, the symbol is called a slur. Notes
tied or slurred are played with no break in volume.

Figure 8-5. Ties and Slurs

A tie or slur is selected by pressing the / key (near the

right on the bottom row of the keyboard). The word TIE in the
level below changes to reversed letters. The next note entered
is followed by a curved symbol, indicating a tie or slur.
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 Chapter 8

Unlike the rest mode, the tie/slur mode is automatically

canceled after a note is entered. To cancel it without entering a
note, press the / key a second time.

Special Options
In addition to notes, the Editor lets you enter commands to
control things like tempo, volume, waveform, and envelope.
Since quite a variety of commands are supported, there's no
room to display the choices on the editing screen, so a sepa­
rate screen is used. Press the function key f3 to switch from
the editing screen to the special option screen.
The commands are organized by headings like TEMPO
and WAVEFORM. Each command has its own three-letter
abbreviation. One of the commands is displayed inside a box,
which you can move by pushing the joystick. If the box is
moved off the end of one row or column, it wraps around to
the other side.
The window in the upper-right corner of the screen dis­
plays the full name of the current command. This display
changes as the box is moved from one command to another.
To enter a command, first press the joystick button. The
window then shows the number range for the selected com­
mand. All commands require that a number be entered from
the keyboard. Once a number is typed and the RETURN key is
pressed, the command is actually entered. The command
name and the number show up in the bottom row, the com­
mand and the previous notes scroll to the left, and the display
returns to the editing screen. If you want to enter another
command, you have to press f3 again.
There'll be times when you'll want to enter two or more
commands— having to return to the special option screen each
time can be inconvenient. Fortunately, there's a way to enter a
command without having the display switch back to the
editing screen. After you press the button and type the num­
ber, press SHIFT-RETURN instead of RETURN. The command
is entered, but the screen doesn't change.
If you accidentally press the button on the wrong com­
mand, press only RETURN without typing a number. The
command is not entered, and you'll be able to choose another.
Commands can be scrolled, inserted, and deleted, just like
notes. The INST/DEL key can also be used while you're in the
special options screen.

255
Chapter 8

To return to the editing screen without entering a com­

mand, press the fl key.
We'll discuss just three commands here. The other com­
mands are for advanced applications and are explained in later
chapters.
Tempo. The tempo determines how quickly the notes are
played; it is normally specified at the beginning of a song by
one of the two methods shown in Figure 8-6.

Figure 8-6. Set Tempo

M.M. 100 or J= 100

The TEM command, used to set the tempo, is usually

placed at the beginning of a voice. The number part of the
command is the desired tempo value. In the preceding ex­
ample, this number was 100.
There are some restrictions regarding which tempo values
can be used. Sidplayer supports only a limited number of
tempo values, and of those, some do not permit the use of cer­
tain durations. Not all tempo values support sixteenth or
thirty-second notes, or dotted whole notes. Table 8-1 shows all
the available tempo values and their restrictions.
Those tempos which do not support a sixteenth note do
not support a dotted eighth note. Likewise, those tempos
which do not support thirty-second notes do not support
dotted sixteenth notes.
Tempo values 81 and below do not support dotted whole
notes, but this is no major problem. A dotted whole note can
be simulated by tying a half note to the whole note.
When you type the number for the TEM command, the
Editor uses the closest available tempo value. For example, if
you type 160, the command TEM 163 is actually entered be­
cause tempo 160 is not available.
In most cases, it doesn't matter if the exact tempo is not
available. There's little difference between M.M. 160 and M.M.
163. The only complication would be if the song used six­
teenth or thirty-second notes, which are not supported in

256
 Chapter 8

Table 8^1. Tempo Values and Restrictions

T em po R e s tric tio n s
900 No thirty-second notes
600 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
450 None
360 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
300 No thirty-second notes
257 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
225 None
200 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
180 No thirty-second notes
163 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
150 None
138 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
128 No thirty-second notes
120 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
112 None
105 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
100 No thirty-second notes
94 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
90 None
85 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
81 No thirty-second notes
78 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
75 None
72 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
69 No thirty-second notes
66 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
64 None
62 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
60 No thirty-second notes
58 No sixteenth or thirty-second notes
56 None

M.M. 163. If that was the case, the tempo value 150 would
have to be used.
If you try to use durations like sixteenth notes in a tempo
which does not support them, the Editor prints the error mes­
sage ILLEGAL DURATION when the voice is played. If this
should happen, press any key to acknowledge the error, and
then change the tempo to one that does support the duration.
Sometimes a word like adagio or allegro is used in place of
a number. In these situations, you have to choose the appro­
priate tempo value based on the information given in Chapter 7.
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Chapter 8

If the sheet music does not specify any tempo at all, just
use whichever tempo sounds best to you. If you don't enter a
TEM command, M.M. 100 is used.
Volume. Like tempo, the general volume level (dynamics)
of a song is also usually indicated at its beginning. The level is
specified with the letters p for piano (soft) and / for forte
(loud).
The master volume of the SID chip can range from 0 to
15, with 15 being the loudest and 0 being off. This volume
level is set by the VOL command.
Here are the suggested volume levels for various dynam­
ics markings.
Dynamic Volume
fff 12
ff 11
f 10
mf 8
mp 7
P 5
PP 4
PPP 3
It's recommended that you not use volume levels above
12, because they can cause notes to distort. If the sheet music
does not specify a volume, do not enter a VOL command. The
default volume level of 8 (mf) will then be used.
Measures. Notes are organized into groups called mea­
sures. Measures help the performer keep in time with other
players and are convenient when trying to locate a particular
note in a song.

Figure 8-7. Measures

258
 Chapter 8

To help keep your place in a voice, measure markers are

available with the M S# command. This command is entered
with a number ranging from 0 to 999.
Measures in sheet music usually are not numbered, so
you'll have to number them yourself. Start at the first measure
and write the number 1 above it. Number the next measure 2,
and so on, for the length of the song. Then, before you enter
the notes for each measure, enter the appropriate measure
marker.
Measure markers have no effect when a voice is played
and are used strictly for editing purposes. The use of measure
markers is optional but recommended, especially in longer
songs.
To enter measure numbers from the editing screen, press
the function key f7. The Editor enters the next measure
marker, using the number one greater than the previous
marker. If the last measure entered was 3, pressing f7 enters
M S# 4. This allows you to enter measure markers without go­
ing to the special option screen and without typing numbers.
The usual procedure when entering a sequence of mea­
sures is to go to the special option screen to set the starting
measure number, and then to use f7 to enter successive mea­
sure markers.
The real advantage in using measure markers is that the
Editor can search for a specific measure marker and move to
that point in the voice. This is like moving to the beginning or
end, except that now you can quickly move to any location in
the voice.
To search for a measure, press the f5 key when in the
editing screen. The free memory display changes to a prompt
asking for a measure number. Enter the number. The Editor
searches the voice from the beginning until it finds the re­
quested measure. If the measure is found, the Editor moves to
that marker. If the Editor does not find the measure before it
reaches the end of the voice, the Editor simply moves to that
position.
If you hit the f5 key accidentally and don't notice the
measure number prompt, the joystick and keyboard may seem
to be locked up. To recover, just press the RETURN key to
cancel the search.

259
Chapter 8

Function Key Summary

At this point it might be good to review the uses of the func­
tion keys.
fl If in editing screen, return to main menu.
If in special options screen, return to editing screen.
f3 Go to special option screen.
f5 Search for measure,
f7 Enter next measure marker.
f2 Move to beginning of voice.
f4 Move to end of voice.
(Note: Figure 8-9 is a cut-out that you can place over the
functions keys, and is located at the end of this chapter.)

Entering a Melody
Now that you know something about how the Editor works,
how about trying to enter a short song? Just follow this step-
by-step example, and you'll have one. Use the sheet music
shown as Figure 8-8.

Figure 8-8. Blues

M.M.180

J J J J J J . 1III 1 1 11

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 Chapter 8

Make sure the Editor is on your screen. Erase the entire

voice by moving to the beginning (function key f2) and using
SHIFT-CLR/HOME.
The sheet music indicates a tempo of M.M. 180. Go to the
special option screen (function key f3) and move to the TEM
command. Press the joystick button and type 180, but do not
press RETURN. Since you're going to enter a second com­
mand, press SHIFT-RETURN instead. This prevents the dis­
play from returning to the editing screen when the command
is entered.
No volume level is specified, so ignore setting the volume
with a VOL command. When the voice is played, the default
level of 8 will be used.
You're almost ready to enter the first measure, so move
down to the MS# command (the fastest way to get there is to
push the stick up and wrap around to the bottom), press the
button, and enter the number 1. You can press RETURN this
time, because you won't be entering any more commands.
One last thing you need to do before entering notes is set
the key. The song is written in the key of G, shown by the key
signature displaying one sharp. Select the key of G by pushing
SHIFT- + until the key signature display indicates one sharp.
Select the quarter note duration and enter the first four
notes. They are G5, G5, D5, and E5. You've just entered the
first measure.
Press the function key f7 to enter the command MS# 2
(beginning the next measure). Type in the next four notes.
You'll notice that because of the current key, the F-sharp is
automatically selected for the last note instead of F-natural.
Measure 3 begins with a quarter rest. After you press f7
for the next measure marker, press the R key to turn on the
rest mode. The rest will be entered when you press the but­
ton. The rest mode will still be on, though it's canceled when
you move down to enter the note E5.
Measures 4 and 5 are pretty straightforward. Measure 6,
however, is different. The notes are eighth notes, not quarter
notes, so you'll have to change the duration. The last of these
eighth notes has a sharp symbol by it, changing the pitch for
that note from C-natural to C-sharp, so you'll have to press
the + key to select the sharp.
You may also notice that this measure plays for only two
beats, instead of the usual four beats. The fraction 2 /4 shows

261
Chapter 8

a change in time signature, an advanced topic which is ex­

plained later.
Measure 7 and the following measures are back in 4 /4
time. Remember to change the duration back to a quarter note.
The notes in measure 8 are followed by ties, so press the
/ key to turn on the tie mode before you enter each note.
The last measure, the ninth, should be easy since it con­
tains only one note. Once this note has been entered, the
voice is ready to be played.

Error Checking
Sometimes a few mistakes may be made when entering a
song. The Editor can find some, like the use of a sixteenth
note in a tempo that does not support sixteenth notes, but it
cannot find others, such as wrong pitches. Fortunately, the
Editor has some features that make it easy to track down mis­
takes and correct them.
Autostop. If you're playing a voice and the Editor stops
with the ILLEGAL DURATION error, the Editor points to the
note which caused the error. This means that when you switch
to the editing screen, the notes move so that the one with the
illegal duration appears in the box.
Manual stop. Playing can also be stopped at any time by
pressing the f7 key. When you then go to the editing screen,
the note in the box will be the one playing at the moment you
hit the key. This feature can be convenient when you're play­
ing a song and you hear a ''bad'' note.
If you press any key other than f7 while a song is playing,
the playing stops, but the Editor leaves the voice alone and
doesn't move to the note being played.
Fast forward. Another feature is a fast forward mode.
This can be useful when you're entering a long song. Perhaps
the beginning of the song plays fine, but some later parts need
work. When you choose PLAY from the main menu, playing
always starts at the beginning of the song. There's no way to
start somewhere in the middle.
With the fast forward mode, you still have to start at the
beginning, but you can make it play much faster. If you hold
the joystick button down while playing a song, the song plays
at three times the normal speed. Playing will return to normal
as soon as you release the button.

262
 Chapter 8

Slow down. A slow mode is also available. If you let go

of the button and push the stick in any direction while playing
a song, it slows down to one-third normal speed. Use this fea­
ture when you want to listen carefully to a sequence of com­
plicated notes.

Saving the Music

Select this item from the main menu when you want to save a
music file to tape or disk. It's a good practice to save your
work frequently.
The Editor asks if you want to change the old text lines.
The text lines are displayed in the window at the bottom of
the main screen. If you've just entered a new song, there will
be no text lines, so press the Y key to enter new ones.
The text lines are used to give the title of the song, to
identify the composer, and to credit the person who entered
the song. Up to four lines of text are allowed. The standard
format for the text lines is one or two lines for the title, one
line for the composer, and one line for the acknowledgment.
Enter the lines one at a time. Each can hold up to 32
characters. If you don't need all four lines, press RETURN to
enter a blank line.
After the text lines have been entered, the Editor requests
a filename. Enter one up to 12 characters long, then press RE­
TURN. Do not include the .MUS extension as part of the
filename. If you're saving to disk, be sure to choose a filename
not already in use. If you're saving to tape, note the exact
filename used and the counter number where the SAVE be­
gins. The program will not prompt you to press the PLAY and
RECORD buttons.
The saving begins once the filename has been entered.
When the SAVE is completed, the Editor clears the main menu
and waits for your next instruction.
Disk drive errors such as FILE EXISTS and DISK FULL
are not reported by the Editor. Always check the red drive
light after a SAVE to make sure that it isn't flashing. The only
error that the program does report is DEVICE NOT PRESENT,
which can happen if the drive is turned off. If this error does
occur, press any key to acknowledge it, turn the drive on, and
try again. This time, however, you won't have to change the
text lines.
To cancel a SAVE, press only RETURN in response to the
filename prompt.
263
Chapter 8

Loading a Song
This main menu item is used to load a music file from tape or
disk into memory. Type the filename of the desired file
(excluding the .MUS extension), and press RETURN. Tape
users will not be prompted to press PLAY. The Editor loads
the song, replacing the one currently in memory.
Note that loading a song erases the one in memory. If you
want to preserve the song currently in memory, save it to disk
or tape before loading a new one.
If you're using disk and the requested file is not on the
disk, the Editor will report the FILE NOT FOUND error.
If you're using tape and enter an incorrect filename, or if
you position the tape past the beginning of the data, the pro­
gram will fail to locate the song. If you believe you entered a
filename that is on the tape, but the program fails to find the
song, stop the tape and rewind it to a position before the
beginning of the data and press PLAY again. The only other
way to recover from an incomplete LOAD from tape is to turn
the computer off, reload the Editor, and start over.
After the song is loaded, the text lines in the window are
updated. The Editor is ready for you to select another item.
If you accidentally choose LOAD, don't type a filename
and just press RETURN. The song in memory will not be
erased.

W hat’s on the Disk?

This prints a disk directory on the screen. The names of all
files with the .MUS extension on the disk are listed in two col­
umns. Printing the directory is useful when you want to check
if a filename is already in use or if you want to see how many
blocks are free.
The Editor won't let you choose this item if you're using
the Datassette (assuming you changed DN = 8 to DN = 1 as
you should have).

Using All Three Voices

You've seen how to enter, edit, and debug one complete voice.
But as you know, Sidplayer can play up to three voices at the
same time. To access the other two voices, press the 2 or 3 key
after choosing EDIT from the main menu.
The voices are completely independent. Editing done on
one voice does not affect the others. For instance, you can add

264
 Chapter 8

some notes to voice 2 and completely erase voice 3, but when

you return to voice 1, you'll find it unchanged.
When it comes to playing, however, the voices are not en­
tirely independent. Multiple voices must share the same tempo
and master volume. The TEM and VOL commands can be
used on any voice, but they affect all three. If the tempo is set
on voice 1, voices 2 and 3 use that same tempo. It's not pos­
sible for one voice to play at one tempo while another voice
plays at another. The same idea applies to the master volume.
When you choose PLAY from the main menu and press
RETURN, the Editor plays all three voices. If one of the voices
runs out of notes before the others, that voice stops but the
others continue.
It's possible to play individual voices. Instead of pressing
RETURN after choosing PLAY, press the Y or N key for each
voice. The Editor plays only those voices which were selected
by pressing the Y key.
One problem with playing individual voices involves
tempo. If the TEM command is used only on voice 1, and
voice 1 is not played, the tempo will not be set for the other
voices.
When you save or load a file, all three voices are saved or
loaded, even if some of the voices are empty.
To clear all three voices at once, press the 2 key in the
main menu to select EDIT, then press SHIFT-CLR/HOME.
Program 8-3 is an enhanced version of the blues rhythm
given earlier. Voices 2 and 3 are used to add bass and percus­
sion parts. You may wish to load this song into the Editor and
examine the individual voices. Voice 1 should be identical to
the voice in the earlier demonstration. Voices 2 and 3 use ad­
vanced commands explained in later chapters.

Program 8-3. BLUES

To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MLX)," a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49403
Filename: BLUES.MUS
49152 5090,000,054,000,072,000,216
49158 5006,080,030,001,016,149,032
49164 s016,149,016,146,016,147,246
49170 5030,002,016,149,016,149,124
49176 5016,149,016,084,030,003,066
265
 Chapter 8

49182 :016,000,016,147,016,159,128
49188 :016,146,030,004,016,147,139
49194 :016,147,016,147,016,146,018
49200 :030,005,016,145,016,145,149
49206 :016,157,016,158,030,006,181
49212 :020,145,020,145,020,145,043
49218 :020,081,030,007,016,146,110
49224 :016,146,016,158,016,159,071
49230 :030,008,080,146,080,145,055
49236 5080,159,080,158,030,009,088
49242 5012,157,012,000,001,079,095
49248 s006,080,001,071,001,012,011
49254 5001,160,001,132,001,008,149
49260 5030,001,054,016,020,173,146
49266 5001,015,030,003,054,016,233
49272 5020,171,001,015,030,005,106
49278 5054,011,020,169,001,015,140
49284 5020,105,030,007,054,016,108
49290 5020,170,001,015,030,009,127
49296 5012,181,012,000,001,079,173
49302 5006,080,001,007,001,004,249
49308 5001,096,001,132,001,104,235
49314 5038,001,030,001,001,006,239
49320 5016,000,016,141,016,000,101
49326 5016,141,016,000,020,141,252
49332 5020,141,020,000,020,141,010
49338 5020,141,020,000,001,047,159
49344 5030,003,001,002,030,005,007
49350 5016,000,016,141,016,000,131
49356 5016,141,030,006,020,000,161
49362 5020,141,020,141,020,141,181
49368 5030,007,001,002,001,079,080
49374 5066,076,085,069,083,013,102
49380 5067,082,065,073,071,032,106
49386 5067,072,065,077,066,069,138
49392 5082,076,065,073,078,013,115
49398 5013,013,000,013,013,013,055

Keyboard Note Entry

The Editor has been designed to use the keyboard, as well as a
joystick, for note entry. If you prefer to use the keyboard, or if
you just don't have a joystick, follow these instructions.
• Press a letter key from A to G. The current note name will
change to that letter.
• To change the octave, press a digit key from 0 to 7.
• The duration can be set by pressing one of the following
keys:
266
 Chapter 8

W Whole
H Half
Q Quarter
8 Eighth (E is used for a note name)
S Sixteenth
T Thirty-second
• Press the period (.) key if you want a dotted note. Press the
key again to cancel the dot.
• Press the RETURN key to enter a note. This is like pressing
the joystick button.
• In the special options screen, use the letters I, /, K, and M to
move the box up, left, right, or down. Press RETURN to se­
lect a command.

Complete Joystick Editing

If you prefer to use only the joystick to edit, you can. Many of
the things done with the keyboard can also be done with the
joystick.
Accidentals, rests, and ties can be selected; the joystick
can also be used to change the current key and to scroll the
notes. But before any of these things can be done, you must
first change the levels.
To move from the main level to a different level, press the
joystick button and hold it down while you push the stick up
or down. The different levels of the screen are highlighted, in
order. Release the button to stop on a particular level.
Once you're in a level and have released the button, push
the stick left or right to change whatever that particular level
controls. For example, if you end up on the level which dis­
plays the current key, all the keys will be shown when you
push the stick left or right. When you come to the key that
you want, press the button to return to the main level.
On the accidental level, the flat, natural, and sharp sym­
bols can be selected one at a time. Wraparound is supported,
so if the current accidental is flat, pushing the stick left will
switch to sharp. Again, press the button to return to the main
level.
The level for selecting a rest or tie works a little dif­
ferently. As soon as you push the stick left (for rest) or right
(for tie), that feature is selected and the Editor automatically
returns to the main level. To turn off the rest or tie mode,
move to this level and select rest or tie again.

267
Chapter 8

Move to the bottom level and push the stick left or right
to scroll the notes. Be aware that keyboard items, including the
INST/DEL key, do not work when you're in this level. Press
the button to return to the main level.

Leaving the Editor: Q U IT

When you're done with the Editor, choose QUIT from the
main menu. The prompt CONFIRM? appears. Press the Y key
to return to BASIC, or press N to continue editing.
The RUN/STOP key has been disabled for your protec­
tion, so you cannot press this key to stop the program. Press­
ing RUN/STOP-RESTORE will not work either.
One final word of caution: Remember to save your work
before you choose QUIT.

This concludes the description of the Sidplayer Editor.

You should now be able to enter, edit, and debug a simple
piece of sheet music. Music stores and libraries offer a wide
variety of classical and contemporary sheet music that will
give you plenty of practice.
Once you feel comfortable with the Editor, you may wish
to move on to the advanced features explained in the follow­
ing chapters.

268
 Chapter 8

Figure 8-9. Function Key Cutout

SIDPLAYER

UNSHIFTED SHIFTED

1. 2.
MAIN BEGINNING
MENU OF
VOICE

3. 4.
SPECIAL END
OPTIONS OF
SCREEN VOICE

5.
MEASURE
SEARCH

7.
MEASURE
MARKER

269
Chapter 9

Making Music

Waveforms
The timbre of a sound is what distinguishes a middle C played
on a saxophone from a middle C played on a cello. The main
thing that controls a sound's timbre is the type of vibration
which produces the sound. There are a few basic types of
vibrations, or waveforms. These types are named according to
their shape when viewed with an oscilloscope.
Triangle waves (Figure 9-1) produce soft, mellow tones.
The flute is an example of an instrument which produces tri­
angle waves.

Figure 9-1. Triangle

Figure 9-2 shows a waveform for a bright, buzzy tone.

Brass instruments produce waves that are basically sawtooth
waves. (This is sometimes called a ramp waveform.)

Figure 9-2. Sawtooth

Figure 9-3 illustrates a square wave. This waveform

sounds rich and hollow, and can be heard from the clarinet.

271
Chapter 9

Figure 9-3. Square

— pulse width -

The pulse wave alternates between high and low states.

The amount of time during one cycle that the wave is high is
called the width, or duty cycle, of the wave. Square waves have
a pulse width of 50 percent. When the width is reduced, the
wave becomes more rectangular. The waveform shown in Fig­
ure 9-4 might be produced by an oboe or bassoon.

Figure 9-4. Rectangular

Pulse waves with a very narrow pulse width sound thin

and reedy. Pulse waves with widths greater than 50 percent
sound just like pulse waves with widths less than 50 percent.
For example, a pulse wave with a 40 percent width sounds the
same as a pulse wave with a 60 percent pulse width.

Figure 9-5. More Rectangular

272
 Chapter 9

Another type of waveform has no definite shape because

it's completely random. It's called noise (Figure 9-6) because it
is the waveform associated with white noise, the sound you
hear when a television station goes off the air. Noise is useful
for producing percussion effects, such as snare drums.

Figure 9-6. Noise

Another useful waveform, the sine wave, unfortunately is

not supported by the SID chip.
The waveforms introduced here are just the basic types.
Actual instruments produce more complicated waveforms that
may not conform exactly to one of these types.
Setting the waveform. The special option screen in the
Editor has a row of commands which pertain to waveforms.
Three of these commands are introduced in this chapter. The
first command, labeled WAV, is used to select the waveform
for a voice.
When you press the joystick button to choose the WAV
command, the window in the upper-right corner displays
some extra information. The desired waveform has to be
specified in the form of a number, so the window shows you
the number for each waveform.
0 N Noise
1 T Triangle
2 S Sawtooth
4 P Pulse
After you type the number and press RETURN, the com­
mand which appears in the box displays the letter instead of
the number.
Each of the three voices can have its own waveform.
Try changing waveforms. Load Program 8-3, "BLUES,"
from the Editor and play voice 1 with various waveforms.
Pulse width. If you choose the pulse waveform, you may
also want to use the P-W command to set the pulse width.

273
Chapter 9

The numeric range for this command is from 0 to 4095, with

2048 being a perfect square wave. Values smaller or larger
than 2048 produce rectangular waves.
As you approach the limits of 0 or 4095, the waves be­
come so narrow that the volume begins to decrease. The pulse
wave is inaudible when the pulse width is set to 0 or 4095. In
most cases, only width values from 100 to 4000 are used.
Try playing a voice with different numbers for the P-W
command to hear the effects of the various widths. Just as
each voice has its own waveform, each voice also has its own
pulse width. Changing the pulse width for one voice will not
affect the others.
Pulse width sweeping. An advanced feature of Sidplayer
is that it can change the pulse width during a note. When this
feature is turned on, the pulse width starts at the specified
value, but increases or decreases for the duration of the note.
The width is then reset back to the specified value at the
beginning of the next note.
The effect of pulse width sweeping is to add a sense of
motion to the sound. A common way to use sweeping is to set
the pulse width at 2048 and have it increase slowly so that the
sweeping is barely noticeable. Another technique is to set the
pulse width at 1000 and have it increase rather quickly. You'll
hear the sound go from a rectangular wave to a square wave
as the width reaches 2048, and then back to a rectangular
wave as the width continues to increase.
The P-S command controls pulse width sweeping. Values
from 1 to 127 turn on the sweeping. The larger the value, the
faster the width increases. Values from —1 to —127 do the
same thing, except that they cause the width to decrease. Try
10 for starters. Using the number 0 with the P-S command
turns off the sweeping.
If the pulse width is allowed to sweep past 4095, it wraps
around to 0. The same thing happens if the width is decreas­
ing and sweeps past 0. When the width wraps around, the ef­
fect on the tone is quite noticeable and usually isn't desirable.
In most cases the wraparound can be avoided by changing the
values for the pulse width, the sweep rate, or the direction.
One interesting use of pulse width wraparound is to set
the sweep rate at 127, the maximum value. This produces a
raspy tone.
If one note is tied to another note, the pulse width is not

274
 Chapter 9

reset when the second note starts playing. The sweeping

continues with no break.
When you turn sweeping off with the command P-S 0,
the pulse width won't be reset to the specified value at the
beginning of the next note. If you want the pulse width to be
reset, use the P-W command to set the width again.
Here is a list of the default waveform settings.
WAV P
P-W 2048
P-S 0
This gives you a square wave with no sweeping. That's
the type of waveform used if none of the waveform com­
mands are placed at the beginning of a voice.
Waveform demonstrations. To close this section, here are
two demonstration programs. The first one uses triangle, saw­
tooth, and pulse wave settings. The second one uses only the
pulse wave, but with different pulse widths, plus the use of
sweeping.

Program 9-1. FSONATINA.MUS

,
To enter this program you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MLX)," a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 50675
Filename: FSONATINA.MUS
49152 :238,002,234,001,200,000,163
49158 :006,096,001,174,012,000,039
49164 :001,044,001,096,001,228,127
49170 :001,120,001,039,054,002,235
49176 5038,003,016,148,020,148,141
49182 :020,148,088,148,088,147,157
49188 s088,146,088,145,088,223,046
49194 5088,158,088,157,088,156,009
49200 5038,005,020,155,020,156,186
49206 5020,157,020,158,080,145,122
49212 5020,223,038,003,020,000,108
49218 5030,001,001,228,016,149,235
49224 5020,149,020,149,088,149,135
49230 5088,148,088,147,088,146,015
49236 s088,145,088,223,088,158,106
49242 5088,157,038,005,020,156,042
49248 5020,155,020,156,020,157,112
49254 5038,003,016,158,030,001,092
49260 5001,118,088,145,024,158,130
49266 5088,145,088,158,020,156,001
275
 49272 5022,009, 004 ,000,092,158,149 49458 :016,000, 030 ,005,066,000,167

276
49278 :0 2 0 , 157, 004 ,156,092,158,201 49464 :016,211, 020 ,211,020,211,233
49284 :020,157, 020 ,156,001,212,186 49470 :088,211, 088 ,146,088,145,060
49290 :088,148, 024 ,145,088,148,011 49476 :088,223, 088 ,158,088,157,102
Chapter 9

49296 5088,145, 020 ,158,004,000,047 49482 :088,156, 088 ,219,020,154,031

49302 5092,145, 020 ,223,004,158,024 49488 :088,153, 088 ,219,020,154,034
49308 5092,145, 020 ,223,020,158,046 49494 :088,153, 088 ,219,016,154,036
49314 5030,003, 001 ,228,088,150,150 49500 :016,000, 030 ,006,130,000,018
49320 5024,148, 088 ,150,088,148,046 49506 :086,008, 020 ,146,088,211,145
49326 5020,146, 020 ,146,088,081,163 49512 :088,089, 020 ,154,088,219,250
49332 5088,146, 088 ,147,088,148,117 49518 :088,089, 020 ,154,084,158,191
49338 5020,149, 020 ,149,001,047,060 49524 :084,092, 084 ,153,020,231,012
49344 5030,002, 088 ,150,088,149,187 49530 :088,166, 088 ,153,020,231,100
49350 5088,148, 088 ,147,088,081,070 49536 :088,166, 088 ,153,016,231,102
49356 5088,146, 088 ,081,088,146,073 49542 :016,000, 030 ,007,020,145,096
49362 5088,081, 088 ,146,088,147,080 49548 :088,159, 088 ,146,020,145,018
49368 5088,148, 088 ,150,088,149,159 49554 :088,159, 088 ,146,020,145,024
49374 5088,150, 088 ,149,088,150,167 49560 :084,149, 084 ,147,084,223,155
49380 5088,149, 088 ,148,088,147,168 49566 :020,158, 088 ,157,088,223,124
49386 5084,146, 088 ,147,088,148,167 49572 :020,158, 088 ,157,088,223,130
49392 5020,145, 020 ,159,020,145,237 49578 :012,158, 030 ,008,086,000,208
49398 5024,159, 024 ,145,024,081,191 49584 :084,223 ,084 ,148,084,146,177
49404 5024,146, 024 ,082,024,147,187 49590 :084,158, 012 ,157,084,158,067
49410 5001,142, 001 ,071,001,015,233 49596 :084,147, 084 ,081,084,157,057
49416 5030,004, 001 ,135,130,000,052 49602 :012,156, 020 ,000,084,156,110
49422 5016,148, 020 ,148,020,148,002 49608 :084,146 ,084 ,159,020,148,073
49428 5088,148, 088 ,147,088,146,213 49614 :084,146, 084 ,151,084,148,135
49434 5088,145, 088 ,223,088,158,048 49620 :020,138, 084 ,151,084,140,061
49440 5088,157, 088 ,156,020,219,248 49626 :084,138, 084 ,137,084,151,128
49446 5088,154, 088 ,156,020,219,251 49632 :084,150, 084 ,151,020,137,082
49452 5088,154, 088 ,156,016,219,253 49638 :020,000, 030 ,009,088,149,014
 49644 :088,147,088,149,088,147,175 49830 5024,146, 024 ,145,024,146,163
49650 1020,145,020,000,088,137,140 49836 5024,145, 024 ,146,024,145,168
49656 :088,149,088,137,088,149,179 49842 5024,146, 024 ,145,024,146,175
49662 :020,147,020,000,088,139,156 49848 5024,145, 024 ,146,024,145,180
49668 :088,137,088,139,088,137,169 49854 5024,146, 024 ,145,024,146,187
49674 :020,151,084,138,084,140,115 49860 5024,145, 024 ,146,024,145,192
49680 :084,151,020,137,020,000,172 49866 5024,146, 024 ,145,024,150,203
49686 :001,174,001,039,001,252,234 49872 5024,149, 024 ,148,024,147,212
49692 .-088,138,088,215,088,138,015 49878 5024,148, 024 ,147,024,148,217
49698 :088,215,020,149,020,000,014 49884 5024,147, 024 ,215,024,150,036
49704 :088,215,088,149,088,215,115 49890 5024,149, 038 ,003,016,148,092
49710 :088,149,020,147,020,000,214 49896 5016,000, 016 ,215,016,000,239
49716 :088,149,088,147,088,149,249 49902 5044,150, 016 ,000,001,079,016
49722 5088,147,020,145,030,010,242 49908 5006,096, 012 ,000,001,044,147
49728 5020,000,001,142,001,071,043 49914 5001,096, 001 ,228,001,120,185
49734 5001,228,001,114,088,138,128 49920 5038,003, 001 ,039,054,002,137
49740 5024,215,088,138,088,215,076 49926 5024,164, 024 ,166,024,153,049
49746 5088,150,088,149,088,150,027 49932 5024,166, 024 ,164,024,166,068
497 52 5088,149,088,084,088,149,22 2 49938 5024,153, 024 ,166,016,164,053
49758 5088,150,088,215,088,138,093 49944 5016,000, 024 ,231,024,153,216
49764 5088,137,088,138,088,137,008 49950 5024,166, 024 ,153,024,165,074
49770 5088,215,088,150,088,149,116 49956 5024,153, 024 ,164,024,153,066
49776 5024,148,084,149,088,150,243 49962 5016,163, 016 ,000,030,001,012
49782 5088,215,020,148,020,147,244 49968 5024,163, 024 ,231,024,153,155
49788 5020,148,030,003,001,135,205 49974 5024,231, 024 ,163,024,231,239
49794 5050,122,020,150,020,148,128 49980 5024,153, 024,,231,016,165,161
49800 5020,146,076,145,020,145,176 49986 5016,000, 024 ,166,024,153,193
49806 5020,150,020,148,020,146,134 49992 5024,165, 024,,153,024,166,116
49812 5076,145,020,145,020,150,192 49998 5024,153, 024 ,163,024,153,107
49S18 5038,001,024,149,024,148,026 50004 5016,164, 016 ,000,030,002,056
50010 5001,166, 024 ,166,024,153,112
Chapter 9

277
49824 5024,147,024,146,024,145,158
 50016 :024,166, 024 ,153,024,231,206 50202 s084,164, 084 ,163,020,164,193

278
50022 :024, 153, 024 ,166,024,153,134 50208 :030,008, 001 ,071,084,153,123
50028 :024, 231, 024 ,153,024,166,218 50214 5084,166, 084 ,163,012,162,197
50034 :024, 153, 016 ,000,024,164,239 50220 5084,163, 084 ,231,084,165,087
Chapter 9

50040 :024,153, 024 ,164,024,153,150 50226 5084,162, 0 1 2 ,097,084,162,139

50046 :024,165, 024 ,153,024,164,168 50232 5084,166, 084 ,164,084,161,031
50052 2024,153, 024 ,165,024,153,163 50238 5016,175, 016 ,000,008,000,021
50058 2024,164, 024 ,153,030,003,024 50244 5016,156, 016 ,000,030,009,039
50064 2016,000, 001 ,047,076,167,195 50250 5086,000, 0 2 0 ,155,020,157,000
50070 2012,153, 076 ,167,012,153,211 50256 5020,155, 0 2 0 ,157,020,155,095
50076 2020,000, 038 ,005,084,164,211 50262 5020,157, 0 2 0 ,155,020,157,103
50082 2020,165, 02 0 ,173,016,161,205 50268 5020,155, 0 2 0 ,157,020,155,107
50088 2038,003, 016 ,000,001,071,041 50274 5020,157, 0 2 0 ,156,020,157,116
50094 2001,015, 030 ,004,001,135,104 50280 5020,156, 020 ,157,020,155,120
50100 2130,000, 001 ,214,054,002,069 50286 5048,000, 001 ,039,020,155,117
50106 2024,164, 024 ,166,024,153,229 50292 5048,000, 02 0 ,157,048,000,133
50112 2024,166, 001 ,015,016,164,066 50298 5020,223, 048 ,000,001,071,229
50118 2016,000, 001 ,047,024,161,191 50304 5001,162, 076 ,167,016,153,191
50124 2024,164, 024 ,175,024,164,011 50310 5016,000, 076 ,155,016,156,041
50130 2024,161, 024 ,164,024,175,014 50316 5016,000, 0 2 0 ,000,084,231,235
50136 2024,164, 016 ,161,016,000,085 50322 5020,153, 0 2 0 ,161,016,164,168
50142 2030,005, 066 ,000 ,001 ,210,022 50328 5001,135, 050 ,032,016,000,130
50148 2024,239, 024 ,164,024,174,109 50334 5020,000, 086 ,016,084,155,007
50154 2024,164, 024 ,239,024,164,105 50340 5084,157, 084 ,223,016,158,118
50160 2024,174, 024 ,164,016,239,113 50346 5016,000, 0 2 0 ,000,084,155,189
50166 2016,000, 030 ,006,130,000,172 50352 5084,157, 084 ,223,016,158,130
50172 2086,008, 076 ,100,012,164,186 50358 5016,000, 020 ,000,084,155,201
50178 2084,165, 084 ,100,084,165,172 50364 5084,157, 084 ,223,084,157,209
50184 2084,100, 0 2 0 ,165,084,154,103 50370 5084,155, 084 ,157,084,223,213
50190 2084,231, 084 ,164,030,007,102 50376 5016,158, 016 ,000,016,157,051
50196 2008,163, 084 ,164,084,163,174 50382 5016,000, 016 ,156,016,000,154
 50388 5016,153, 016 ,000,044,164,093 50574 :016,000,016,156,016,000,090
50394 1016,000, 001 ,079,006,096,160 50580 :016,153,016,000,016,166,003
50400 :012,000, 001 ,044,001,096,122 50586 :016,000,016,149,016,000,095
50406 :001,228, 001 ,120,038,003,109 50592 5044,172,016,000,001,079,216
50412 :001,039, 054 ,002,008,000,084 50598 5083,079,078,065,084,073,116
50418 :008,000, 008 ,000,008,000,010 50604 5078,065,032,073,078,032,018
50424 :008,000, 008 ,000,076,164,248 50610 5070,013,076,046,032,086,245
50430 :012,163, 076 ,164,012,163,076 50616 5065,078,032,066,069,069,051
50436 :008,000, 001 ,071,001,015,100 50622 5084,072,079,086,069,078,146
50442 :008,000, 008 ,000,008,000,034 50628 5013,068,069,077,079,078,068
50448 :008,000, 008 ,000,008,000,040 50634 5083,084,082,065,084,069,157
50454 2008,000, 012 ,000,012,000,054 50640 5083,032,087,065,086,069,118
50460 2008,000, 008 ,000,008,000,052 50646 5070,079,082,077,083,013,106
50466 2001,071, 012 ,000,016,165,043 50652 5067,079,085,082,084,069,174
50472 2016,000, 001 ,135,130,000,066 50658 5083,089,032,074,069,082,143
50478 2020,153, 020 ,000,020,153,156 50664 5082,089,032,066,082,065,136
50484 2020,000, 02 0 ,153,020,000,009 50670 5068,089,013,000,005,074,231
50490 2020,153, 020 ,000,020,153,168
50496 2020,000, 020 ,153,020,000,021
50502 2020,154, 0 2 0 ,000,020,154,182 Program 9-2. GSONATINA.MUS
50508 2020,000, 0 2 0 ,153,048,000,061 To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language
50514 2001,039, 0 2 0 ,153,048,000,087 Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C.
50520 2020,157, 048 ,000,008,000,065 Starting Address: 49152
50526 2008,000, 012 ,000,001,135,250 Ending Address: 49841
50532 2050,032, 076 ,164,016,163,089 Filename: GSONATINA.MUS
50538 2016,000, 076 ,231,016,166,099
50544 2016,000, 008 ,000,001,135,016 49152 5018,001,232,000,096,000,091
50550 2130,000, 086 ,016,012,000,106 49158 5006,096,001,064,086,003,006
50556 2016,156, 016 ,000,016,000,072 49164 5001,214,001,022,076,165,235
50562 2016,000, 016 ,156,016,000,078 49170 5084,166,084,165,084,166,255

279
Chapter 9

50568 2016,000, 016 ,000,016,000,184 49176 5084,167,016,165,084,157,185

 49182 :020,154, 084 ,154,020,167,117 49368 :084,167, 001 ,018,012,154,140

280
49188 :084, 167 ,0 2 0 ,165,076,153,189 49374 :016,154, 016 ,154,012,154,216
49194 :084, 167, 084 ,166,084,167,026 49380 :016,157, 016 ,159,012,146,222
49200 :084, 153 ,016 ,166,020,154,129 49386 :016,146, 016 ,146,012,159,217
Chapter 9

49206 :020,155, 0 2 0 ,154,020,167,078 49392 :012,000, 012 ,154,016,154,076

49212 :020 ,153 ,0 2 0 ,166,012,165,084 49398 5016,154, 012 ,154,080,157,051
49218 :020,166, 020 ,165,020,166,111 49404 :080,159, 016 ,146,016,000,157
49224 :020,167 ,012 ,153,020,155,087 49410 :016,092, 016 ,000,016,157,043
49230 :020,154, 020 ,155,020,092,027 49416 :016,000, 016 ,165,016,165,130
49236 :084, 157 ,0 20 ,154,084,155,226 49422 5012,165, 01 2 ,165,008,165,029
49242 2020,153, 084 ,167,020,154,176 49428 5001,047, 001 ,079,006,096,250
49248 :084, 153 ,0 2 0 ,166,076,166,249 49434 5001,064, 00 2 ,200,086,020,143
49254 2016,165, 016 ,000,001,047,091 49440 5001,230, 001 ,038,076,175,041
49260 :086,006, 076 ,166,084,153,167 49446 5076,161, 016 ,175,044,000,254
49266 :084 ,167, 084 ,166,084,167,098 49452 :076,174, 076 ,173,016,108,155
49272 2084,154, 084 ,153,084,158,069 49458 :044,000, 020 ,173,020,162,213
49278 2084,157, 084 ,092,084,155,014 49464 :020,175, 020 ,162,020,173,114
49284 2084,154, 084 ,153,012,167,018 49470 :020,164, 020 ,162,020,164,100
49290 2084,154, 084 ,153,084,167,096 49476 :020,173 ,020 ,163,020,161,113
49296 2084,153, 084 ,155,084,154,090 49482 :020,163, 0 2 0 ,173,020,161,119
49302 2084,159, 084 ,158,084,157,108 49488 :020,174, 0 2 0 ,161,080,175,198
49308 2084,092, 084 ,155,084,154,041 49494 5080,161, 080 ,162,080,170,051
49314 2016,153, 084 ,158,084,157,046 49500 :080,165, 080 ,162,016,173,000
49320 2084,092, 084 ,155,084,154,053 49506 :016,000, 001 ,047,020,108,034
49326 2084,153, 016 ,167,084,157,067 49512 :020,170, 020 ,108,020,170,100
49332 2084,092, 084 ,155,084,154,065 49518 :020,173, 020 ,170,020,173,174
49338 2084,153, 084 ,167,016,166,088 49524 2020,170, 016 ,174,044,000,028
49344 2084,162, 084 ,163,084,100,101 49530 :020,173, 020 ,170,020,173,186
49350 2084,165, 084 ,166,084,167,180 49536 2020,170, 020 ,174,020,170,190
49356 2080,153, 084 ,167,084,153,157 49542 2020,174, 020 ,170,016,175,197
49362 2084,154, 084 ,153,084,166,167 49548 2044,000, 016 ,174,012,000,130
49554 :016,108, 016 ,173,016,000,219 49740 :016,000,016,181,016,181,230
49560 :016 ,000, 016 ,171,016,108,223 49746 :080,181,080,173,080,170,078
49566 :044,000, 008 ,000,001,034,245 49752 :080,183,008,181,001,047,076
49572 :001,134, 054 ,002,020,170,033 49758 :001,079,083,079,078,065,223
49578 :020, 174 ,0 2 0 ,161,020,174,227 49764 :084,073,078,065,032,073,249
49584 :001,015, 02 0 ,170,020,173,063 49770 :078,032,071,013,076,046,166
49590 :020,175, 0 2 0 ,173,020,170,248 49776 :032,086,065,078,032,066,215
49596 :020,173, 0 2 0 ,175,020,173,001 49782 :069,069,084,072,079,086,065
49602 :001,047, 054 ,002,020,170,232 49788 :069,078,013,085,083,069,009
49608 :020,108, 0 2 0 ,174,020,108,138 49794 :083,032,080,085,076,083,057
49614 s001,015, 054 ,002,020,170,212 49800 .-069,032,087,073,068,084,037
49620 :020,173, 0 2 0 ,175,020,173,025 49806 5072,032,083,087,069,069,042
49626 :001,015, 001 ,130,020,170,043 49812 5080,073,078,071,013,067,018
49632 :020,108, 0 2 0 ,174,020,108,162 49818 5079,085,082,084,069,083,124
49638 :020,170, 0 2 0 ,174,020,161,027 49824 :089,032,074,069,082,082,076
49644 :020,174, 016 ,175,016,000,125 49830 5089,032,066,082,065,068,056
49650 :016,175, 016 ,175,012,175,043 49836 5089,013,000,146,024,145,077
49656 :012,175, 008 ,175,001,047,154
49662 :001, 0 1 9 , 006 ,096,001,064,245
49668 :002,200 ,086 ,020,001,246,047
49674 :001,054, 076 ,173,076,108,242
49680 :016,17 3 ,044 ,000,076,170,239
49686 :076, 170, 016 ,170,044,000,242
49692 :008,000, 008 ,000,008,000,052
49698 :008,000, 001 ,047,008,000,098
49704 :008,000, 008 ,000,008,000,064
49710 :016,170, 016 ,000,016,000,008
49716 :016,170, 016 ,170,012,000,180
49722 :016,170, 016 ,170,044,000,218
49728 :008,000 , 001 ,050,054,007,184
Chapter 9

49734 :008 #000, 001 ,015,016,173,027

Chapter 9

Envelopes
Dynamics describe the general volume of a song, as set by the
master volume, but do not describe the changes in volume
which occur while an individual note is playing. These
changes in volume over the course of a note are referred to as
the envelope of the note.
When a note first starts playing, the volume must increase
from no volume to the peak volume established by the
dynamics. The speed at which the volume rises is called the
attack rate.
The volume then diminishes slightly until it reaches an
intermediate volume level called the sustain level. The rate at
which the volume falls from the peak level to the sustain level
is called the decay rate.
Toward the end of a note, the note will be released and
the volume will begin to fade away, at a speed called the re­
lease rate.
A good way to understand the four stages of the envelope
is to graph them as shown in Figure 9-7.

Figure 9-7. ADSR Envelope

volume --------- |— attack — (—decay-|------ sustain — |— release

Time -* ■

This standard envelope is sometimes also called an ADSR

envelope, because of the attack, decay, sustain, and release
sequence.
Not all instruments have the same ADSR values. Each in­
strument has its own characteristic envelope. In electronic mu­
sic, the ability to control the envelope of a voice lets you more
closely approximate a particular instrument.
There are two basic types of envelopes. One type is used
for sustaining instruments. These include string instruments
which are played with a bow, and wind instruments.
282
 Chapter 9

The other type is for nonsustaining instruments. String in­

struments which are plucked and percussion instruments such
as drums are examples of nonsustaining instruments.
Sustaining envelopes. For an example of a sustaining en­
velope, let's consider a person playing a violin. At the begin­
ning of a note, the player has to dig in with the bow to start
the string vibrating. This is the attack.
Once the sound has started, the player does not have to
apply quite so much pressure to the string, and the volume is
reduced a little. This is the decay part of the envelope.
As the player continues to bow, a constant volume level is
maintained. This is the sustain level.
At the end of the note, the player stops the bow, but the
string continues to vibrate for a moment until the sound fades
away completely. The instant when the player stops the bow
is called the release, and the rate at which the volume fades
away is the release rate.
The whole process works similarly for a wind instrument,
such as a flute. The player has to blow with a little extra force
to start the air vibrating, and then eases off slightly. The air
continues to vibrate for a moment after the release, when the
player stops blowing.
Nonsustaining envelopes. Nonsustaining instruments
have completely different envelopes. The most important
characteristic of these instruments is that they are struck. The
instrument is hit or plucked once for each note. No continual
force is applied, so the volume is never sustained.
Most percussion instruments have nonsustaining en­
velopes. These instruments include drums, bells, and others
like wood blocks. They usually have very fast attack rates. The
decay rate varies from one instrument to another. The sound
of a snare drum decays rather quickly, but the sound of a
gong takes a long time to decay. Since there is no sustain,
there is no sustain part to the envelope, and the envelope can
be called an ADR envelope.
Figure 9-8 shows two graphs that illustrate nonsustaining
envelopes.
Setting the envelope. The special option screen has five
commands that are used to configure the envelope.
The ATK command lets you choose one of 16 attack
rates. The rates are numbered 0-15. At rate 0 the attack takes

283
Chapter 9

Figure 9-8. ADR Envelope

just a fraction of a second (two milliseconds to be precise),

while at rate 15 the attack takes eight seconds.
The DCY command is used to set the decay rate. Again,
the rates are numbered 0-15, with 0 being the fastest, but the
range is a little different. The decay takes 6 milliseconds at
rate 0, and 24 seconds at rate 15.
Use the SUS command to set the sustain level. If the sus­
tain level is set to 0, the volume decays to no volume. If the
level is set at 15, the volume doesn't decay at all and stays at
the peak volume set by the master volume control. Values be­
tween 0 and 15 correspond to evenly spaced volume levels
between zero and peak volume. When you're using a non­
sustaining envelope, the sustain level must be set to 0.
The RLS command sets the release rate. The rates, num­
bered 0-15, are the same as those for the DCY command. If
you're using a nonsustaining envelope, the release rate should
be set to the same value as the decay rate.
The release point. The one remaining command is PNT,
which is used to set the release point. In order to understand
how to use this command, it's first necessary to know how
Sidplayer handles durations.
Sidplayer deals with note durations in terms of time units
called jiffies. One jiffy lasts about 1 /6 0 second. Table 9-1
shows the jiffy length of each note duration in each tempo.

284
 Chapter 9

Table 9-1. Tempo

M.M. W H Q E S 32 64
900 16 8 4 2 1- -

600 24 12 6 3 - - -

450 32 16 8 4 2 1 -

360 40 20 10 5 - - -

300 48 24 12 6 3- -

257 56 28 14 7 - - -

225 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
200 72 36 18 9 - - -

180 80 40 20 10 5- -

163 88 44 22 11 - - -

150 96 48 24 12 6 3 -

138 104 52 26 13 - - -

128 112 56 28 14 7- -

120 120 60 30 15 - - -

112 128 64 32 16 8 4 2
105 136 68 34 17 - - -

100 144 72 36 18 9- -

94 152 76 38 19 - - -

90 160 80 40 20 10 5 -

85 168 84 42 21 - - -

81 176 88 44 22 11 - -

78 184 92 46 23 - - -

75 192 96 48 24 12 6 3
72 200 100 50 25 - - -

69 208 104 52 26 13 - -

66 216 108 54 27 - - -

64 224 112 56 28 14 7 -

62 232 116 58 29 - - -

60 240 120 60 30 15 - -

58 248 124 62 31 - - -

56 256 128 64 32 16 8 4
The number of jiffies for a whole note is different for each
tempo. This number is repeatedly cut in half to give durations
like half note, quarter note, and so on. After a certain point,
some numbers cannot be evenly divided by two, which is why
some tempos do not support sixteenth or thirty-second notes.
The PNT command determines how many jiffies from the
end of a note the volume should be released. For an example,
let's say that the release point is set at 6 and the current
tempo is M.M. 100. A quarter note in this tempo is 36 jiffies
long. For the first 30 jiffies, the volume goes through the at­
tack, decay, and sustain phases of the envelope. Then the
285
Chapter 9

voice will be released, and for the last 6 jiffies the volume falls
from the sustain level to no volume.
The range of the PNT command is 0-255, but usually
only very small values are used. Values like 3, 4, and 5 work
best. It's preferable not to set the release point too high, or
notes of short duration won't be heard. For instance, in M.M.
100, an eighth note is 18 jiffies long. If the release point was
set at 20 jiffies, an eighth note would be released as soon as it
started playing. The volume would never have a chance to
rise, and the note would not be heard.
For best results, always make sure that the release point is
less than the duration of the shortest note in the song.
If you're using a nonsustaining envelope, the PNT com­
mand must be used to set the release point at 1.
Here are the default values for the envelope. This
configuration produces an organ effect.
ATK 2
DCY 0
SUS 15
RLS 5
PNT 4
If some default settings are satisfactory but others are not,
you have to change only the ones that need new values.
Also, remember that you can change the envelope at any
point in a song. For example, a voice may briefly switch to a
nonsustaining envelope to play a few notes and then switch
back.
Each voice can have its own envelope, but it's recom­
mended that the attack rate be nearly the same for all three
voices.
Experiment with different envelopes. Load BLUES and try
different envelope settings on the first voice.

Sometimes in sheet music you may see what appears to

be a very long tie symbol spread over several notes. This sym­
bol indicates that the notes are to be played smoothly, in one
breath or one bow movement. The term legato is used to de­
scribe this type of effect.
A sequence of notes can be played in a legato style by
using the command PNT 0. When the release point is set to 0,
notes are never released. This saves you from having to put a
tie on each note.
286
 Chapter 9

Another style of playing is called staccato, and is the op­

posite of legato. A dot placed above or below a note in sheet
music means that the note should be played in a quick, light,
choppy manner.
One way to produce this effect on Sidplayer is to set the
release point as large as possible. A more reliable method is to
switch to a nonsustaining envelope.
A nonsustaining envelope is also a good choice when you
want to play a series of short, fast notes. The release point
usually has to be set very small to play these notes, and if a
sustaining envelope is used, the notes may sound too legato.
Using a nonsustaining envelope insures that the notes will be
played distinctly and will not be run together.

Envelope Example
The following song, "Theme and Variation" by Beethoven,
uses a wide variety of envelopes.

Program 9 -3 . Theme and Variation

To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MIX)," a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49877
Filename: T&V.MUS
49152 :054,001,176,000,148,000,123
49158 :006,192,001,052,054,002,057
49164 :001,022,020,159,020,159,137
49170 s116,158,092,159,092,145,012
49176 5020,155,020,092,020,157,232
49182 5024,154,024,000,020,158,154
49188 5024,154,024,000,020,159,161
49194 5024,154,024,000,001,047,036
49200 5020,145,020,159,016,158,054
49206 5001,018,020,092,020,155,104
49212 5016,154,001,008,001,015,255
49218 5001,020,001,104,054,002,248
49224 5020,146,020,146,084,146,122
49230 5024,145,024,000,120,159,038
49236 5092,158,120,159,092,145,082
49242 5084,159,020,158,020,147,166
49248 s020,147,084,147,024,146,152
49254 5024,000,120,145,092,159,130
49260 5120,145,092,146,084,145,072
49266 5024,159,024,000,001,018,084
49272 5020,145,020,158,016,157,124

287
 49278 :001,152, 001 ,015,012,000,051 49464 :001,015, 001 ,079,006,192,094

288
49284 :054,002, 001 ,086,001,004,024 49470 :001,052, 054 ,002,001,038,210
49290 :001,144, 001 ,132,001,152,057 49476 :084,154, 0 2 0 ,090,016,155,075
49296 5038,001, 024 ,000,024,146,121 49482 :020,000, 0 2 0 ,153,020,167,198
Chapter 9

49302 :024,149, 024 ,151,024,147,157 49488 :020,000, 0 2 0 ,092,020,000,232

49308 5024,151, 024 ,150,024,137,154 49494 :020,157, 0 2 0 ,000,001,047,075
49314 5024,000, 001 ,000,001,252,184 49500 :020,158, 0 2 0 ,157,016,092,043
49320 5001,008, 038 ,004,024,153,140 49506 :001,034, 0 2 0 ,154,020,089,160
49326 5024,092, 024 ,158,024,167,151 49512 :016,100, 001 ,008,001,015,245
49332 5024,158, 024 ,157,024,159,214 49518 :001,088, 054 ,002,016,154,169
49338 5024,000, 0 01 ,020,001,088,064 49524 :016,154, 016 ,154,016,154,114
49344 5024,154, 088 ,159,024,158,031 49530 :016,154, 016 ,154,016,154,120
49350 5024,000, 024 ,154,088,145,121 49536 :016,154, 001 ,034,020,155,252
49356 5024,159, 024 ,000,001,047,203 49542 :020,092, 016 ,167,001,152,070
49362 5024,145, 024 ,000,024,159,074 49548 :001,015, 012 ,000,001,020,189
49368 5024,000, 024 ,158,088,089,087 49554 :001,236, 001 ,072,054,002,000
49374 5024,154, 001 ,082,024,092,087 49560 :001,102, 016 ,000,012,000,027
49380 5024,000, 024 ,155,016,154,089 49566 5016,000, 0 2 0 ,000,088,157,183
49386 5001,015, 054 ,002,024,000,074 49572 5024,092, 0 20 ,000,088,158,034
49392 5024,081, 088 ,147,024,146,238 49578 5024,157, 024 ,000,001,047,167
49398 5024,000, 024 ,159,088,146,175 49584 5024,157, 024 ,000,024,157,050
49404 5024,145, 024 ,000,024,223,180 49590 5024,000, 024 ,092,020,000,086
49410 5088,145, 024 ,159,024,159,089 49596 5001,098, 024 ,154,024,000,233
49416 5024,158, 024 ,093,024,158,233 49602 5024,089, 016 ,100,001,015,183
49422 5024,000, 024 ,082,088,084,060 49608 5054,002, 016 ,154,016,154,084
49428 5024,147, 024 ,000,024,081,064 49614 5020,154, 020 ,154,016,154,212
49434 5088,147, 024 ,146,024,000,199 49620 5016,154, 016 ,154,020,154,214
49440 5024,159, 088 ,146,024,145,106 49626 5020,154, 016 ,154,001,098,149
49446 5024,145, 024 ,159,024,223,125 49632 5024,158, 024 ,000,024,092,034
49452 5024,159, 001 ,082,024,145,223 49638 5016,167, 001 ,015,001,079,253
49458 5024,000, 024 ,158,016,157,173 49644 5006,192, 001 ,052,054,002,031
49650 :001,054, 016 ,165,048,161,175 49836 :082,065,084,069,083,032,075
49656 :020,162, 016 ,173,016,162,029 49842 :069,078,086,069,076,079,123
49662 :016,165, 001 ,047,020,100,091 49848 :080,069,083,013,067,079,063
49668 :020,165, 016 ,154,001,050,154 49854 :085,082,084,069,083,089,170
49674 :020,166, 0 2 0 ,165,016,166,051 49860 :032,074,069,082,082,089,112
49680 :001,008, 001 ,015,001,088,130 49866 :032,066,082,065,068,089,092
49686 :054,002, 016 ,167,016,166,187 49872 :013,000,024,148,024,147,052
49692 :016,165, 016 ,162,016,153,044
49698 :016,167, 016 ,100,016,165,002
49704 :001,050, 0 2 0 ,161,020,162,198
49710 :016,173, 001 ,152,001,015,148
49716 :012,000, 001 ,020,001,236,066
49722 2001,072, 054 ,002,001,118,050
49728 :016,157, 016 ,153,016,162,072
49734 2016,173, 016 ,162,016,165,106
49740 2001,047, 0 2 0 ,163,020,097,168
49746 2016,162, 001 ,114,020,166,049
49752 2020,165, 016 ,162,001,015,211
49758 2054,002, 016 ,167,016,166,003
49764 2020,165, 0 2 0 ,165,016,162,136
49770 2016,153, 016 ,167,020,100,066
49776 2020,100, 016 ,165,001,114,016
49782 2020,161, 0 2 0 ,162,016,173,158
49788 2001,015, 001 ,079,084,072,120
49794 2069,077, 069 ,032,065,078,008
49800 2068,032, 086 ,065,082,073,030
49806 2065,084, 073 ,079,078,013,022
49812 2076,046, 032 ,086,065,078,019
49818 2032,066, 069 ,069,084,072,034
49824 2079,086, 069 ,078,013,068,041
Chapter 9

49830 2069,077, 079 ,078,083,084,124

Chapter 9

The Filters
Sometimes it's not enough to set the waveform and envelope
of a voice in order to imitate the sound of a particular in­
strument. It may also be necessary to control the harmonic
content of the voice by using the filter.
When an oscillator generates a tone, it produces not only
the requested pitch, but some harmonics as well. Harmonics
are frequencies related to the main pitch. The first harmonic is
the frequency of the main pitch and is also called the fun­
damental frequency. The second harmonic has a frequency
twice the fundamental frequency. The frequency of the third
harmonic is three times that of the fundamental frequency,
and so on.
Because the volume of the fundamental frequency is al­
ways greater than the volume of the other harmonics, the
main pitch detected by your ear is that of the fundamental fre­
quency. The harmonics, however, give the tone its timbre.
Since each instrument has its own characteristic timbre,
the ability to control the harmonic content of a voice can be
helpful in emulating a particular instrument. The filter is used
to remove selected frequencies from a tone. This enables you
to emulate a whole new variety of instruments.
The SID chip's filter has three main control parameters
that must be set before the filter can be used. These param­
eters are the mode, the cutoff frequency, and the resonance.
Filter mode. The filter mode determines which types of
frequencies are removed from a tone. The most commonly
used mode is the low-pass mode. This mode allows only the
frequencies below a certain frequency, called the cutoff fre­
quency, to pass through the filter. Any frequencies above the
cutoff are attenuated (greatly reduced in volume) so that they
are seemingly removed from the tone.
The low-pass filter mode (illustrated by Figure 9-9) pro­
duces full-bodied tones. The opposite of the low-pass mode is
the high-pass mode, in which frequencies below the cutoff are
suppressed while frequencies above the cutoff are passed
through unaltered.
The high-pass mode causes tones to sound tinny or
buzzy.

290
 Chapter 9

Figure 9-9* Low-Pass Filters

High
frequencies

Cutoff

Low
frequencies
Low-pass filter

Figure 9-10* High-Pass Filters

High
frequencies

Cutoff

Low
frequencies

High-pass filter

One other filter mode is the band-pass mode. In this

mode, only the frequencies near the cutoff are passed through
the filter. All other frequencies are attenuated. The band-pass
mode produces thin, open tones.

Figure 9-11. Band-Pass Filters

High
frequencies

Cutoff

Low
frequencies

Band-pass filter

291
Chapter 9

Use the F-M command to set the filter mode. This com­
mand works similarly to the WAV command. When you press
the joystick button for F-M, the window displays a number for
each filter mode.
1 L Low p ass
2 B B an d p ass
4 H H ig h p a ss

Type the number of the desired mode and press RETURN

to enter the command. The letter indicating the filter mode ap­
pears as part of the command.
You can even select combinations of filter modes. Just add
the appropriate numbers together. For example, choosing 5
sets the filter for both low- and high-pass modes. This
combination is also called the band reject or notch mode.
Filter cutoff. The cutoff frequency of the filter acts as a
dividing line. In low-pass mode, for example, frequencies
above the cutoff are attenuated while frequencies below the
cutoff are passed through unaltered. But consider what hap­
pens when the pitches of notes in a song fall right around the
cutoff frequency. Notes having pitches below the cutoff are
played correctly, but notes with pitches above the cutoff are
not heard.
What you need is a way to set the cutoff higher or lower.
The ideal setting is to place the cutoff right above the highest
note to be played. That way, all of the fundamental fre­
quencies will be below the cutoff, so all of the notes will be
heard. Most of the harmonics will still be above the cutoff, so
they'll be removed from the tone.
The F-C command is used to set the filter cutoff. The
range of this command is 0-255, with 0 the lowest and 255
the highest. The standard practice is to start with a value be­
tween 0 and 255, play the voice, and then move the cutoff up
or down as necessary.
Resonance. The effect of resonance is to produce a
sharper tone by emphasizing, or peaking, the frequencies in
the tone that are close to the cutoff. Actually, the resonance
control of the SID chip is not very effective and acts mainly as
a way to control the volume of the voice being passed through
the filter.
Use the RES command to set the resonance level. The
number for this command ranges from 0 (no resonance) to 15
(maximum resonance). In most cases the value 15 is best, but
292
 Chapter 9

sometimes you may want to use a smaller value to produce a

muted effect.
Passing a voice through the filter. Once you've config­
ured the filter by using the F-M, F-C, and RES commands, use
the FLT command to indicate that the voice should be passed
through the filter. This command works a little differently
from the others. Unlike the previous commands which support
a number range, the FLT command gives you a simple choice
of either yes (1) or no (0). Enter 1 to indicate that you want
the voice to be passed through the filter.
Here's an example showing how you might use the filter.
Start with the following commands.
F-M L
F-C 255
RES 15
FLT Y
Next, enter a few notes. A simple scale is sufficient. When
you play the voice, it should play normally. In low-pass mode
with the filter cutoff set at the maximum value, all frequencies
are passed through the filter.
Now, lower the cutoff by reducing the number for the F-C
command, and play the voice again. Do this a few times, each
time reducing the F-C command number by about 20 or so. The
effects of filtering should gradually become more noticeable.
To stop the filtering, enter the FLT command with the
number 0 to indicate that you don't want the voice to be
passed through the filter. You don't have to change the mode,
cutoff, or resonance settings.
FLT N
If you want the voice to be passed through the filter later
in the song, enter the FLT command with the number 1. The
earlier filter settings will still be in effect, but can be changed
if necessary.
Autofilter. Trying to find a proper setting for the filter
cutoff can often be inconvenient and time-consuming. As an
alternative to the F-C command, Sidplayer offers a special fea­
ture called the autofilter mode. When the autofilter mode is
turned on, the filter cutoff is automatically set according to the
pitch of each note. Since the cutoff is calculated for each note,
all notes, high and low, produce the same filtering effect.
To turn on the autofilter mode, select the command AUT

293
Chapter 9

and enter the number 1. Do this instead of entering the F-C

command.
F-M B
AUT 1
RES 15
FLT Y
You may also specify that an offset should be added to
the cutoff. When you enter the number for the AUT com­
mand, choose any number from 1 to 127 or from —1 to
—127. Different offset values give different filtering effects.
The autofilter mode is turned off by the command AUT 0.
When using the autofilter feature, it's important that you
turn it off whenever you stop passing the voice through the
filter.
FLT N
AUT 0
Filter sweep. Just as pulse width sweeping changes the
pulse width during a note, filter sweeping lets you increase or
decrease the cutoff frequency while a note is playing.
Use the F-S command to turn on filter sweeping. The
number for this command controls the sweep rate and direc­
tion, and ranges from —127 to + 1 2 7 . Values of 1-127 make
the cutoff sweep upward. The larger the number, the faster
the sweep. Values of —1 to —127 sweep downward. Zero
turns off the sweeping.
In most cases, the best results are obtained by using small
numbers for the sweep rate, such as values 1-10. If the cutoff
is swept too far, it will wrap around, but this is not as useful
as it is with pulse width sweeping.
Be sure to turn the filter sweeping off when you stop
passing the voice through the filter.
FLT N
F-S 0
Or if using the autofilter mode:
FLT N
AUT 0
F-S 0
Restrictions. While the SID chip has three oscillators, and
can therefore play three voices, it has only one filter. There's
not a separate filter for each voice. Figure 9-12 should help

294
 Chapter 9

you understand the arrangement. The illustration is the same

as Figure 7-1 except that it has been modified to include the
filter.
As shown by Figure 9-12, any voice can be passed through
the filter, but only one voice should be routed through the fil­
ter at one time. Passing two or three voices through the filter
at the same time can overpower it, causing it to produce an
unpleasant buzzy noise.

Figure 9 -1 2 . Filtering Sound

Voice 1 Voice 2 Voice 3

295
Chapter 9

The major drawback to using the filter is that there is

extreme variance in filtering effects from one computer to an­
other. The same filter settings can produce completely dif­
ferent results on different Commodore 64s. On some
computers, especially the older ones, a voice can be almost in­
audible when it is passed through the filter, no matter what
settings are in effect. The variance lies not only in the SID
chip, but in the support circuitry as well, so there's no easy
way to fix the problem. If you have one of the earliest ver­
sions of the Commodore 64, you may not be able to use the
filter.

Three Demonstrations
Three demonstration songs have been provided. In the first
one, a theme is played by a trumpet, a trombone, then a tuba.
The other two demonstrations emulate a koto and a sitar.

Program 9-4. BRASS.MUS

To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MLX)/' a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49307
Filename: BRASS.MUS
49152 5072 ,000,002,000,002,000,076
49158 :006,128,001,022,001,071,235
49164 :001,055,150,020,001,250,233
49170 :001,027,102,003,001,044,196
49176 :001,000,001,252,001,072,095
49182 :038,001,001,047,001,038,156
49188 :020,153,012,156,012,164,041
49194 :020,166,048,153,020,156,093
49200 ;048,158,016,156,020,156,090
49206 5008,145,008,153,001,047,160
49212 :150,010,102,000,001,076,143
49218 5166,179,001,034,150,010,094
49224 5166,181,001,034,001,079,022
49230 5001,079,001,079,083,087,152
49236 5079,082,068,032,077,079,245
49242 5084,073,070,013,066,089,229
49248 5032,087,065,071,078,069,242
49254 5082,013,084,082,085,077,013
49260 $080,069,084,044,032,084,245
49266 5082,079,077,066,079,078,063
49272 s069,044,032,084,085,066,244
49278 5065,013,067,079,085,082,005
49284 s084,069,083,089,032,082,059
296
 Chapter 9

49290 :079,066,069,082,084,032,038
49296 :072,073,071,071,073,078,070
49302 :083,013,000,151,024,147,056

Program 9-5. KOTO.MUS

To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MLX)," a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49301
Filename: KOTO.MUS
49152 :084,000,002,000,002,000,088
49158 :006,144,001,055,150,246,096
49164 :001,250,001,027,102,080,217
49170 :001,004,001,128,001,132,029
49176 :001,008,038,001,001,135,208
49182 :018,044,086,010,016,153,101
49188 :016,156,016,157,016,222,107
49194 :016,157,020,156,024,157,060
49200 :024,222,020,157,020,156,135
49206 :016,218,030,002,020,000,084
49212 :020,156,020,218,020,153,135
49218 :020,218,020,156,020,157,145
49224 :020,222,024,157,024,156,163
49230 :024,157,024,222,020,156,169
49236 :020,218,020,153,001,079,063
49242 :001,079,001,079,074,065,133
49248 :080,065,078,069,083,069,028
49254 :032,075,079,084,079,032,227
49260 :068,069,077,079,078,083,050
49266 :084,082,065,084,073,079,069
49272 :078,013,067,079,085,082,012
492 78 :084,069,083,089,032,082,053
49284 :079,066,069,082,084,032,032
49290 :072,073,071,071,073,078,064
49296 :083,013,013,013,000,078,088

Program 9-6. SITAR.MUS

To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MLX)," a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49313
Filename: SITAR.MUS
49152 :104,000,002,000,002,000,108
49158 :001,151,150,236,001,250,027
49164 :001,027,102,020,001,020,183
49170 :001,160,001,2 28,001,200,097

297
Chapter 9

49176 :038,007,001,135,050,232,231
49182 :086,010,006,096,030,001,003
49188 :054,002,016,163,016,165,196
49194 :012,153,044,161,001,015,172
49200 :030,002,054,002,028,145,053
49206 :028,145,028,159,028,159,089
49212 :028,158,028,1^8,(^28,157,105
49218 :028,157,028,156,028,156,107
49224 :028,155,028,155,028,154,108
49230 5028,154,028,167,012,167,122
49236 5003,020,012,153,001,015,032
49242 5020,153,020,153,024,153,101
49248 5024,153,028,153,028,153,123
49254 5028,153,028,153,016,153,121
49260 5001,079,001,079,001,079,092
49266 5083,073,084,065,082,032,021
49272 5068,069,077,079,078,083,062
49278 5084,082,065,084,073,079,081
49284 5078,013,067,079,085,082,024
49290 5084,069,083,089,032,082,065
49296 5079,066,069,082,084,032,044
49302 5072,073,071,071,073,078,076
49308 5083,013,013,013,000,137,159

Repetition
As you listen to a song, you can sometimes hear a group of
measures played more than once. Repetition occurs often in
music, especially in contemporary songs.
The simplest form of repetition is when a group of mea­
sures is repeated immediately after being played. So that the
repeated measures do not have to be written twice, special
symbols are used in sheet music to indicate when a sequence
of measures should be repeated. The symbol that marks the
beginning of a repeat consists of two vertical lines followed by
two dots (shown in Figure 9-13). The end of a repeat is
marked by a symbol that looks almost the same, except that
the dots come before the double lines, instead of after them.
When the music is played and the first repeat symbol is
reached, the playing continues as usual. Upon reaching the
end of the repeat, however, playing does not continue to the
next measure. Instead, playing jumps back to the measure
which had the beginning repeat symbol and continues from
that point. When playing comes to the end repeat mark the
second time around, it's ignored and playing continues with
the next measure.
298
 Chapter 9

Figure 9-13. Repeats

Normally, a sequence of notes is repeated only once.

There are, however, cases where a voice may repeat several
times, such as in a bass line.
Sidplayer has two commands to support repeats. The
beginning of a repeat should be marked by the command
HED, which stands for repeat head. The number for this com­
mand determines how many times the sequence of notes is to
be played. In a standard repeat, the notes are repeated once,
meaning that the sequence is played a total of two times, so
you would normally type the number 2. Then you would
press RETURN to enter the command and continue entering
notes.
At the end of the repeat, enter the TAL command (repeat
tail). There's no data value for this command, so just enter the
number 0.
When the voice is played, the sequence of notes between
the HED and TAL commands plays the designated number of
times.
The number entered for the HED command must fall in
the range 0-255. The number 1 means that the sequence
should be played only once, which would seem to make the
repeat structure unnecessary. A value of 1 is used only when
you're developing a piece of music. If you keep replaying a
song to listen for bad notes at the end, you don't want to wait
for repeats earlier in the song, so use 1 at first (just remember
to change it to the correct value before you save the final ver­
sion of the song).
Using 0 with HED makes the notes repeat forever. This
feature may be useful in some game applications, but should
not be used in normal music, because the song will never end.
Repeats cannot be nested. Whenever you have a HED
command, it has to be later followed by a TAL command
before another HED can be used. It's okay for a voice to con­
tain several repeats; you just cannot have a repeat inside a

299
Chapter 9

repeat. Each voice can have its own repeat, however, so each
voice can repeat independently of the others.
When repeats are used properly, there should be one re­
peat end for every repeat beginning. If a voice is playing and a
TAL command is encountered with no previous HED com­
mand, playing will repeat forever back to the most recent
HED command. If no HED command has been used at all on
the current voice, playing will repeat forever back to the
beginning of the voice.
Phrases. Occasionally, you'll find that a repeat has a first
and a second ending. This means that one set of notes should
be played at the end of the sequence the first time through,
and a different set should be played the second time. The
simple repeat structure of the HED and TAL commands can­
not handle this— in this case, you have to use phrases.
If you consider that a repeat is a loop, then a phrase is
like a subroutine. A phrase allows the same sequence of notes
to be played at different places in the music. The first time the
phrase is played, the beginning and end are remembered by
Sidplayer. This is called defining the phrase. Later in the music
when the notes have to be played again, playing can be made
to jump back to the beginning of the phrase by the use of a
single command. This is known as calling the phrase. When
the end of the phrase is reached, playing continues with the
rest of the song.
It's important to understand that there are some dif­
ferences between Sidplayer phrases and BASIC subroutines. In
BASIC, a subroutine is usually put at the end of a program.
Every time the subroutine has to be executed, it's called by the
GOSUB statement. With Sidplayer, the notes and commands
that form the phrase are placed in the song at the first in­
stance where the phrase must be played. After the phrase has
played once, and is thereby defined, it can be played again by
use of the phrase call.
To define a phrase, first enter the DEF command. This
command needs a number in the range 0-15. For now, just
enter the command with 0, then enter the notes which form
the phrase.
After the last note in the phrase, enter the command
END. Like the TAL command, the END command has no data
value, so it should be entered by typing the 0 and pressing
RETURN.

300
 Chapter 9

When playing reaches the END command, the notes have

played once, the definition is complete, and the phrase is
ready for calling.
To call the phrase, all you have to do is enter the CAL
command with the number 0. This one command takes the
place of all the notes in the phrase.
Figure 9-14 demonstrates how phrase calling works.

Figure 9-14. Phrases

■ 1 1_ _^L .ii — 1 :2.

n g? l __^
**— i « __^
•
• ^ J
=flfc
Begin by entering the command DEF 0, followed by the
notes up to but not including the first ending. Now enter the
END command. The notes for the first ending come next. At
this point, playing is supposed to repeat back to the begin­
ning. Instead of entering all those notes again, just enter the
command CAL 0. Finally, enter the notes for the second
ending.
When the voice plays, the phrase plays the first time. The
DEF and END commands have no effect. The notes for the
first ending then play. The command CAL 0 sends playing
back to the first note after the command DEF 0 to play the
phrase again. When the END command is reached, playing
continues with the first note after the CAL 0 command.
A phrase can be called more than once. A phrase is still
defined after it has been called, so it can be called as many
times as necessary.
Phrases have many uses besides handling repeats with
different endings. In fact, phrases are so useful that quite often
1 is not enough. Don't worry— Sidplayer can remember up to
16 independent phrases. When you enter the DEF command,
the number from 0 to 15 identifies which phrase is being de­
fined. That particular phrase can later be called by using the
same phrase number with the CAL command.
If, while playing a song, a CAL command tries to call a
phrase that has not been defined earlier in the music, the Edi­
tor stops with the UNDEFINED PHRASE CALL error.

301
Chapter 9

The 16 phrases are shared among the three voices. For ex­
ample, even though phrase 7 may be defined on voice 1, it
can also be called on voice 2 or 3. This means that playing can
temporarily jump to another voice.
This can cause a problem when you are playing individ­
ual voices. For example, if you play only voices 2 and 3, and
voice 2 contains a call defined in voice 1, playing will stop
with the UNDEFINED PHRASE CALL error.
It's even possible for one phrase to call another. Phrase
calls can be nested to a limit of four levels on each voice. If
you try to exceed the limit, the Editor stops and reports the
STACK OVERFLOW error. You can also define one phrase in­
side another. Be aware that a phrase definition counts as one
nesting level. The only thing a phrase definition cannot do is
call itself. If the definition of phrase 3 directly or indirectly
contains a call to phrase 3, an infinite loop results. Playing
will eventually stop with a STACK OVERFLOW error.
Phrases can be redefined. If a phrase is no longer needed,
the phrase number can be used in the DEF command of a new
phrase. This lets you use more than 16 phrases during the
course of a song.
The STACK UNDERFLOW error occurs if DEF and END
commands are not properly matched and playing comes across
an END command with no previous DEF command.
Da capo, dal segno, and coda. Repeats are not the only
kind of repetition. Other forms include da capo and dal segno.
Da capo is indicated in sheet music by the letters D.C., and
means that the playing should jump back to the beginning of
the voice and continue from there, this time ignoring all re­
peats. The playing may be stopped before the end of the song
by the use of the word fine.
Dal segno, identified by the letters D.S., means that play­
ing should jump to the measure marked by a special sign. This
sign looks like a slash with dots to either side, passing through
a fancy letter S. Playing continues from this point, and stops
either at the end of the song or at a fine, whichever comes
first.
There's one other symbol often encountered when da
capo or dal segno has been used. After playing has jumped
back to the beginning of the voice or to a particular measure,
you may encounter the message To Coda, followed by a coda
symbol. The coda symbol looks like a letter O with a cross

302
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passing through it. This means that playing is going to jump

to another place again, but this time, instead of jumping back,
the playing skips ahead. At the end of the sheet music you
should find some measures labeled as Coda, with the coda
symbol shown again. Playing jumps to the first of these mea­
sures and continues to the end of the song.
Through the clever use of phrase calling, Sidplayer can
handle these advanced forms of repetition. The example
shown in Figure 9-15, though condensed and not necessarily
typical, uses repeats, dal segno, and a coda. Below is the order
in which the measures would be played.
1. The first two measures are played (the sign is ignored).
2. The next two measures are played and then repeated.
3. The following two measures are played (the coda symbol is
ignored).
4. At the D.S., playing goes back to the measure which had
the sign (the second measure) and continues from there.
5. When playing reaches the coda symbol, playing jumps to
the coda (the last two measures) and then ends.

Figure 9 -1 5 . Repeats, D.S., and Coda

- f t - J - l 1 1? t - 4 4 - f - J | J | , | J iU - n
^ m 1 1J _ m ^ __1 • m___J _____ J _J _0 _
jaia
\U)__ u m ^
• w m • m ^ 0- 1 ~ ^
M._____________
•

Phrases are also handy if you need to frequently alternate

between two or more voice settings. A phrase can consist of
only commands and no notes. Just be careful not to make a
voice too complex. Too many commands, whether in a phrase
or not, can cause the CLOBBER error in the fast-forward play

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mode. The CLOBBER error means that processing on one

voice took too much time.
One practice to avoid is defining several phrases at the
beginning of a song, before any notes are played. This in­
creases the risk of a CLOBBER error. Remember, you should
not define a phrase until the first time it's needed, and then
call it for all later times.

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Chapter 10

Sophisticated Sounds

Advanced Music Theory

Music can be defined in many ways, but one way is to say
that it consists of change— changing pitches, changing dura­
tions, and changing volumes. Chapter 7 introduced these
characteristics of music on a simple level.
This chapter reexamines these same characteristics, but
from a broader viewpoint. For example, the volume level may
not stay the same throughout a song. It may change at dif­
ferent places in the music. Or the tempo might change. Even
the key may change during a song. Changes like these may
not happen in a simple piece of music, but they certainly do
occur in longer, more sophisticated works.
Now that you have some experience using the Sidplayer,
it's time to look at these more advanced aspects of music. The
purpose of this chapter is to cover all the remaining elements
of notation commonly found in sheet music. When you finish
with these descriptions and explanations, you'll be able to en­
ter almost any piece of music with the Sidplayer and Editor.
Tempo changes. There are two kinds of tempo changes.
In the first kind, the tempo changes abruptly, perhaps from a
slow to a fast speed. This is most often found at the beginning
of a movement or major part of a piece of music.
In the second kind of tempo change, the tempo increases
or decreases gradually. This type of change is marked by the
words accelerando and ritardando, which respectively mean
that the tempo should start getting faster or slower. For in­
stance, if the tempo is currently M.M. 100 and you see ritard,
you might change the tempo to M.M. 94, then change it to
M.M. 90 a few notes later.
When making such tempo changes, be sure that the
voices stay synchronized. Make tempo changes only at a point
in the music where all three voices are starting a new note.
Usually, the beginning of a measure is a suitable place to
change the tempo.
(Incidentally, if the tempo is ever indicated by a half
note followed by an equal sign, instead of a quarter note and
equal sign, double the tempo value when entering the TEM
command.)

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The symbol used to briefly change the tempo is called a

fermata, and looks like a narrow semicircle with a dot below it.
A fermata can be placed over a particular note or rest to ex­
tend its duration. Glance at Figure 10-1 for a sample. This is
sometimes referred to as a hold.

Figure 10-1. Fermata

The easiest way to handle a fermata is to enter the

corresponding note with a longer duration than written.
Dynamics. Volume changes are the most common type of
change in music. As with tempo, the dynamics can change im­
mediately or gradually. Immediate changes are indicated in
the normal way, using letter combinations such as p and ///.
Gradual changes are marked by the words crescendo and de­
crescendo, which respectively mean that the volume should
gradually increase or decrease.
Gradual volume changes can also be denoted by symbols
placed above notes, as shown in Figure 10-2.

Figure 10-2. Crescendo and Decrescendo

Use the VOL command for abrupt volume changes, when

the master volume is to be changed by more than one level.
For gradual changes, however, you may prefer to use the BMP
command. This command is used to bump the master volume
up or down one level.
When you press the joystick button while on the BMP
command in the special option screen, the window indicates
that 0 should be entered to bump the volume up one level, or
that 1 should be entered to bump the volume down one level.

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After you press the RETURN key, the command is displayed

with the name BMP and the letters UP or DWN.
To produce the effect of a crescendo or decrescendo,
bump the volume up or down every few measures. The BMP
command is also useful in repeat loops at the end of a song,
where the volume has to fade out.
A BMP UP command does not change the master volume
if the volume is at 15, the highest level. Likewise, a BMP
DWN command has no effect if the volume is already 0.
Remember that the VOL command should be used on
only one voice. This is also true of the BMP command.
An accent mark is the symbol used to change the volume
of one note. It looks like a greater than sign (Figure 10-3).
When placed above a note, it means that the note should be
played just a little louder than the others.

Figure 10-3. Accent Mark

Since there is no volume control for individual voices, ac­

cents are hard to simulate. You might set the sustain level a
little higher, or sustain the note a little longer by using a
smaller release point. Insert these changes before the note to
be accented. After the note, reset the sustain level or release
point to the previous values.
Key changes. Usually, the clef symbols are drawn at the
beginning of each staff. They're followed by sharp or flat signs
that indicate the key in which the music is to be played. These
symbols specify the key signature.
A piece of music does not have to use just one key for an
entire song. If a key signature appears somewhere in the mid­
dle of the sheet music, it's indicating a change in the key. Any
previous sharps or flats are canceled, and only the sharps or
flats specified by the new key signature are to be used.
Sometimes you'll see natural signs appearing in a key sig­
nature when there is a key change. These natural signs are
often used when changing keys to show that the sharps and
flats of the previous key no longer apply.

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Since key changes are not as common as tempo or vol­

ume changes, they can be easy to miss when reading sheet
music. A good suggestion is to look over the music before
entering notes so that you'll be expecting a key change if there
is one.
Time signatures. At the beginning of sheet music, right
after the key signature, you'll often find a fraction such as 4 /4 .
The top number tells how many beats there are per measure,
and the bottom number tells how many beats there are per
whole note. Together, these two numbers define the time
signature.
Up until now you've used only what's called 4 /4 time, in
which each measure contains four beats, and a whole note is
four beats long.
When using different time signatures, there may be more
or less than four beats in every measure, and a whole note
may not always be four beats long.
One of the more common time signatures is 3 /4 time.
This is just like 4 /4 time, except that there are only three
beats in every measure. Waltzes are always written in 3 /4
time.
Changing the number of beats in a measure really does
not affect Sidplayer. As long as you follow the sheet music,
there should be no problem. The important thing is that each
measure have the same number of beats,
use the whole rest symbol as a measure rest symbol, to in­
dicate a full measure of rest. For example, if a song is written
in 5/ 4 time and you see a whole rest, the sheet music is not
wrong. It means that the rest should last for five beats.
The five-beat rest shown in Figure 10-4 would be entered
as a whole rest and a quarter rest. In other time signatures, a
measure rest may last for a different number of beats.

Figure 10-4. Measure Rest

Q_ 1 1
-Jr E*— J --- j . j ..... —-J—
— m 0 —0 .. & —J J--J

When the bottom number is 4, a whole note plays for

four beats, so one-fourth of that duration, a quarter note, plays
for one beat. If the bottom number is 2, however, a whole
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note is only two beats long, and a half note is one beat long.
The quarter note plays for only half a beat. When the number
on the bottom is 8, a quarter note plays for two beats, and the
note for one beat is now an eighth note. The tempo stays the
same; the number of beats per minute remains unchanged. It's
the number of beats per note that's different.
Sidplayer is designed to expect a whole note to always be
four beats so that a quarter note is always one beat. There's no
way to change the number of beats for these standard dura­
tions. Time signatures which have a number other than 4 on
the bottom can be used indirectly, however, by fooling
Sidplayer into thinking that a whole note is longer or shorter
than it actually is.
Consider the time signature 2 /2 , in which a whole note is
two beats, compared to four beats in 2 /4 . A whole note is
seemingly reduced to half its normal duration. This can be
achieved on Sidplayer by doubling the tempo. At faster tempo
selections, more beats per minute means that each beat takes
less time, so whole notes are shorter. Therefore, when the
tempo is M.M. 100, 2 /2 time can be simulated by actually
using M.M. 200. To use a time signature where the bottom
number is 8, as in 3 /8 , the tempo should be cut in half, mak­
ing whole notes play twice as long as normal.
There's another way to show a time signature without
using numbers. The letter C placed where the time signature
belongs indicates 4 /4 time. The C stands for common time. If
the C has a vertical line passing through it, it indicates 2 /2
time, also known as cut time.
One last word about time signatures— they can change
while a song is playing. Such changes are indicated by double
bars followed by a new fraction or symbol.
Accidentals. In any octave, there are 12 different pitches,
including naturals, sharps, and flats. Earlier you saw that a
song will use only 7 of these pitches, according to the current
key. Let's retract that now. Once in a while a song may have
to play a note using a pitch not in the key. The “BLUES''
piece is written in the key of G, meaning that only one note is
sharp (F-sharp), but the melody line had to play a C-sharp at
one instance.
Special exceptions like this are handled by placing an ac­
cidental sign immediately before the note that is to be sharp or
flat. This accidental overrides the current key signature for that
particular pitch.
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Furthermore, the effect of the accidental sign holds true

for all following notes of the same pitch. A sharp sign placed
in front of a C affects not only that C note but any other C
notes in the same octave which may come later. The changed
accidental is not permanent, though, and is canceled at the
next measure.
An accidental sign used in this way affects only the des­
ignated pitch. All other pitches remain the same.
You already know how to change a natural pitch into a
sharp or flat. What about the other direction— removing a
sharp or flat from a pitch to make it natural? This can be done
by using a natural sign. Placed in front of a note, it cancels the
sharp or flat for all following notes of the same pitch, but only
within the current measure.
A common mistake is to forget that an accidental on one
note also affects later notes of that pitch in the same measure.
To help with this problem, the Editor supports a measure
feature.
The key signature level shows whether the measure fea­
ture is on or off. Press the M key to turn this feature on. Now,
whenever you enter a note with an accidental, the Editor
remembers that the accidental is in effect. If you enter more
notes and then move back to that pitch, the accidental is auto­
matically selected.
Since accidentals affect only those pitches in one measure,
accidentals remembered by the Editor are cleared whenever a
measure marker is entered.
To turn off the measure feature, press the M key again (it
acts as a toggle switch). This feature can also be selected with
the joystick. Push the stick up or down while in the key sig­
nature level.
There's one more possibility. Although they're not used
often, it's possible to have double sharps or double flats.
Changing a natural note into a sharp note is done by increas­
ing the pitch one half step. If this is done on a note already
sharp, the pitch is bumped up another half step. The symbol
to indicate a double sharp looks something like a letter X
(shown in Figure 10-5).

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 Chapter 10

Figure 10-5. Double Sharps

B C(t C x=D D

Two flat signs are used to indicate a double flat.

Figure 10-6. Double Flats

Bb C Bbk=A A

The double sharp and double flat signs, along with the
sharp, natural, and flat signs, give a total of five different ac­
cidental signs.
The Editor does not support double sharps and double
flats. When you see a note with a double sharp or flat, you
must calculate the pitch that should be entered. For example,
if you encounter a C-double-sharp, you should enter a D-
natural.
Double dots. A dot placed after a note means that the
duration should be increased by one-half. Adding a second
dot means that the value of the first dot should be increased
by one-half. Thus, a double-dotted half note is equal in dura­
tion to a half note, plus a quarter note, plus an eighth note.
Double dots can be used on other durations as well.
Because double-dotted notes are very rare, they're not di­
rectly supported by Sidplayer. You can simulate them, how­
ever, by entering the appropriate single-dotted note and tying
it to another note of the same pitch. For example, a double-
dotted C4 half note could be simulated by entering a dotted
C4 half note tied to a C4 eighth note.
Triplets. All the durations, from whole note to thirty-
second note, are based on the number two. These durations
allow notes to be played for one, two, or four beats, half a
beat, and so on. This system works very well, except that it's
difficult to handle durations based on the number three. To

311
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play a note for three beats, a dotted half note can be used. But
how do you play a note for one-third of a beat? Using dots
will not help there. Instead, you need to use a new kind of
duration called a triplet.
A triplet consists of three notes played for the amount of
time normally allotted to two notes. An eighth triplet is equal
in duration to two eighth notes. Because two eighth notes
form one beat, each of the three notes in a triplet is one-third
of a beat long.

Figure 10-7. Triplets

A sixteenth triplet means that the amount of time used for

two sixteenth notes, or one eighth note, is to be divided into
three equal parts. Each of the three notes in the triplet plays
for that duration. Triplets based on other durations, such as
quarter notes, are also possible. Triplets are always written
with the number 3 above or below them.
To support the less common durations, Sidplayer has a
utility duration which can be set to last any amount of time. If
you want to play an eighth triplet, for example, all you have
to do is set the utility duration to play for the appropriate
number of jiffies, then enter the notes of the triplet using the
duration marked UTILITY. Push the joystick left or right, or
press the U key to select this duration.
The UTL command is used to set the utility duration. The
range of this command is from 0 to 255 jiffies, with 0 meaning
256. To calculate the number of jiffies for a particular dura­
tion, refer to Table 9-1, "Tempo," in Chapter 9. If you want
an eighth triplet, find the jiffy count for a quarter note in the
current tempo and divide that number by 3. Enter the result
for the UTL command.
Once the utility duration has been set by the UTL com­
mand on one voice, it can be used for entering notes and rests
on all three voices.
The length of the utility duration stays the same until
changed by the UTL command. Since the calculation of the
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utility duration depends on the current tempo, the utility dura­

tion may have to be changed if the tempo ever changes.
Some tempos do not support the use of eighth or six­
teenth triplets. In M.M. 128, for example, a quarter note plays
for 28 jiffies. The number 28 is not evenly divisible by 3, so a
different tempo has to be used.
If only a few triplets are used in the music you're translat­
ing, try this. To play an eighth triplet in M.M. 128, set the
utility duration to 9 jiffies and enter the first two notes of the
triplet. Then set the utility duration to 10 jiffies and enter the
remaining note. The total duration of the three notes will be
28 jiffies.
This trick of changing the utility duration can also be used
to play sixteenth or thirty-second notes in tempos which do
not normally support them. An eighth note in M.M. 120 plays
for 15 jiffies. To play a pair of sixteenth notes in this tempo,
set the utility duration to 7 jiffies for the first note and to 8
jiffies for the second note.
The default value of the utility duration is 12 jiffies,
which is the length of an eighth triplet in M.M. 100.
Grace notes. If you see a note written a lot smaller than
all the other notes, it's a grace note. A grace note is played
very quickly, just long enough to be heard. Refer to Figure 10-
8 for an example of a grace note.

Figure 10-8. Grace Note

To enter a grace note, enter the preceding note with a

slightly shorter amount of time, then enter the grace note with
the remaining duration. Generally, the utility duration must be
used to do this.
In Figure 10-8, the grace note is preceded by a half note.
Let's say that the current tempo is M.M. 100, in which case a
half note plays for 72 jiffies. The grace note could be entered
by setting the utility duration to 68 jiffies and entering the half
note with the utility duration, then setting the utility duration

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to 4 jiffies and entering the grace note. The total duration of

the two notes (68 + 4 jiffies) will be correct.
There's no definite rule about how many jiffies should be
used for a grace note. The grace note in the example could
have been played for 6 jiffies, in which case the previous note
would have played for 66 jiffies.
Trills. The letters tr above a note are used to indicate a
trill (Figure 10-9). This means that the note should be played
with the pitch rapidly alternating between the designated
pitch and the next higher pitch in the current key.

Figure 10-9. Trill

tr means___________ _________

4 ~ = JJJJ^ l
Repeat loops can be useful in entering trills. To enter the
trill shown in the example, a pair of thirty-second notes, in the
pitches F and G, could be entered between a HED and TAL.
The loop would be repeated four times.

Portamento and Vibrato

To make the SID chip produce a pitch, a frequency number
has to be POKEd into the chip's frequency registers. The fre­
quency numbers for all eight octaves can be found in Appen­
dix M of the Commodore 64 User’s Guide (the manual that
came with your Commodore 64). Every time a new note is
played, Sidplayer examines the pitch of the note and POKEs
the corresponding frequency number into the SID chip fre­
quency registers.
The frequency numbers are rather large. For example, the
number for middle C is 4291. There's also a large gap between
frequency numbers for each half step. The number for C-sharp
is 4547, quite a jump from 4291.
All the numbers between 4291 and 4547 make the SID
chip produce pitches between C and C-sharp. Normally, these
pitches are never played. If Sidplayer plays a C followed by a
C-sharp, the frequency number changes immediately from
4291 to 4547. But if the frequency number were to run
through all the intermediate values before reaching 4547, the
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pitch would make a smooth transition from the C to the C-

sharp. The pitch would glide from one note to the other.
The effect is called glissando, or portamento in synthesizer
terminology. Gliding can be done between any two pitches,
and can go up or down. The trombone is one instrument
which does this naturally.
Sidplayer supports a portamento option for each voice. To
turn on portamento, enter the POR command with a number
greater than zero. Then, as each note is played, the pitch will
glide up or down from the previous note until it reaches the
new pitch.
The POR command number controls the glide rate. The
larger the number, the more quickly the pitch glides from one
note to the next.
An important characteristic of the rate number is that
larger rate numbers must be used for higher pitches. If you
examine the frequency numbers, you'll notice that the dif­
ference between the numbers increases as the pitch increases.
To be precise, the difference doubles with each octave.
In order to get the same glide effect in each octave, the
rate should be doubled or halved as necessary. For instance, if
the glide rate is 100 when playing notes in octave 4, use a
glide rate of 200 for notes in octave 5, or a rate of 50 for notes
in octave 3.
The portamento feature can be turned off by entering the
command POR 0.
Usually, gliding is done only a few times in a song. When
done continually, the result can be rather comical, as illus­
trated by Program 10-1.
The effect of vibrato is to make the pitch waver slightly.
The pitch repeatedly increases and then decreases by a small
amount as each note plays. When done properly, the slight
but steady fluctuation in pitch is barely noticeable, but it
makes a tone sound more natural and alive.
Two commands are needed to control vibrato. The VDP
command is used to set the vibrato depth. The number for this
command ranges from 0 to 255. The larger the number, the
more pronounced the vibrato effect. The most commonly used
values are 1-50. Like the glide rate, the depth number should
be doubled for each higher octave, and halved for each lower
octave.

315
 Program 10-1. ALBUMLEAF.MUS 49290 5020,092, 020 ,146,020,092,016

316
To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language 49296 5030,012, 020 ,000,020,157,127
Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C. 49302 5020,000, 020 ,157,030,013,134
Starting Address: 49152 49308 5020,000, 020 ,157,020,000,117
Chapter 10

49314 5020,157, 030 ,014,020,000,147

Ending Address: 50159 49320 5020,092, 020 ,000,020,092,156
Filename: ALBUMLEAF.MUS 49326 5030,015, 020 ,000,020,092,095
49332 5020,092, 020 ,092,030,016,194
49152 :080,001,068 ,001,022,001,173 49338 5001,110, 020 ,000,020,157,238
49158 :001,110,001 ,012,020,159,053 49344 5020,000, 020 ,157,030,017,180
49164 5015,132,030 ,001,001,006,197 49350 5020,000, 020 ,157,020,000,159
49170 :052,147,024 ,084,020,149,238 49356 5020,157, 030 ,018,020,000,193
49176 :020,084,030 ,002,020,151,075 49362 5020,092, 0 2 0 ,146,020,092,088
49182 :020f151,016 ,147,030,003,141 49368 5030,019, 020 ,000,020,090,139
49188 :020,084,020 ,084,016,159,163 49374 5020,159, 020 ,090,030,020,049
49194 :030,004,020 ,147,020,147,154 49380 5020,000, 020 ,155,020,000,187
49200 :020, 155 ,020 ,159,030,005,181 49386 5020,155, 030 ,021,020,000,224
49206 :052,147,024 ,084,024,150,023 49392 5020,155, 020 ,000,020,155,098
49212 :024,085,024 ,149,024,084,194 49398 5030,022, 020 ,000,016,166,244
49218 :030,006,020 ,151,020,151,188 49404 5020,102, 030 ,023,020,000,191
49224 5016,147,030 ,007,020,084,120 49410 5016,167, 020 ,159,030,024,162
49230 :020,084,020 ,159,020,151,020 49416 5052,147, 024 ,084,020,149,228
49236 :001,047,016 ,147,020,139,198 49422 5020,084, 030 ,025,020,151,088
49242 5020,159,001 ,002,016,147,179 49428 5020,151, 016 ,147,030,026,154
49248 5020,139,020 ,000,030,008,057 49434 5020,084, 020 ,084,016,159,153
49254 5054,002,001 ,142,020,000,065 49440 5030,027, 020 ,147,020,147,167
49260 5020,157,020 ,000,020,157,226 49446 5020,155, 020 ,159,030,028,194
49266 5030,009,020 ,000,020,157,094 49452 5052,147, 024 ,084,024,150,013
49272 5020,000,020 ,157,030,010,101 49458 5024,085, 024 ,149,024,084,184
49278 5020,000,020 ,092,020,146,168 49464 5030,029, 0 2 0 ,151,020,151,201
49284 5020,092,03-0 ,011,020,000,049 49470 5016,147, 030 ,030,020,084,133
 49476 :020,084, 02 0 ,159,020,151,010 49662 :052,162, 024 ,097,020,162,003
49482 :030,031, 016 ,147,020,139,201 49668 :020,163, 030 ,017,020,100,098
49488 :020,000, 001 ,015,001,079,196 49674 :020,165, 020 ,166,020,167,056
49494 :020,000, 015 ,132,000,163,160 49680 :030,018, 020 ,167,084,166,245
49500 :030,001, 054 ,002,020,163,106 49686 :016,166, 030 ,019,020,165,182
49506 :020,157, 020 ,163,020,158,124 49692 :084,100, 016 ,100,030,020,122
49512 5030,002, 020 ,163,020,157,240 49698 5052,175, 024 ,110,020,175,078
49518 5020,163, 020 ,157,030,003,247 49704 :020,097, 030 ,021,020,098,070
49524 5020,163, 02 0 ,158,020,163,148 49710 :020,163, 020 ,100,020,165,022
49530 5020,158, 030 ,004,020,163,005 49716 5030,022, 020 ,165,020,100,153
49536 5020,157, 0 2 0 ,163,020,157,153 49722 5020,100, 020 ,163,030,023,158
49542 5030,005, 0 2 0 ,163,020,157,017 49728 5016,163, 020 ,098,020,000,125
49548 5020,163, 0 2 0 ,158,030,006,025 49734 5030,024, 020 ,163,020,157,228
49554 5020,163, 0 2 0 ,157,020,163,177 49740 5020,163, 020 ,158,030,025,236
49560 5020,157, 030 ,007,020,163,037 49746 5020,163, 020 ,157,020,163,113
49566 5020,158, 020 ,163,020,158,185 49752 5020,157, 030 ,026,020,163,248
49572 5020,171, 030 ,075,020,157,125 49758 5020,158, 020 ,163,020,158,121
49578 5020,171, 0 2 0 ,000,001,015,141 49764 5030,027, 0 2 0 ,163,020,157,005
49584 5030,008, 054 ,002,052,162,228 49770 5020,163, 020 ,157,030,028,012
49590 5024,097, 020 ,162,020,163,156 49776 5020,163, 020 ,157,020,163,143
49596 5030,009, 020 ,100,020,165,020 49782 5020,158, 030 ,029,020,163,026
49602 5020,166, 0 2 0 ,167,030,010,095 49788 5020,157, 020 ,163,020,157,149
49608 5020,167, 084 ,166,016,166,051 49794 5030,030, 020 ,163,020,158,039
49614 5030,011, 0 2 0 ,167,084,166,172 49800 5020,163, 0 2 0 ,158,030,031,046
49620 5016,166, 030 ,012,052,162,138 49806 5020,163, 020 ,157,020,171,181
49626 5024,097, 0 2 0 ,162,020,163,192 49812 5020,000, 001 ,015,001,079,008
49632 5030,013, 0 2 0 ,100,020,165,060 49813 5086,127, 020 ,000,030,001,162
49638 5020,166, 0 2 0 ,167,030,014,135 49824 5054/002, 020 ,000,020,167,167
49644 5020,167, 0 2 0 ,102,020,154,207 49830 5020,000, 020 ,089,030,002,071
49650 5020,153, 030 ,015,016,153,117 49836 5020,000, 020 ,167,020,000,143
49656

317
5020,167, 02 0 ,166,030,016,155
Chapter 10

49842 5020,167, 030 ,003,020,000,162

 49848 5020,167, 020 ,000,020,167,066 50034 :020,000, 020 ,167,020,000,085

318
49854 5030,004, 020 ,000,020,167,175 50040 :020,167, 030 ,027,020,000,128
49860 :020,000, 020 ,167,030,005,182 50046 :020,167, 020 ,000,020,167,008
49866 5020,000, 020 ,167,020,000,173 50052 :030,028, 02 0 ,000,020,167,141
49872 5020 ,089, 030 ,006,020,000,117 50058
Chapter 10

:020,000, 0 2 0 ,089,030,029,070
49878 :020,167, 020 ,000,020,167,096 50064 :020,000, 020 ,167,020,000,115
49884 s030,007, 020 ,000,020,167,208 50070 :020,167, 030 ,030,020,000,161
49890 :020,000, 020 ,167,030,075,026 50076 :020,167 ,020 ,000,020,167,038
49896 5020,000, 020 ,167,016,000,199 50082 :030,031, 020 ,000,020,167,174
49902 5001,015, 030 ,008,054,002,092 50088 :020,163, 020 ,000,001,015,131
49908 5076,173, 030 ,009,016,173,209 50094 :001,079, 065 ,076,066,085,034
49914 5016,000, 030 ,010,020,000,070 50100 :077,076 ,069 ,065,070,013,038
49920 :020 ,153 ,020 ,000,020,153,110 50106 :069,068, 086 ,065,082,068,112
49926 5030,011, 020 ,000,020,153,240 50112 :032,071, 082 ,073,069,071,078
49932 5020 ,000, 020 ,153,030,012,247 50118 :013,085, 083 ,069,083,032,051
49938 5076,173, 030 ,013,016,173,243 50124 :080,079, 082 ,084,065,077,159
49944 5016,000, 030 ,014,020,000,104 50130 :069,078, 084 ,079,013,067,088
49950 :020, 155 ,020 ,000,020,155,144 50136 :079,085, 082 ,084,069,083,186
49956 5030,015, 016 ,000,020,000,117 50142 5089,032, 066 ,079,066,032,074
49962 :020,162, 030 ,016,076,173,007 50148 5082,069, 084 ,069,076,076,172
49968 :030, 017 ,016 ,173,016,000,044 50154 5069,013, 0 0 0 ,239,024,164,231
49974 5030,018, 020 ,000,020,153,039
49980 :020,000, 020 ,153,030,019,046
49986 :020,000, 020 ,153,020,000,023
49992 :020, 153 ,030 ,020,076,171,030
49998 :030,021#016 ,171,016,000,076
50004 , ,
:030 0 2 2 012 ,161,030,023,106
50010 :012,175, 030 ,024,020,000,095
50016 :020,167, 020 ,000,020,089,156
50022 1030,025, 020 ,000,020,167,108
50028 :020,000, 020 ,167,030,026,115
 Program 10-2. K.C.O.MUS 49290 :048,149, 020 ,215,020,150,228
To enter this program you must use "The Machine Language
, 49296 :084,148, 038 ,255,001,200,102
Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C. 49302 :044,148, 001 ,072,038,001,198
49308 :048,000, 088 ,149,024,148,101
Starting Address: 49152 49314 :048,211, 020 ,149,020,148,246
Ending Address: 49469 49320 :084,146, 001 ,200,038,255,124
Filename: K.C.O.MUS 49326 :044,146, 038 ,001,001,072,220
49332 :048,000, 088 ,211,024,146,185
49152 :220,000,040 ,000,002,000,006 49388 :048,145, 020 ,211,016,158,016
49158 :001,142,118 ,012,134,003,160 49344 :084,148, 001 ,200,038,255,150
49164 :001,044,001 ,072,038,001,169 49350 :076,148, 020 ,148,001,072,151
49170 :001,071,001 ,006,048,000,145 49356 :038,001,022 ,013,004,142,168
49176 2088,153,024 ,219,048,157,201 49362 :001,094, 022 ,026,068,140,049
49182 2088,156,024 ,219,088,156,249 49368 5038,255, 001 ,200,008,140,090
49188 2088,153,084 ,153,038,255,039 493 74 5016,000, 001 ,079,001,039,102
49194 2001,216,044 ,153,038,001,239 49380 5001,068, 054 ,002,008,169,018
49200 2001,072,048 ,000,088,153,154 49386 5001,020, 008 ,172,008,169,100
49206 2024,219,048 ,157,088,156,234 49392 5008,247, 072 ,169,008,169,145
49212 2024,219,048 ,156,088,157,240 49398 5166,126, 001 ,015,030,002,074
49218 2024,156,048 ,231,020,154,187 49404 5008,173, 008 ,172,008,235,088
49224 2001,047,080 ,153,108,153,102 49410 5008,170, 008 ,169,008,172,025
49230 2038,255,001 ,216,008,153,237 49416 5001,079, 001 ,079,075,046,033
49236 2038,001,001 ,072,166,097,203 49422 5067,046, 079 ,046,013,086,095
49242 2001,002,166 ,014,080,165,006 49428 5073,066, 082 ,065,084,079,213
49248 2080,153,038 ,255,001,200,055 49434 5032,068, 069 ,077,079,078,173
49254 2012,153,038 ,001,001,072,123 49440 5083,084, 082 ,065,084,073,247
49260 2001,039,022 ,013,004,147,078 49446 5079,078, 013 ,066,089,032,139
49266 2022,026,068 ,145,038,255,156 49452 5072,065, 082 ,082,089,032,210
49272 2038,072,001 ,200,044,145,108 49458 5066,082, 065 ,084,084,013,188
49278 2038,001,001 ,072,030,002,014 49464 5013,000, 020 ,151,020,151,155
49284 2048,000,088 ,215,024,150,145

319
Chapter 10
Chapter 10

The VRT command specifies the vibrato rate, or how

quickly the tone alternates between increasing and decreasing
pitches. The number ranges from 0 to 255, with 0 meaning
256. Smaller rate numbers produce faster vibrato rates. The
values 1-4 are used most often.
There are no default vibrato settings, so the first time you
want to turn vibrato on, both commands should be entered.
To turn vibrato off, use the command VDP 0. You don't
have to do anything to the rate when you turn vibrato off. To
turn vibrato back on, just enter the VDP command again. The
previous rate remains in effect until a new rate is specified by
another VRT command.
Program 10-2 demonstrates a brief, but pleasant example
of how vibrato can add a nice touch to a song.

D etuning
The DTN command is used to detune a voice. Detuning is
accomplished by adding a constant number, specified by the
DTN command, to the frequency number of each note played.
Detuning a single voice is not very useful. All it does is
make the voice play slightly out of tune. When used with two
voices, however, with both voices playing the same notes but
one slightly detuned, the result is a "chorus" effect. This effect
was used in the "COMMODORE" demonstration song and
has some interesting applications.
What's the easiest way to make two voices play the exact
same notes? The answer is to use phrases. A phrase defined
on voice 1 can be called simultaneously on voice 2 or 3. You
don't have to wait for playing to reach the END command
before calling the phrase; the phrase is available as soon as
Sidplayer has processed the DEF command.
This means that you can define the phrase on voice 1 and
call it on voice 2 after having set the detune value.
V o ic e 1 : D E F 0 P l a y N o t e s E N D
V o ic e 2 : D T N 5 0 C A L 0

Either voice can be detuned. The DTN command can be

put either before the DEF 0 or before the CAL 0. Just make
sure that the DTN command is not included in the phrase
definition. You don't want both voices detuned.
When entering the DTN command, use a number from 1
to 2047 to tune the voice a little sharp. The larger the value,

320
 Chapter 10

the more the voice will be detuned. Values around 50 work

best. Enter a number from —2047 to —1 to tune the voice flat.
For most applications, the direction makes no difference.
As with the glide rate and vibrato depth, larger values
have to be used for higher pitches.
Enter the DTN 0 to turn the detuning off.
The only drawback to detuning is that it takes two voices,
so only one voice is left free. The effect can sometimes be
worth it, though. Program 10-3 is a demonstration of just how
realistic a sound can be created with your Commodore 64.

Program 10-3. PIPERS.MUS

To enter this program,you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MLX)," a program
found in Appendix C.
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49481
Filename: PIPERS.MUS
49152 :176,000,020,000,020,000,216
49158 -.0 1 0 , 0 1 0 ,001,006,001,135,229
49164 :002,200,038,001,006,192/195
49170 .-030,001,092,165,003,100,153
49176 s112,157,003,000,092,092,224
49182 :112,157,092,092,112,157,240
49188 :092,092,112,157,001,047,025
49194 -.001,022,030,002,020,157,018
49200 :024,155,020,158,028,159,080
49206 1024,145,020,157,024,155,067
49212 :020,155,028,154,024,153,082
49218 :001,047,001,038,030,003,186
49224 :020,157,024,155,020,158,094
49230 :028,159,024,145,020,157,099
49236 :028,155,024,153,020,154,106
49242 5024,153,001,047,030,004,093
49248 5001,018,001,054,030,005,205
49254 5020,154,024,155,020,156,119
49260 5028,157,024,158,020,157,140
49266 5028,155,024,153,020,154,136
49272 5024,153,001,047,030,006,125
49278 5001,070,020,145,024,157,031
49284 5020,145,024,158,020,145,132
49290 5024,157,024,155,024,154,164
49296 5024,153,001,047,030,007,150
49302 5001,086,020,145,024,157,071
49308 5020,145,024,158,024,157,172
49314 5024,155,024,153,020,154,180
49320 5024,153,001,047,030,008,175

321
Chapter 10

49326 :001,066,030,009,001,050,075
49332 :001,079,166,065,001,002,238
49338 :008,157,008,157,008,157,169
49344 :008,157,008,157,008,157,175
49350 5008,157,001,079,001,002,190
49356 5001,018,001,034,001,018,021
49362 s001,050,001,066,001,082,155
49368 5001,066,001,050,001,079,158
49374 5084,072,069,032,082,069,118
49380 5068,067,079,065,084,083,162
49386 5032,065,082,069,032,067,069
49392 5079,077,073,078,071,033,139
49398 5033,033,013,066,065,071,015
49404 5080,073,080,069,032,068,142
49410 5069,077,079,078,083,084,216
49416 5082,065,084,073,079,078,213
49422 5013,085,083,069,083,032,123
49428 5068,069,084,085,078,073,221
49434 5078,071,032,065,078,068,162
49440 s032,084,082,065,078,083,200
49446 5080,079,083,073,084,073,254
49452 5079,078,013,067,079,085,189
49458 5082,084,069,083,089,032,233
49464 5082,079,066,069,082,084,006
49470 5032,072,073,071,071,073,198
49476 5078,083,013,000,020,151,157

Transposing
Detuning works by adjusting the pitch of each note so that it's
slightly sharp or flat. Transposing also changes the pitch of
each note, but in quite a different way.
When a voice is transposed, the pitch of each note is
shifted up or down a designated number of half steps. For ex­
ample, if a voice is being transposed up one half step, all
notes entered as C play as C-sharps, all C-sharps play as D,
every D plays as D-sharp, and so on. If the voice is being
transposed down one half step, D notes play as C-sharps, C
sharps as C-naturals, C-naturals become B-naturals, and so on.
You can check these alterations by tracing the transposing
using Table 10-1.

322
 Chapter 10

Table 1 0-1. Transposing

C
B
Alt /Bi>
A
G# /Ab
G
Ft) /Gb
F
E
Dft /Eb
D
Ctt /Db
C

Transposing can be done by more than 1 half step. In a"

voice being transposed up by 7 half steps, for example, a note
entered as C will play using the pitch for G. Since there are 12
half steps in an octave, transposing up or down by 12 half
steps makes a voice play an octave higher or lower.
The TPS command is used to specify the number of half
steps a voice should be transposed. Enter this command with
a number in the range 1-95 to transpose a voice up by 1 to 95
half steps. Enter —1 to —95 to transpose the voice down. En­
ter 0 to turn transposing off.
Transposing applies to all notes equally, so unlike some of
the previous commands, the value does not need to be
changed for higher or lower pitches.
There are many useful applications for the TPS command.
For instance, you may sometimes see a dashed line appearing
above or below a sequence of notes.

Figure 1 0 -1 0 . Octave Offset

8va r-

The dashed line, along with the message 8va or 8vaba,

means that the notes should be played one octave higher or
lower than written. This is done because writing the notes
323
Chapter 10

with the correct pitches would require too many leger lines,
and the notes would be difficult to read.
The easiest way to handle an octave offset is to enter the
notes as written, and then insert a TPS 12 or TPS —12 com­
mand at the beginning of the offset.
An interesting effect is created by having two voices play
the same note, while one of the voices is transposed up one or
two octaves. This produces a rich, warm tone. The effect was
used in the COMMODORE demonstration song. Another
possibility is to use transposing with detuning. While one
voice plays a series of notes, the other plays the same notes,
but is detuned and transposed up one or two octaves. Pro­
grams 10-4 and 10-5 use the technique to imitate a calliope
and an accordion.
Synchronization
In the previous section, it was mentioned that a rich, warm
tone can be created when two voices play the same notes and
the second voice is transposed up by 12 or 24 half steps. But if
you try this technique with the second voice transposed up by
other numbers of half steps, like 6, 11, or 13, the resulting
tone sounds less than desirable.
The reason that the pleasant tone is produced only when
the second voice is transposed up an octave or two is because
the voices become synchronized. Remember that the fre­
quency of a note is doubled when it's played an octave higher.
When two voices play the same notes, one an octave higher,
the direct relationship between the frequencies causes the
tones to be synchronized.
The tone produced by two synchronized voices sounds
rich and warm because it contains more harmonics than usual.
The second voice augments the harmonics of the first one.
This method of adding harmonics to a tone is called additive
synthesis. (Filtering is called subtractive synthesis because the
filter removes harmonics from a tone.)
Synchronization occurs naturally at intervals of 12 half
steps, but it can be made to occur at any half-step interval if
the synchronization mode of the SID chip is turned on. The
advantage to using the synchronization mode is that different
half-step intervals produce different harmonic patterns.
Synchronization, therefore, lets you produce many new types
of tones.
The SNC command is used to control the synchronization
324
 Chapter 10

mode. Enter 1 (yes) to turn the mode on.

A specific procedure must be followed in order to syn­
chronize two voices. Let's say that you want to synchronize
voices 1 and 2. First, define voice 1 to be a phrase. On voice 2
you should enter the SNC YES command and the TPS com­
mand. Choose any number of half steps, such as 8. Then call
the phrase that was defined on voice 1.
DEF on voice 1
SNC on voice 2
TPS on voice 2
CAL on voice 2
Play the two voices several times, each time transposing
voice 2 by a different number of half steps, to hear the various
types of tones that can be created. Each waveform produces
different effects when synchronized, so you might also try
changing the waveform.
Both voices should have the same envelope, but they do
not have to have the same waveform. For example, you might
use a square wave on voice 1 and a triangle wave on voice 2.
To synchronize voices 1 and 3, use this procedure:
SNC on voice 1
TPS on voice 1
DEF on voice 1
CAL on voice 3
Use this procedure to synchronize voices 2 and 3:
DEF on voice 2
SNC on voice 3
TPS on voice 3
CAL on voice 3
It's very important that you use only these procedures.
Synchronization will not work correctly if the SNC or TPS
commands are used on the wrong voice. Also, only positive
transpose values should be used. Negative values do not seem
to be very useful.
When you want to stop using the synchronization mode
and return to normal playing, enter the SNC command with
the value 0 (no) to turn the mode off. Do this on the voice
which earlier turned the mode on. You may also want to enter
a TPS 0 command to cancel the transposing.
Program 10-6 uses different half-step intervals and dif­
ferent waveforms to demonstrate some of the effects possible
with synchronization.
325
 Program 10-4. CALLIOPE.MUS 49290 5020,145, 020 ,159,020,158,148

326
To enter this program,you must use "The Machine Language 49296 5020,159, 020 ,146,044,145,166
Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C. 49302 5001,079, 001 ,039,030,001,045
49308 s001,006 ,020 ,165,020,153,009
Starting Address: 49152
Chapter 10

49314 5020,153, 020 ,173,020,153,189

Ending Address: 49481 49320 5020,153, 001 ,047,001,002,136
Filename: CALLIOPE.MUS 49326 5030,002, 001 ,002,001,022,232
49332 5020,164, 020 ,166,020,166,224
49152 s146,000,106,000,004,000,000 49338 5020,172, 020 ,166,020,166,238
49158 5166,010,010,070,001,246,253 49344 5001,047, 030 ,003,001,018,036
49164 :001,135,130,000,001,004,027 49350 5001,018, 030 ,004,001,018,014
49170 :001,192,001,236,030,001,22b 49356 5020,165, 020 ,153,020,153,223
49176 :048,155,020,090,020,155,000 49362 5020,165, 020 ,166,020,167,000
49182 :020,157,012,145,020,159,031 49368 :030,005, 001 ,0 0 2 ,0 0 1 ,0 0 2 , 0 0 1
49188 :020,145,030,002,020,146,143 49374 5030,006, 001 ,002,001,018,024
49194 :020,145,020,159,020,145,039 49380 5030,007, 001 ,018,001,002,031
49200 :020,155,020,157,044,158,090 49386 5030,008, 020 ,162,020,165,127
49206 :030,003,048,156,020,155,210 49392 5020,165, 020 ,162,020,165,024
49212 :020,156,020,158,012,159,073 49398 5020,165, 020 ,161,020,163,027
49218 :020,094,020,159,030,004,137 49404 :020,165, 048 ,153,001,079,206
49224 :020,145,020,159,020,094,018 49410 5001,242, 001 ,079,067,065,201
49230 5020,159,020,156,020,159,100 49416 5076,076, 073 ,079,080,069,205
49236 5044,155,030,005,048,155,009 49422 5032,068, 069 ,077,079,078,161
49242 :020,090,020,155,020,157,040 49428 5083,084, 082 ,065,084,073,235
49248 5012,145,020,159,020,145,085 49434 5079,078, 013 ,066,089,032,127
49254 5030,009,020,146,020,145,216 49440 5082,079, 066 ,069,082,084,238
49260 5020,159,020,145,020,155,115 49446 5032,072, 073 ,071,071,073,174
49266 5020,157,044,158,030,010,021 49452 5078,083, 013 ,013,067,065,107
49272 5048,158,020,158,020,159,171 49458 5084,067, 072 ,032,084,072,205
49278 5020,145,012,157,020,148,116 49464 5065,084, 032 ,066,082,065,194
49284 5020,147,030,011,020,146,250 49470 5083,083, 032 ,082,073,078,237
49476 5071,046, 046 ,046,013,000,034
 Program 10-5. BISTRO.MUS 49290 5020,145, 020 ,158,044,223,236
49296 5030,005, 020 ,147,020,148,002
To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language
Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C.
49302 5020,149, 020 ,148,016,147,138
49308 5020,146, 0 2 0 ,147,020,148,145
Starting Address: 49152 49314 5048,147, 030 ,006,020,094,251
Ending Address: 49523 49320 5020,145, 0 2 0 ,146,016,145,148
Filename: BISTRO.MUS 49326 5020,155, 1 1 2 ,156,084,156,089
49332 5022,002, 068 ,157,068,158,143
49152 :020,001,010,000,008,000,039 49338 5068,223, 068 ,145,068,146,136
49158 :001,071,010,070,001,006,165 49344 5068,147, 068 ,148,068,148,071
49164 :006,128,022,002,030,001,201 49350 5052,148, 030 ,007,020,148,091
49170 :020,153,020,156,020,157,032 49356 5020,082, 016 ,146,020,223,199
49176 5016,222,020,223,020,145,158 49362 5080,146, 048 ,146,020,147,029
49182 5020,223,020,222,020,157,180 49368 5020,149, 020 ,148,020,146,207
49188 5020,156,020,219,048,089,076 49374 5016,145, 020 ,156,080,158,029
49194 5068,154,068,155,068,156,199 49380 5048,158, 030 ,008,020,159,139
49200 5068,157,068,158,068,159,214 49386 5020,146, 020 ,145,020,158,231
49206 5084,145,016,145,108,223,007 49392 5016,145, 020 ,157,080,145,035
49212 5020,223,030,002,020,153,252 49398 5048,145, 030 ,009,020,157,143
49218 s020,155,020,156,016,157,078 49404 5020,158, 016 ,223,020,155,076
49224 5020,222,020,223,020,210,019 49410 5080,156, 092 ,157,092,158,225
49230 5022,005,068,145,068,210,084 49416 5092,223, 092 ,145,092,146,030
49236 5022,006,004,145,020,223,248 49422 5092,147, 092 ,148,092,148,221
49242 5020,222,020,157,108,156,005 49428 5016,148, 001 ,047,001,079,056
49248 5020,156,052,000,001,047,116 49434 5166,179, 001 ,002 ,001 ,002,121
49254 5001,002,001,022,030,003,161 49440 5001,018, 001 ,079,001,002,134
49260 5020,156,020,157,020,158,127 49446 5001,002, 001 ,018,001,079,140
49266 5016,145,020,158,016,145,102 49452 5080,073, 069 ,067,069,083,229
49272 5020,158,048,145,030,004,013 49458 5032,070, 082 ,065,078,067,188
49278 5020,158,020,145,020,158,135 49464 5065,073, 083 ,069,083,013,186
Chapter 10

49470 5065,067, 067 ,079,082,068,234

327
49284 5020,146,016,145,020,146,113
 49476 5073,065,078,032,068,069,197 49230 5084,157,084,211,084,223,153

328
49482 :077,079,078,083,084,082,045 49236 5030,004,020,157,088,223,094
49488 :065,084,073,079,078,013,216 49242 5088,222,088,157,088,222,187
49494 :067,079,085,082,084,069,040 49248 5084,223,084,219,084,157,179
Chapter 10

49500 :083,089,032,082,079,066,011 49254 5084,153,084,219,030,005,165

49506 :069,082,084,032,072,073,254 49260 5020,166,088,153,088,154,009
49512 :071,071,073,078,083,013,237 49266 5088,219,088,154,084,153,132
49518 :013,000,020,157,030,003,077 492 7 2 5084,158,084,156,084,145,063
49278 5084,158,030,006,020,211,123
49284 5088,156,088,157,088,158,099
Program 10*6. TPI #14*MUS 49290 5088,157,084,156,084,145,084
49296 5084,158,084,148,084,145,079
To enter this program,you must use “The Machine Language
Editor (MLX)/' a program found in Appendix C. 49302 5030,007,016,146,016,000,109
49308 5020,000,001,047,001,006,231
Starting Address: 49152 49314 5088,149,088,148,088,211,166
Ending Address: 50825 49320 5088,148,020,149,030,008,099
Filename: TPI #14.MUS 49326 5016,145,016,000,020,000,115
49332 5001,047,001,006,088,148,215
49152 :040,003,060,000,226,002,075 49338 5088,211,088,146,088,211,250
49158 :001,006,006,112,001,004,136 49344 5020,148,030,009,016,223,126
49164 s001,208,001,228,001,168,107 49350 5016,000,020,000,001,047,026
49170 :030,001,020,000,088,223,124 49356 5001,006,088,211,088,146,232
49176 :088,145,088,146,088,145,212 49362 5088,145,088,146,020,211,140
49182 5084,223,084,148,084,146,031 49368 5030,010,020,158,088,145,155
49188 s084,215,084,148,030,002,087 49374 5088,223,088,158,088,223,066
49194 5020,146,088,148,088,211,231 49380 5020,145,016,156,016,000,069
49200 5088,146,088,211,084,148,045 49386 5001,047,030,011,001,006,074
49206 5084,223,084,146,084,156,063 49392 5001,071,001,192,001,132,126
49212 5084,222,030,003,020,157,064 49398 5001,200,038,001,016,148,138
49218 5088,219,088,156,088,157,094 49404 5016,156,016,158,016,145,247
49224 5088,156,084,219,084,223,158 49410 5030,012,012,148,012,000,216
 49416 s030,013, 016 ,000,001,047,115 49602 :001,006,088,153,088,154,172
49422 :001,006, 016 ,156,016,223,176 49608 :088,219,088,154,020,153,154
49428 :016,146, 030 ,014,012,148,130 49614 :030,024,084,145,080,145,202
49434 s012,000, 030 ,015,016,000,099 49620 5084,223,020,158,088,156,173
49440 s001,047, 001 ,006,016,157,004 49626 5088,157,088,158,088,157,186
49446 :016,223, 016 ,145,030,016,228 49632 5020,156,030,025,084,148,175
49452 :012,147, 012 ,000,001,047,007 49638 5080,148,084,211,020,146,151
49458 :030,017, 001 ,006,020,000,124 49644 5088,223,088,145,088,146,246
49464 :001,039, 001 ,252,001,152,246 49650 5088,145,020,223,030,026,006
49470 :038,004, 088 ,156,088,157,081 49656 5084,215,080,215,084,214,116
49476 s088,158, 088 ,157,084,156,031 49662 5020,149,088,215,088,214,004
49482 :084,145, 084 ,158,084,148,009 49668 5088,149,088,214,020,215,010
49488 :084,145, 030 ,018,020,150,015 49674 5030,027,020,211,088,149,023
49494 :088,211, 088 ,146,088,145,084 49680 5088,148,088,211,088,148,019
49500 :088,146, 084 ,211,084,158,095 49686 5020,149,020,145,088,211,143
49506 s084,145, 084 ,221,084,146,094 49692 5088,146,088,145,088,146,217
49512 :030,019, 016 ,223,080,146,106 49698 5020,211,030,028,020,158,245
49518 :080,223, 080 ,157,030,020,188 49704 5088,145,088,146,088,211,038
49524 5016,222, 080 ,148,080,222,116 49710 5088,146,020,145,020,148,101
49530 s080,156, 030 ,021,020,157,074 49716 5088,222,088,157,088,156,083
49536 5001,047, 001 ,006,088,153,168 49722 5088,157,020,222,030,029,092
49542 5088,154, 088 ,219,088,154,157 49728 5020,157,088,223,088,145,017
49548 5084,153, 084 ,157,084,219,153 49734 5088,146,088,145,020,223,012
49554 5084,145, 084 ,157,030,022,156 49740 5020,211,088,157,088,156,028
49560 5020,146, 001 ,047,001,006,117 49746 5088,219,088,156,020,157,042
49566 5088,222, 088 ,157,088,156,189 49752 5030,030,020,156,088,158,058
49572 5088,157, 084 ,222,084,154,185 49758 5088,223,088,145,088,223,181
49578 5084,156, 084 ,167,084,157,134 49764 5020,158,020,146,088,156,176
49584 5001,047, 030 ,023,001,006,028 49770 5088,219,088,154,088,219,194
49590 5016,219, 016 ,000,020,000,197 49776 5020,156,030,031,020,219,076
Chapter 10

49782 5088,157,088,158,088,223,152

329
49596 5001,047, 001 ,135,050,232,142
 49788 .*088,158,020,157,020,145,200 49974 5001,002, 166 ,012,001,002,238

330
49794 :088,219,088,154,088,153,152 49980 s166,124, 001 ,002,166,058,065
49800 :088,154,020,219,030,032,167 49986 5001,002, 166 ,090,001,002,072
49806 5016,154,016,000,020,000,092 49992 sl66,106, 001 ,002,166,190,191
49812 5001,047,001,006,130,000,077 49998
Chapter 10

5001,002, 166 ,060,001,002,054

49818 5001,112, 001,212,088,223,023 50004 sl66,108, 001 ,002,166,156,171
49824 s088,145, 088,146,088,145,092 50010 5001,002, 001 ,071,166,108,183
49830 5084,223, 030,033,084,148,000 50016 5001,002, 001 ,039,166,110,159
49836 5084,146, 084,215,084,148,165 50022 5001,002, 001 ,079,006,112,047
49842 5020,146, 088,148,088,211,111 50028 5034,188, 001 ,004,001,192,016
49848 5088,146, 088,211,084,148,181 50034 5001,132, 001 ,200,038,001,231
49854 5030,034, 084,223,084,211,088 50040 5030,001, 016 ,231,016,239,141
49860 5084,223, 084.211.020.157.207 50046 5016,162, 016 ,164,030,002,004
49866 5088,219, 088.156.088.157.230 50052 ;012,231, 012 ,000,030,003,164
49872 5088,156, 084,219,030,035,052 50058 5016,000, 016 ,239,016,227,140
49878 5084,223, 084,157,084,211,033 50064 5016,165, 030 ,004,012,231,090
49884 5084,223, 020,157,088,223,247 50070 5012,000, 030 ,005,016,000,213
49890 5088,222, 088,157,088,222,067 50076 5016,239, 016 ,161,016,227,063
49896 5084,223, 030,036,016,219,072 50082 5030,006, 012 ,166,012,000,132
49902 5080,211, 020,211,088,211,035 50088 5030,007, 020 ,000,114,108,191
49908 5088,146, 088,145,088,146,177 50094 5001,228, 001 ,152,038,004,086
49914 5020,211, 030.037.016.156.208 50100 5088,231, 088 ,153,088,154,214
49920 5080,211, 020,211,088,145,243 50106 5088,153, 020 ,231,016,219,145
49926 5088,146, 088,211,088,146,005 50112 5016,000, 030 ,008,020,000,010
49932 5020,145, 030,038,020,148,157 50118 5088,166, 088 ,231,088,153,244
49938 5088,146, 088,145,088,223,028 50124 5088,231, 020 ,166,016,154,111
49944 5088,145, 020,146,020,156,087 50130 5016,000, 030 ,009,020,000,029
49950 5020,223, 020,145,020,158,104 50136 5088,165, 088 ,166,088,231,018
49956 5030,039, 008,223,008,000,088 50142 5088,166, 020 ,165,020,153,066
49962 5001,047, 001.079.001.059.230 50148 5088,161, 088 ,162,088,227,018
49968 sl66,174, 001,002,166,010,055 50154 5088,162, 020 ,161,030,010,193
 50160 :080,164, 016 ,172,020,000,180 50346 :084,162, 030 ,020,020,231,205
50166 :084, 153, 084 ,166,020,164,149 50352 :088,230, 088 ,165,088,164,231
50172 :030,011, 020 ,000,088,164,053 50358 :088,165, 084 ,230,084,162,227
50178 :088,165, 088 ,166,088,165,250 50364 :084,164, 084 ,239,084,162,237
50184 s084,164, 084 ,153,084,166,231 50370 :030,021, 016 ,227,080,165,221
50190 s084,156, 084 ,153,030,012,021 50376 :080 , 2 2 1 , 080 ,161,030,022,032
50196 :020,166, 088 ,153,088,231,254 50382 :016,175, 080 ,162,080,175,126
50202 s088,166, 088 ,231,084,153,068 50388 :080,173, 030 ,023,020,161,187
50208 2084,164, 084 ,166,084,161,007 50394 :050,132, 001 ,244,088,169,134
50214 2084,227, 030 ,013,020,162,062 50400 :088,170, 088 ,235,088,170,039
50220 2088,239, 088 ,161,088,162,102 50406 s020,169, 084 ,161,080,161,137
50226 2088,161, 084 ,239,084,164,102 50412 :084,239, 030 ,024,020,174,039
50232 2084,162, 084 ,231,084,164,097 50418 :088,172, 088 ,173,088,174,001
50238 2030,014, 020 ,162,088,164,028 50424 :088,173, 020 ,172,084,164,181
50244 2088,227, 088 ,162,088,227,180 50430 :080,164, 084 ,227,030,025,096
50250 2084,164, 084 ,239,084,162,123 50436 :020,162, 088 ,239,088,161,250
50256 2084,173, 084 ,239,030,015,193 50442 :088,162, 088 ,161,020,239,000
50262 2020,171, 088 ,173,088,174,032 50448 :084,231, 080 ,231,084,230,188
50268 2088,239, 088 ,174,084,173,170 50454 :030,026, 02 0 ,165,088,227,066
50274 2084,163, 084 ,161,084,165,071 50460 :088,164, 088 ,165,088,164,017
50280 2084,163, 030 ,016,020,231,136 50466 s020,227, 084 ,219,080,219,115
50286 2088,161, 088 ,162,088,163,092 50472 :084,154, 030 ,027,020,153,252
50292 2088,162, 084 ,161,084,165,092 50478 s088,219, 088 ,154,088,153,068
50298 2084,163, 084 ,153,084,165,087 50484 :088,154, 020 ,219,020,166,207
50304 2030,017, 016 ,166,001,212,058 50490 :088,153, 088 ,231,088,166,104
50310 2080,153, 080 ,166,080,164,089 50496 :088,231, 020 ,153,030,028,102
50316 2030,018, 016 ,229,080,166,167 50502 :020,164, 088 ,166,088,231,059
50322 2080,229, 080 ,162,030,019,234 50508 :088,153, 088 ,231,020,166,054
50328 2020,165, 088 ,173,088,174,092 50514 :020,154, 088 ,164,088,227,055
50334 2088,239, 088 ,174,084,173,236 50520 :088,162, 088 ,227,020,164,069
Chapter 10

331
50340 2084,162, 084 ,239,084,165,214 50526 :030,029, 0 2 0 ,227,088,165,141
 50532 :088,166, 088 ,231,088,166,159 50718 :020,174,088, 161 ,088,239,032

332
50538 :020,165, 020 ,153,088,227,011 50724 :088,174,088, 239 ,084,161,102
50544 :088,162, 088 ,161,088,162,093 50730 :084,172,084, 174 ,084,169,041
50550 z 0 2 0 , 2 2 1 , 030,,030,020,162,095 50736 5084,235,030, 038 ,020,170,113
50556 :088,164, 088 ,165,088,166,115 50742 5088,239,088, 161 ,088,162,112
Chapter 10

50562 :088, 165, 020 ,164,020,231,050 50748 5088,161,020, 239 ,016,164,236

50568 :088, 162 ,088 ,161,088,239,194 50754 5016,172,030, 039 ,008,239,058
50574 1088,161, 020 ,162,030,031,122 50760 5008,000,001, 079 ,084,087,075
50580 :020,161, 088 ,227,088,164,128 50766 5079,032,080, 065 ,082,084,244
50586 :088,165, 088 ,164,020,227,138 50772 5032,073,078, 086 ,069,078,244
50592 :020,166, 088 ,161,088,239,154 50778 5084,073,079, 078 ,032,035,215
50598 :088,174, 088 ,239,020,161,168 50784 5049,052,013, 074 ,046,083,157
50604 :030,032, 02 0 ,239,001,071,053 50790 5046,032,066, 065 ,067,072,194
50610 :088,231, 088 ,153,088,154,212 50796 5013,067,079, 085 ,082,084,006
50616 5088,153, 084 ,231,084,156,212 50802 5069,083,089, 032 ,082,079,036
50622 5084,154, 084 ,223,084,156,207 50808 5066,069,082, 084 ,032,072,013
50628 5030,033, 0 2 0 ,154,088,156,165 50814 5073,071,071, 073 ,078,083,063
50634 5088,219, 088 ,154,088,219,034 50820 5013,013,000, 077 ,029,192,200
50640 5084,156, 084 ,231,084,154,233
50646 5084,164, 084 ,230,030,034,072
50652 5020,165, 088 ,227,088,164,204
50658 5088,165, 088 ,164,084,227,018
50664 5084,231, 084 ,165,084,219,075
50670 5084,231, 030 ,035,020,165,035
50676 5088,231, 088 ,230,088,165,110
50682 5088,230, 084 ,231,084,227,170
50688 5084,165, 084 ,239,084,162,050
50694 5030,036, 0 2 0 ,161,088,172,001
50700 5088,173, 088 ,174,088,173,028
50706 5084,172, 084 ,161,084,174,009
50712 5084,227, 084 ,161,030,037,135
 Chapter 10

Ring Modulation
A ring modulator takes two frequencies and produces two new
frequencies in their place. The new frequencies are the sum
and difference of the originals. For example, if a ring modu­
lator is given frequencies of 200 and 300 Hz, it will produce
the frequencies of 100 and 500 Hz, but not 200 or 300 Hz.
Sometimes it can be hard to discern the pitch of a ring-
modulated tone. The two frequencies may be interpreted by
your ear as a single pitch, but the frequency corresponding to
that pitch is not one of the two produced by the ring modula­
tion, so it does not really exist.
Ring-modulated tones are useful for creating percussion
effects. Bells, chimes, steel drums, and various instruments
made of metal, wood, or glass can be approximated.
When used simultaneously with synchronization, a whole
new set of tone colors (timbres) is available.
To use ring modulation, a definite procedure must be fol­
lowed. Two voices must play the same sequence of notes, just
like when using the synchronization mode. With ring modula­
tion, however, only voices 1 and 3 can be used.
Voice 1 is used to supply the waveform and envelope of
the ring-modulated tone, plus one of the two frequencies
needed for the process. The first thing voice 1 should do is se­
lect the triangle waveform. This waveform must be used in or­
der for ring modulation to work.
Since ring-modulated tones are used mainly for percus­
sion effects, a nonsustaining envelope should be selected.
Finally, enter the command RNG with the value for Yes
to turn ring modulation on. Voice 1 is now ready to start play­
ing notes. These notes should be put in a phrase definition so
that they can be called by voice 3.
Voice 3 is used only to supply the second frequency
needed for ring modulation, so the waveform and envelope of
voice 3 do not have to be set. In fact, it's best to turn off the
output from this voice completely, by using the 3 - 0 (3 OFF)
command. Enter this command with the value for Yes at the
beginning of voice 3. The frequencies of notes played by voice
3 are still used in the ring-modulation process, but the output
from voice 3 itself is not heard. Voice 3 can now call the
phrase defined in voice 1.
Here's an example sequence of commands that could be
entered to use ring modulation.

333
Chapter 10

Voice 1
WAV T
ATK 0
DCY 9
SUS 0
RLS 9
PNT 1
RNG Y
DEF
Voice 3
3-0 Y
CAL
As with synchronization, different tone types can be pro­
duced by using the TPS command. With ring modulation,
however, transposing one voice can cause the resulting pitch
to be out of tune, so it's often necessary to transpose the other
voice as well to bring the pitch back in tune.
Table 10-2 is a chart ordered by increasing half-step inter­
vals. For each interval, the appropriate transpose values for
voices 1 and 3 are given.

Table 1 0-2. Transpose Values for Use with Ring Modulation

Halfstep VI V3 Highest
Offset TPS TPS Note
-2 0 7 -1 3 E7
-1 9 7 -1 2 E7
-1 8 7 -1 1 E7
-1 7 - -

-1 6 6 -1 0 F7
-1 5 6 -9 F7
-1 4 6 -8 F7
-1 3 -

-1 2 0 12 B7
-1 1 - -

-1 0 2 -8 A7
-9 4 -5 G7
-8 2 -6 A7
-7 7 0 E7
-6 10 4 017
-5 0 -5 B7
-4 2 -2 A7
-3 - -

-2 - -

-1 - —

334
 Chapter 10

0 0 B7
-1 0 B7
OvOOOMONOl^U)K)MOvOOOS10Nairfi>U)K)MO^)OONiaNai4^WhOMOvOOONiavCjl^U)N)

0 4 G7
-5 0 B7
4 10 C87
0 7 E7

-5 4 G7
4 14 A6

0 12 B6

-4 10 C87
-5 10 C8 7
0 16 G6
-5 12 B6
1 19 E6
0 19 E6

-2 20 E 1>6
4 27 G85
0 24 B5

0 26 A5
1 28 G5
0 28 G5

-5 25 Bb5
0 31 E5
-5 27 G85
1 34 Ctt5
0 34 C#5
0 35 C5
0 36 B4
0 37 B b4
0 38 A4
0 39 G#4
0 40 G4
The transpose values for some of these intervals are close
approximations and don't produce a distinct pitch, which is
why they're best used for percussion effects. Those intervals

335
Chapter 10

for which no satisfactory transpose values could be found

have been marked with a dash (-).
When the transpose value for a voice is 0, no TPS com­
mand has to be entered for that voice.
The rightmost column tells you the highest note that can
be played using the given transpose values. For example,
when the 9 half-step interval is used, only notes up to G 7
should be used. Notes above G7 won't play properly.
You can transpose the tone up or down one or more oc­
taves by adding a multiple of 12 half steps to each transpose
value. Let's say that you are using the 26 half-step interval, in
which the transpose values are 0 and 26. Adding —12 half
steps gives the transpose values —12 and 14.
Be aware that the effect of ring modulation may vary
from one octave to another. Notes played in one octave may
sound quite different when played with the same half-step
interval in a different octave.
By now you might be wondering just what ring-modulated
tones sound like. Program 10-7 is a demonstration that uses
the 26 half-step interval.
Only a few of the half-step intervals listed in Table 10-2
produce very pleasant or useful sounds. Too often, the sound
produced by one interval includes an undesirable high-pitched
tone. But if you pass the ring-modulated tone through the fil­
ter, with the filter mode set to low pass, the squeal can be
eliminated. Most of the intervals listed in the table then be­
come useful.
Use the filter on voice 1 only. Here are some example
settings.
F-M L
AUT 1
RES 15
FLT Y
Try using different filter modes, including combinations.
Also try different cutoff settings on the AUT command. The
resonance value set by the RES command can be adjusted to
take some of the “bite" out of a tone.
Since there are so many variable factors, some experi­
mentation will be needed. This can be worthwhile, however,
because you'll discover some timbres that you've never heard

336
 Chapter 10

before from the SID chip. Some intervals to try are the inter­
vals with —7, 28, and 38 half steps.
One remaining possibility is to use synchronization and
ring modulation at the same time. This technique yields yet
another set of timbres.
To use both modes simultaneously, follow this procedure.
Voice 1
WAV T
SNC Y
RNG Y
TPS
DEF
Voice 3
3-0 Y
CAL
The triangle waveform is still required, but now any en­
velope can be used. Also, every half-step interval produces a
usable tone, so you can disregard Table 10-2. The transposing
always stays in tune, so it has to be done only on voice 1. As
with synchronization, however, negative transpose values are
not very useful.
To turn ring modulation off, enter the command RNG N
on voice 1. Enter the command 3 - 0 N on voice 3 to reenable
the output of that voice. The command TPS 0 should be en­
tered on those voices that were being transposed. If you were
also using the filter, enter the commands FLT N and AUT 0
on voice 1. Or, if you were using synchronization, enter the
command SNC N on voice 1.
Whether used alone, with the filter, or with synchroniza­
tion, the ring-modulation feature of the SID chip can produce
some very interesting sounds. Program 10-8 is just one more
example of the techniques.

Advanced Techniques
This section explores some new uses for the commands in­
troduced in the previous chapters. The techniques suggested
here should give you an idea of just what's possible with
Sidplayer.
Waveform. Probably the most overlooked waveform is
the noise waveform. Although this waveform does not have a
definite pitch quality, its character does change as the pitch is

337
Chapter 10

changed. High pitches produce a hissing sound, whereas low

pitches create more of a rumble.
An interesting use of the noise waveform is to play white-
noise notes with different pitches to create a repeating percus­
sion line. The sequence of notes should use short durations
and should repeat every one or two measures. With just a little
effort, you can create a fancy rhythm that adds a nice touch to
a song.
The character of the noise waveform can be altered signif­
icantly by passing it through the filter. Try this with the filter
set for the high-pass mode.
As for the other three waveforms, one possibility is to use
two waveforms at the same time on the same voice, with the
objective of creating new types of sounds. Unfortunately, only
the combination of triangle and pulse waves is audible.
To select the triangle and pulse wave combination, enter
the WAV command with the number 5 (1 for triangle plus 4
for pulse). This waveform sounds a lot like the pulse wave
with the pulse width set to about 200, but with more of a
buzz.
When a voice is playing with the triangle/pulse combina­
tion, the pulse width acts as a volume control for the voice.
Setting the pulse width above 2048 makes the voice inaudible;
smaller values make the voice sound louder.
Envelope. Thus far, you've concentrated on emulating
conventional instruments. A synthesizer, however, is capable
of producing any kind of sound, natural or unnatural.
One way to make a voice sound unnatural is to use a
backward envelope, as shown in Figure 10-11. Such an en­
velope has a slow attack rate and a very fast release rate.

Figure 10-11. Backward Envelope

338
 Program 10-7. HOLST.MUS 49290 5016,149,020, 148 ,020,211,190
To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language 49296 5016,148,016, 149 ,012,215,188
Editor (MIX)/' a program found in Appendix C. 49302 5001,047,166, 042 ,001,018,169
49308 5001,079,001, 079 ,001,091,152
Starting Address: 49152 49314 5166,179,020, 000 ,001,018,034
Ending Address: 49415 49320 5001,034,166, 014 ,001,018,146
Filename: HOLST.MUS 49326 5001,079,084, 072 ,069,077,044
49332 5069,032,070, 082 ,079,077,077
49152 sl52,000,002 ,000,016,000,170 49338 5032,084,072, 069 ,032,074,037
49158 s001,043,001 ,039,166,044,044 49344 5085,080,073, 084 ,069,082,153
49164 2001,004,001 ,144,001,132,039 49350 5032,077,079, 086 ,069,077,106
49170 :001,152,038 ,001,020,000,230 49356 5069,078,084, 013 ,079,070,085
49176 :001,02 2,020 ,157,020,223,211 49362 5032,034,084, 072 ,069,032,021
49182 s016,145,020 ,145,020,211,075 49368 5080,076,065, 078 ,069,084,156
49188 :052,146,024 ,223,020,211,200 49374 5083,034,013, 066 ,089,032,027
49194 :020,148,016 ,211,016,146,087 49380 5071,085,083, 084 ,065,086,190
49200 5020,145,020 ,146,016,145,028 49386 5069,032,072, 079 ,076,083,133
49206 5016,223,012 ,157,020,157,127 49392 5084,013,067, 079 ,085,082,138
49212 5020,223,016 ,145,020,145,117 49398 5084,069,083, 089 ,032,072,163
49218 5020,211,052 ,146,024,223,230 49404 5065,082,082, 089 ,032,066,156
49224 5020,211,020 ,148,016,149,124 49410 5082,065,084, 084 ,013,000,074
49230 5016,149,020 ,149,020,148,068
49236 5016,211,016 ,148,012,211,186
49242 5001,047,001 ,038,020,215,156
49248 5020,149,016 ,148,016,148,081
49254 5020,211,020 ,149,016,148,154
49260 5016,223,020 ,215,020,149,239
49266 5016,148,016 ,148,020,149,099
49272 5020,215,012 ,137,020,137,149
49278 5020,138,016 ,203,016,138,145

339
49284 5016,137,016 ,215,016,203,223
 Program 10 8. PROMENADE.MUS 49290 5001,047, 001 ,130,016,148,225

340
To enter this program you must use "The Machine Language
, 49296 5016,146, 020 ,145,020,223,202
Editor (MIX)," a program found in Appendix C. 49302 5016,156, 0 3 0 ,007,001,051,155
Starting Address: 49152 49308 sl66,179, 001 ,034,016,219,003
Chapter 10

49314 5030,008, 020 ,223,020,145,096

Ending Address: 49625 49320 5016,222, 0 1 6 ,214,016,148,032
Filename: PROMENADE.MUS 49326 5020,211, 0 2 0 ,210,016,222,105
49332 5030,009, 001 ,246,016,222,192
49152 :090,001,002,000,018,000,111 49338 5016,223, 0 1 6 ,222,020,223,138
49158 1166,078,001,059,001,043,098 49344 5020,145, 0 20 ,211,020,223,063
49164 :001,055,150,251,001,250,208 49350 5016,222, 0 3 0 ,010,020,210,194
49170 :001,027,001,006,001,039,093 49356 5020,211, 0 2 0 ,148,020,214,069
49176 :001,028,001,080,001,212,091 49362 5020,213, 020 ,148,020,211,074
49182 :001,152,038,006,001,047,019 49368 5020,213, 020 ,148,020,210,079
49188 5030,001,001,022,016,157,007 49374 5016,211, 001 ,047,001,047,033
49194 5016,156,016,223,020,145,106 49380 5030,011, 001 ,059,166,097,080
49200 5038,005,020,148,038,001,042 49386 5001,246, 0 1 6 ,223,016,145,113
49206 5016,146,030,002,020,145,157 49392 5016,223, 0 2 0 ,211,020,148,110
49212 5038,005,020,148,038,001,054 49398 5020,149, 0 2 0 ,146,016,145,230
49218 5016,146,016,223,016,145,116 49404 5020,148, 0 2 0 ,149,020,150,247
49224 5016,157,016,156,001,047,209 49410 5020,137, 0 2 0 ,215,020,150,052
49230 5030,105,001,134,001,004,097 49416 5020,149, 0 2 0 ,215,020,150,070
49236 5001,176,001,132,038,001,177 49422 5020,148, 0 1 6 ,149,020,150,005
49242 5001,047,001,051,166,179,023 49428 5020,147, 0 1 6 ,148,016,150,005
49248 5001,018,001,150,001,002,013 49434 5016,146, 0 3 0 ,012,001,047,022
49254 5001,047,030,005,001,059,245 49440 5001,051, 001 ,246,016,150,241
49260 5166,092,001,246,001,038,140 49446 5016,146, 0 2 0 ,148,020,145,021
49266 5016,156,016,157,016,154,117 49452 5016,146, 0 1 6 ,145,016,158,029
49272 5020,156,020,157,001,047,009 49458 5016,145, 0 1 6 ,148,020,211,094
49278 5001,118,016,153,030,006,194 49464 5020,146, 0 2 0 ,145,020,223,118
49284 5020,157,020,158,016,156,147 49470 5020,145, 020 ,158,030,013,192
 49476 :001,047, 001 ,246/016/145/012
49482 5016,223, 016 ,211/020/148,196
49488 5020/215/ 016 ,149,016/211/195
49494 5016/214/ 088 ,148/016/148,204
49500 5012/211/ 001 ,079/001/079,219
49506 5001/091/ 001 ,018/001,018,228
49512 5001/242/ 001 ,242,166/026,014
49518 5001/242/ 001 ,242/001/079,164
49524 5084/072/ 069 ,077,069/083,058
49530 5032/070/ 082 ,079,077/032,238
49536 5034/080/ 082 ,079,077,069/037
49542 5078/065/ 068 ,069,034,013,205
49548 5079/070/ 032 ,080,073/067,029
49554 5084/085/ 082 ,069,083,032,069
49560 5065/084/ 032 ,065,078/032,252
49566 5069/088/ 072 ,073,066/073,087
49572 5084/073/ 079 ,078,013/066,045
49578 5089/032/ 077 ,079,068,069/072
49584 5083/084/ 069 ,032,077/085,094
49590 5083/083/ 079 ,082/071,083/151
49596 ;075/089/ 013 ,067,079,085,084
49602 5082/084, 069 ,083,089,032/121
49608 5072,065/ 082 ,082,089/032/110
49614 5066,082/ 065 ,084,084/013/088
49620 5000/223, 020 ,158/088,156/089

u>
4^
Chapter 10
Chapter 10

If you've ever heard a recording of a song played back­

ward, you've heard the backward envelope. This type of en­
velope is not characteristic of any normal instrument.
A major drawback to the SID chip is that there's no mas­
ter volume control for each voice. To some extent, the sustain
level can be used as a voice volume control. Select sustain lev­
els less than 15 to make a voice a little quieter. You may also
want to adjust the decay rate so that the volume does not
drop from the peak to the sustain level too rapidly.
One other technique is to experiment with the attack rate
and release point so that each note is released before the vol­
ume hits the peak level (before the attack phase is complete).
In order for this to work, the release rate must be set so that
each note fades to complete silence before the next note be­
gins. As you might guess, this isn't an easy technique to use.
Filter. Pin 5 of the monitor jack can be used to send an
audio signal to the SID chip. This input signal is mixed with
the output from the three voices before being sent to the mas­
ter volume control.
If you want to pass the external audio signal through the
filter, use the F-X command. This command works just like
the FLT command, and accepts a yes/no data value.
Since using an external audio input is an advanced
application of the SID chip, you'll rarely use the F-X
command.
Portamento. When the portamento feature is turned on,
the pitch glides from one note to the next. The starting pitch
of the glide is the pitch of the previous note, and the ending
pitch is the pitch of the new note. For example, if a G note is
played after a C, the pitch will start at C and end at G.
The absolute set pitch command can be used to change the
starting pitch of a glide. In the earlier example, a command to
absolutely set the pitch at E could have been placed between
the notes C and G. When the G was then played, the pitch
would have glided from E to G, instead of from C to G.
Unlike the other commands, the absolute set pitch com­
mand is entered from the editing screen. To absolutely set the
pitch, select the name, accidental, and octave of the pitch,
change the duration so that it reads ABS SET, and press the
joystick button.
Although this command is entered like a note, it is still a
command because it has no duration. The command is entered

342
 Chapter 10

like a note because the editing screen offers a convenient

method of specifying a pitch.
One application of this command is to create pitch­
bending effects. To bend the pitch of a note, turn portamento
on, set the pitch one half step below the pitch of the note,
play the note, and turn portamento off. Another application is
discussed later, in the section on synchronization.
The absolute set pitch command has no effect on playing
when the portamento feature is turned off.
Vibrato. An advanced technique to use with vibrato is to
change the depth of the vibrato during a note.
Let's say that a voice is playing a whole note. Break the
whole note into four quarter notes. Enter the first quarter note
with a tie, and follow it with a VDP command to set the vi­
brato depth. Do this again for the next two quarter notes, each
time using a larger depth value. Enter the last quarter note
without a tie.
When played, the tied quarter notes sound like a whole
note, and the different VDP commands make the vibrato effect
deepen gradually. The result is a more natural vibrato effect.
Remember to reset the vibrato depth for the next note.
Detuning. Sidplayer can play a note using any frequency,
including frequencies between the normal half steps. Just
choose a note with a pitch near the desired frequency, and use
the DTN command to set a frequency offset value. Refer to
Appendix M of the Commodore 64 User’s Guide to find the fre­
quency number for each pitch.
As an example, let's say that you want to play a note with
a frequency of 500 Hz. Use the following formula to calculate
the corresponding frequency number.
Frequency number = Frequency/0.06097
The frequency number for 500 Hz is 500/0.06097, or
8201. The pitch with the closest frequency is B4, which has
the frequency number 8101. Therefore, to play a note at 500
Hz, all you have to do is enter the command DTN 100 fol­
lowed by the note B4.
Transposing. By using the TPS command, it's possible to
play notes in a ninth octave. If you play notes in octave 0 after
entering the command TPS —12, the notes will actually play
in octave —1.
It's very hard to hear the pitch of notes in octave 0, and

343
Chapter 10

even harder to hear notes in octave —1, so this technique is

probably useful only for creating special effects.
Unfortunately, this technique won't work with notes
above octave 7. If a note is transposed into octave 8, it's still
played in octave 7.
One other possibility is to play a phrase in different keys
by entering the TPS command with the correct number of half
steps before each phrase call.
Synchronization. When two voices are synchronized by
the sync mode, a rather unusual effect can be created by using
portamento on the voice which adds the harmonics.
One technique is to enter an absolute set pitch command
before each note. The command should set the pitch one oc­
tave below the pitch of the following note so that the pitch
glides up one full octave when the note is played. This tech­
nique was used in the song "ETAL" in Chapter 7.
Future expansion. The AUX command is reserved for
possible future expansion. At present, this command is ig­
nored by Sidplayer.
Uncommon instruments. Sidplayer can emulate in­
struments which are no longer commonly used. Program 10-9,
for example, imitates instruments that were popular in the late
Renaissance period.
Sound effects. Sidplayer can be used to produce sound
effects as well as music. Program 10-10 demonstrates white
noise to produce an explosion.
Phonetics. Certain combinations of frequencies are asso­
ciated with different vowel sounds, as demonstrated in Pro­
gram 10-11.
More than three voices. The most serious limitation of
the SID chip is that it supports only three voices. Many classi­
cal music pieces can be played with three voices, but most of
today's songs need at least four.
Sometimes when a song has to play four notes, one of the
notes can be eliminated without significantly affecting the mu­
sic. When a note in the bass clef is also played a couple of oc­
taves higher in the treble clef, the treble clef note can be
dropped. If the treble clef contains notes which do not seem to
be part of the melody, try deleting them. When it's not ob­
vious which note should be dropped, experiment.

344
 Program 10-9. COURANTE.MUS 49290 5020,154, 0 2 0 ,154,024,153,151
To enter this program,you must use "The Machine Language 49296 5024,154, 02 0 ,155,020,153,158
Editor (MIX)/' a program found in Appendix C. 49302 s020,153, 030 ,007,024,167,039
49308 5024,153, 0 2 0 ,154,020,154,169
Starting Address: 49152 49314 5052,154, 024 ,153,020,167,220
Ending Address: 49679 49320 5016,165, 030 ,008,020,154,049
Filename: COURANTE.MUS 49326 5020,167, 016 ,165,020,157,207
49332 5020,155, 024 ,154,024,153,198
49152 s190,000,090,000, 132 ,000,156 49338 5020,165, 030 ,009,020,167,085
49158 5006,128,001,039,001,028/209 49344 5020,153, 001 ,079,006,128,067
49164 5001,000,001,244,001,072,075 49350 5001,135, 00 2 ,100,001,004,185
49170 5038,001,166,010,030,001,008 49356 5001,000, 001 ,188,001,072,211
49176 5024,155,024,156,020,157,048 49362 5038,001, 166 ,179,030,001,113
49182 5020,157,052,157,024,156,084 49368 5020,000, 012 ,165,112,161,174
49188 5020,155,016,153,030,002,156 49374 5030,002, 020 ,161,012,172,107
49194 5024,156,024,157,020,158,069 49380 ;112,161, 030 ,003,020,161,203
49200 5020,156,020,156,024,155,067 49386 5012,165, 1 1 2 ,161,030,004,206
49206 5024,156,020,157,020,155,074 49392 5020,161, 012 ,165,112,161,103
49212 5020,155,030,003,020,155,187 49398 5030,005, 0 2 0 ,161,012,172,134
49218 5020,154,020,154,020,154,076 49404 5112,161, 030 ,006,020,161,230
49224 5024,153,024,154,020,155,090 49410 5012,165, 1 1 2 ,161,030,007,233
49230 5020,153,020,153,030,004,202 49416 5020,161, 012 ,173,112,173,147
49236 5024,155,024,156,024,157,112 49422 5030,008, 076 ,173,020,173,238
49242 5024,158,024,157,024,158,123 49428 5016,161, 020 ,173,030,009,173
49248 5024,157,024,158,024,157,128 49434 5012,161, 00 1 ,079,006,128,157
49254 5024,156,020,155,020,153,118 49440 5001,039, 001 ,004,001,080,158
49260 5020,153,030,005,024,156,240 49446 5001,132, 001 ,008,038,001,219
49266 5024,157,020,158,020,156,137 49452 sl66,181, 030 ,001,001,070,237
49272 5020,156,024,155,024,156,143 49458 5054,002, 020 ,000,020,137,027
O s)
49278 5020,157,020,155,020,155,141 49464 5020,000, 020 ,137,024,137,138
On 49284 5030,006,020,155,020,154,005 49470 5024,137, 020 ,137,020,137,025
Chapter 10
 49476 :020, 137 ,001 ,015,030,003,018 49662 5032,082,079,066,069,082,152

346
49482 5020,000, 0 2 0 ,137,024,137,156 49668 5084,032,072,073,071,071,151
49488 :024,137, 020 ,137,024,137,047 49674 5073,078,083,013,000,149,150
49494 5024,137, 024 ,137,024,137,057
49500 5024,137, 024 ,137,020,137,059
Chapter 10

49506 5001,047, 030 ,004,001,066,247 Program 1(M 0. JOKE.MUS

49512 5030,007, 0 2 0 ,000,020,137,062 To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language
49518 5024,137, 024 ,137,020,137,077 Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C.
49524 5024,137, 024 ,137,020,137,083 Starting Address: 49152
49530 5020,137, 020 ,137,030,008,218 Ending Address: 49295
49536 5020,137, 020 ,137,016,137,083
49542 5020,137, 020 ,137,024,137,097 Filename: JOKE.MUS
49548 5024,137, 024 ,137,024,137,111 49152 5074,000,016 ,000,016,000,106
49554 5030,009, 020 ,137,020,137,243 49158 5001,078,038 ,005,050,032,210
49560 5028,137, 028 ,137,028,137,135 49164 5054,002,001 ,022,024,155,014
49566 5024,137, 001 ,079,067,079,033 49170 5024,154,052 ,153,024,154,067
49572 5085,082, 065 ,078,084,069,115 49176 5020,153,020 ,153,020,155,033
49578 5032,070, 082 ,079,077,032,030 49182 5020,157,020 ,156,020,158,049
49584 5034,084, 069 ,082,080,083,096 49188 5001,047,020 ,081,020,081,030
49590 5073,067, 079 ,082,069,034,074 49194 5020,000,020 ,159,020,159,164
49596 5013,077, 073 ,067,072,065,043 49200 5012,000,001 ,015,001,018,095
49602 5069,076, 032 ,080,082,065,086 49206 5020,145,020 ,145,001,254,127
49608 5069,084, 079 ,082,073,085,160 49212 5001,022,007 ,044,001,007,142
49614 5083,032, 040 ,049,053,055,006 49218 5001,004,001 ,160,001,132,109
49620 5049,045, 049 ,054,050,049,252 49224 5038,001,000 ,169,044,161,229
49626 5041,013, 080 ,073,080,069,062 49230 5001,079,054 ,005,008,000,225
49632 5044,032, 082 ,069,071,065,075 49236 5001,015,044 ,000,020,000,164
49638 5076,044, 032 ,065,078,068,081 49242 5166,179,001 ,018,001,079,022
49644 5032,084, 065 ,066,079,082,132 49248 5054,005,008 ,000,001,015,179
49650 5013,065, 082 ,082,065,078,115 49254 5044,000,020 ,000,166,181,001
49656 5071,069, 068 ,032,066,089,131 49260 5001,018,001 ,079,065,032,048
 49266 5076,073,084,084,076,069,064 49242 5052,153,001,079,087,072,022
49272 5032,074,079,075,069,013,206 49248 5089,032,079,072,032,087,231
49278 5070,082,079,077,032,065,019 49254 5072,089,063,013,087,072,242
49284 5032,067,065,082,084,079,029 49260 5089,032,079,072,032,087,243
49290 5079,078,013,013,013,000,078 49266 5072,089,063,013,087,072,254
492 72 5089,032,087,072,089,032,009
49278 5087,072,089,032,079,072,045
Program 1CM1. YOY.MUS 49284 5032,087,072,089,063,013,232
To enter this program,you must use "The Machine Language 49290 5013,000,013,013,013,000,190
Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C.

Starting Address: 49152

Ending Address: 49295
Filename: YOY.MUS
49152 5054,000,002,000,032,000,088
49158 5006,128,001,039,001,059,240
49164 5010,070,054,002,001,006,155
49170 5031,008,000,093,052,066,012
49176 5001,047,001,022,000,074,169
49182 5052,085,001,047,001,002,218
49188 5052,000,001,015,001,002,107
49194 5166,062,001,002,166,113,040
49200 5001,002,166,145,001,018,125
49206 5166,014,001,002,001,079,061
49212 5001,079,001,039,054,003,237
49218 5052,153,052,153,052,153,169
49224 5052,000,052,153,052,153,022
49230 5052,153,052,000,052,153,028
49236 5052,219,052,230,052,231*152

347
Chapter 10
Chapter 10

Contemporary sheet music is often written with two treble

staves and one bass staff. The top treble staff usually has just
the notes for the melody, and the other one has the melody
notes plus extra notes for chords. If you enter the top treble
staff and the bass staff, you'll still have one voice free for
percussion effects.
A clever technique is to have one voice play both a bass
part and percussion part. Bass notes can be played on each
beat, and percussion effects, such as snare drum strikes, can be
played on the off beat. To make this as easy as possible, de­
fine a phrase which selects a nonsustaining envelope with the
noise waveform, plays a note, and then resets the envelope
and waveform. To enter the voice, just enter bass notes sepa­
rated by phrase calls.
Instrument param eters. Table 10-3 lists suggested values
for emulating different instruments. Filter values may have to
be adjusted for your particular computer. This list is by no
means complete; many other instrument settings are possible
and can be found by experimentation.

348
Table 10-3* Sidplayer Instrument Parameters
P -S F -M A U T R ES FLT F -S F -C SN C RN G V D P V R T TP S DTN
I n s tr u m e n t A TK D C Y SU S R LS P N T W AV P -W

4 P 2048 0 0 0 N 0 N N 0 0 0
D E FA U LT 2 0 15 5

4 P 800 30 2 12
V IO L IN 0 0
4 4 P 2048 20 2 -1 2
CELLO 5 0 12
10 1 P 1800 L -1 0 9 Y -1 2
B A S S (plu ck ) 1 10 0

0 9 0 0 1 T LB -1 15 Y
HARP
1 8 0 0 1 P 100 B 3 12 Y 5
B A N JO
M A N D O L IN 1 8 0 0 1 P 500 H -2 0 12 Y
1 10 0 0 1 P 1000 H -2 0 12 Y 5
BAZOO KI
LUTE 0 8 0 0 1 T L -4 0 15 Y
0 8 0 0 1 P 300 L -1 0 15 Y 20
KOTO
2 10 12 12 7 P 100 10 H -2 0 15 Y 5
SITA R

FLU T E 3 0 14 4 1 T
3 0 14 4 1 T 12
P IC C O L O
R E C O R D E R — A LT O 3 0 14 4 1 T
C L A R IN E T 3 0 14 P 2048
O BO E 7 0 15 2 1 P 700 B -2 0 15 Y
7 8 14 4 1 P 700 B -2 0 15 Y -1 2
BASSO O N
2 0 15 5 1 P 200 70
B A G P IP E
5 0 8 4 4 P 2048 20 2
H A R M O N IC A
2 0 15 4 4 S 70
A C C O R D IO N
SH A W M 2 2 14 2 1 P 100 B 5 15 Y
TR U M PET 5 0 15 4 1 S L 20 15 Y 1
TRO M BO NE 9 0 15 4 1 S L 1 15 Y
TU BA 9 0 15 4 1 S L 10 15 Y

H A R P S IC H O R D 4 ' 0 12 8 9 8 P 100
H A R P S IC H O R D 8 ' 0 12 8 9 8 P 300

O R G A N : FL U T E 3 0 14 4 1 T
O R G A N : P R IN C IP A L 3 2 10 4 1 P 2048
O R G A N : R EE D 3 0 14 4 1 P 200
O RG A N : TRU M PET 3 0 15 4 1 S
C A L L IO P E 0 12 13 5 4 P 2048 12 70

FIN G E R D R U M 0 9 0 0 1 T
B ELLS 0 10 0 10 1 T Y 7 ,1 6
C H IM E S 0 10 0 10 16 P 2048 70
W O O D BLO CK 0 2 0 T
Chapter 10
Chapter 11

Music and Your BASIC

Program

Merging Sidplayer with BASIC Programs

Run Sidplayer, and while it's playing a song, press the
RUN/STOP key. The music still plays, even though the pro­
gram has stopped. Now type LIST. The music continues as the
program is listed on the screen. Enter a few more statements,
such as POKEs to change the screen colors, and then enter the
CONT command to make Sidplayer resume. Perhaps not the
most exciting demonstration you've seen, but it does illustrate
something important.
Sidplayer has been designed so that it can play music
while BASIC executes commands, statements, or even a whole
program. Every 1/60 second, BASIC processing is temporarily
set aside and Sidplayer is allowed to process the music. When
the music processing is done, BASIC resumes. Since this hap­
pens 60 times a second, the continual interruption of BASIC is
too fast to be noticeable. BASIC and the Sidplayer appear to
be executing simultaneously.
Although this technique causes BASIC processing to run a
little slower than normal, it does make it easy to add music to
games, adventures, or educational programs. And that can en­
hance your own BASIC programs.
Load and play procedure. To demonstrate how to merge
Sidplayer with a BASIC program, let's begin with a simplified
Player program. The Player listed in Program 11-1 contains
only the statements necessary to load and play a song, and
can be readily merged with another program.

Program 11-1. SID.BAS

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT C HR$ ( 1 4 7 ) : PRINT " S I D P L A Y E R " : PRINT " BY

{ S P AC E } C R A I G CHAMBERLAIN": PRI NT : rem 173
120 DN=8: S A = 7 8 0 : S X = 7 8 1 : S Y = 7 8 2 : S P = 7 8 3 : rem 134
130 GOSUB 5 7 0 0 0 : REM LOAD S I DP L AY E R :rem 251
200 F$="COMMODORE" :L A = P E E K (49)+ 2 5 6 * P E E K {50)+1000:G
OSUB 5 7 5 0 0 : REM LOAD SONG : rem 242
210 SYS HK :REM HOOK ( I N S T A L L ) :rem 220
220 POKE S X , L O : POKE S Y , H I : S Y S P L : RE M SET FOR P L AYI
NG :rem 225
351
Chapter 11

230 K=PEEK(S X )+256*PEEK(SY):REM GET ADDRESS OF TEX

T LINES :rem 171
240 IF PEEK(K ) THEN PRINT CHR$(PEEK(K ));:K=K+1:GOT
O 240:REM PRINT UNTIL CHR$(0) :rem 27
250 POKE SS,7:REM START MUSIC :rem 252
260 IF PEEK(SS)AND7 GOTO 260:REM STILL PLAYING
:rem 216
270 SYS DP:REM DROP(REMOVE) :rem 158
280 END :rem 113
57000 POKE SA,1:POKE SX,DN:POKE SY,1:SYS 65466:F$=
"SID.OBJ":GOSUB 59000 :rem 106
57010 POKE SA,0:SYS 65493:IF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 591
00 :rem 126
57020 SS=49152:HK=49435:PL=49458:DP=49629:RETURN
:rem 77
57100 GOSUB 57000:POKE SX,LA-256*INT(LA/256):POKE
{SPACE}SY,INT(LA/256):SYS 51042 :rem 218
57110 LA=LA+1398:RETURN :rem 111
57500 POKE SA,1:POKE SX,DN:POKE SY,0:SYS 65466:F$=
F$+" .MUS":GOSUB 59000 :rem 61
57510 HI = INT(LA/256 ):LO=LA-2 56 *HI :rem 137
57520 POKE SA,0:POKE SX,LO:POKE SY,HI:SYS 65493:IF
PEEK(S P )AND1 GOTO 59100 :rem 49
57530 LA=PEEK(SX)+256*PEEK(SY):RETURN :rem 29
59000 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$):POKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F $ ,K )
) :NEXT trem 88
59010 POKE SA,LEN(F $ ):POKE SX,73:POKE SY,2:SYS 654
69:RETURN :rem 6
59100 P = PEEK(SA):PRINT " ERROR: "; :IF P=4 THEN PRI
NT "FILE NOT FOUND":END :rem 200
59110 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT":END
:rem 36
59120 PRINT S T :END :rem 70

When adding this to your own program, all of the lines

before line 57000 can be renumbered to start at any place in
the program. The lines starting at 57000, however, must not
be renumbered.
The program begins with the standard assignments for
using tape or disk I/O and assigns values to variables to be
used with SYS (line 120).
DN= 8:SA = 780:SX = 781:S Y= 782:SP=783
Change the statement DN = 8 to DN = 1 if you are using the
Datassette.
The next step is to load the Sidplayer machine language
into memory (line 130 of Program-11-1).
GOSUB 57000
352
 Chapter 11

This subroutine loads the "SID.OBJ” file, and also assigns the
variables SS, HK, PL, and DP. These four variables are used
later in the program. If you're using tape, be sure to position
the tape to the spot where SID.OBJ begins. Disk users must
have the proper disk in the drive.
Before you can load a song into memory, the music file­
name and the LOAD address must be set. Assign the name of
the music file to the variable F$ (line 200). Do not include the
.MUS extension as part of the filename.
F$= "COMMODORE"
Now calculate the LOAD address (line 200).
L A = PEEK(49)+ 256*PEEK(50)+1000
The LOAD address is the address of free memory, plus
1000 bytes for a safety margin. This is the address in memory
where the music file will be stored.
Call the subroutine at line 57500 to actually load the song
(line 200). Again, be sure the proper disk is in the drive or that
the tape is positioned properly. If you assigned F$ as above for a
demonstration, make sure that the "COMMODORE.MUS” file
is on that disk or tape.
GOSUB 57500
Besides loading the requested music file, the subroutine at
57500 also assigns the variables LO and HI to be the low and
high bytes of the LOAD address. These variables are used
later in the program.
At this point, everything has been loaded into memory.
There's still a little bit of preparation which must be done
before the playing can begin.
SYS HK
This statement (line 210) calls the Sidplayer HOOK rou­
tine, which installs Sidplayer as part of the normal interrupt
processing that's done every 1/60 second.
POKE SX,LO:POKE SY,HI:SYS PL
The PLAY (SYS PL) routine tells Sidplayer where the
song begins in memory, and sets all the default values, such
as tempo and volume. It also returns the address of the text
lines in locations SX and SY. It's not necessary to print the text
lines in order to play the song, so the next two program lines
(lines 230 and 240) are optional. If you do want to print the
text lines, the program should start displaying characters at the
returned address and stop when it reaches a CHR$(0). -co
Chapter 11

The song is now ready to start playing. The following

statement makes the playing begin (line 250).
POKE SS,7
Location SS is the Sidplayer status value. The last three
bits of this location control voice processing.
Voice SS Bit POKE Value
1 0 1
2 1 2
3 2 4
When a bit is set, the corresponding voice plays. Playing
for that voice stops when the bit is cleared, or set to 0. An in­
dividual voice can be played by POKEing location SS with the
value 1, 2, or 4. To play all three voices, POKE SS with
1 + 2 + 4, or 7.
Playing continues as long as the three bits are set. Playing
can be stopped at any time by POKEing SS with a 0. The bits
are automatically cleared by Sidplayer when it reaches the end
of the song or if an error occurs.
Program 11-1 simply loops until the three bits in SS are
cleared when the end of the song is reached, but anything can
be done during this time. The program could draw pictures on
the screen, change the colors, or move sprites.
After a song is done, it can be replayed if you like. Just
call the PLAY routine and set the three status bits again. Use
this line:
POKE SX,LO:POKE SY,HI:SYS PL:POKE SS,7:REM REPLAY
When playing is finished, call the DROP routine to re­
move Sidplayer from the interrupt processing.
SYS DP
The DROP routine undoes everything done by the HOOK
routine and restores the interrupt processing to normal.
You must be careful in using the HOOK and DROP
routines. Do not call the HOOK routine if Sidplayer is already
installed. Also, do not call the DROP routine if Sidplayer has
already been removed or has not yet been installed. The cor­
rect order is HOOK, PLAY, then DROP. Calling these routines
in the wrong order can cause the computer to crash.
While a song is playing, BASIC is free to execute any
statements and do any processing you wish. The only restric­
tions concern using string variables and tape or disk I/O . If

354
 Chapter 11

string variables are assigned frequently, the program should

periodically call the free memory function, as in K = FRE(0), to
reorganize free memory. Otherwise, the string data may inter­
fere with the free memory used for storing the song.
The processing that's done every 1/6 0 second is handled
differently when the computer is communicating with the
Datassette or disk drive. Therefore, tape or disk files should
not be accessed while a song is playing.
The flag command. Sometimes it would be convenient if
a BASIC program could determine which part of a song
Sidplayer is currently playing. Such information would be
helpful in synchronizing screen displays to the music. What's
needed is a method of communication between Sidplayer and
the BASIC program.
The BASIC program can control Sidplayer by setting or
clearing the three status bits in location SS. For communica­
tion from Sidplayer to the BASIC program, the FLG command
is available. This command is entered in the Editor with a
number from 0 to 255. When playing reaches the command,
Sidplayer POKEs the number into location SS + 1, the flag
location. The BASIC program can monitor this location to
watch for specific values and change the screen accordingly.
Several FLG commands may be used in a song. The gen­
eral procedure is to wait for the value in the flag location to
change, update the screen, wait for the next value, and so on.
To detect a change in the flag location, a few different meth­
ods can be used.
The first is to wait for a specific value to be POKEd into
the flag location, as in:
400 IF PEEK(SS + 1)<>2 GOTO 400
This method requires a direct correspondence between the
flag values in the music and the values being checked in the
program. Usually, the flag commands will use incrementing
numbers, so the BASIC program would first watch for the
value 1, then for the value 2, and so on.
Another method is to disregard the value in the flag loca­
tion and just wait for it to change. This can be done in two
ways.
400 P = PEEK(SS +1 )
410 IF PEEK(SS+1)=P GOTO 410
or

355
Chapter 11

400 POKE SS + 1,0

410 IF PEEK(SS + 1 )= 0 GOTO 410
The advantage of this method is that you don't have to
remember the exact flag values used in the music.
One other method is to use the WAIT statement:
400 WAIT SS + 1,1:REM WAIT FOR ODD NUMBER
or
400 WAIT SS+1,1,1:REM WAIT FOR EVEN NUMBER
The advantage of using the WAIT statement is that you
don't have to use a whole program line. Other statements can
be placed after the WAIT. (Refer to Chapter 4 for more details
on WAIT.) The only drawback is that the flag values must
alternate between even and odd numbers.
To show how to merge music with a BASIC program and
how to use the FLG command, we've provided a demonstra­
tion program. Actually two programs— the first, Program 11-3,
is a BASIC program which uses colorful screen displays and
sprites while the music plays. Enter Program 11-3 first, es­
pecially if you're using tape.
The other part of the demonstration is a music file, listed
as Program 11-2. It must be entered with MLX and saved as
SCIPIO.MUS. This song contains FLG commands on voice 1.
Since Program 11-3, "SIDDEMO," must first load
SID.OBJ and then SCIPIO.MUS, tape users must position the
tape to the start of SID.OBJ before running the program. The
subroutine beginning at line 900 was included so the program
will prompt tape users to advance the tape to SCIPIO.MUS
once SID.OBJ is loaded. If you use a disk drive, just make sure
SIDDEMO, SCIPIO.MUS, and SID.OBJ are all on the same
disk.
Remember to change line 120 to DN = 1 if you have a
Datassette.

Program 1 1-2. SCIPIO.MUS

To enter this program,you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MLX)/' a program
found in Appendix C.

Starting Address: 49152

Ending Address: 50051
Filename: SCIPIO.MUS
49152 :054,001,004,001,008,001,069
49158 :006,112,001,136,038,008,051

356
 Chapter 11

49164 1001,006,030,001,116,154,064
49170 :024,155,030,002,070,001,044
49176 :001,2 52,012,092,070,002,197
49182 :012,158,030,003,070,003,050
49188 :044,146,001,2 28,070,004,017
49194 :080,155,030,004,116,092,007
49200 :088,157,116,158,088,159,046
49206 :080,158,116,157,088,092,233
49212 :030,005,044,15 5,001,047,086
49218 :001,022,080,158,030,006,107
492 24 :070,005,116,159,088,081,079
49230 :080,146,080,081,080,159,192
49236 :030,007,076,158,012,157,012
49242 :001,047,030,008,116,092,128
49248 :088,155,116,154,088,157,086
49254 :080,092,116,155,088,154,019
49260 :030,009,044,154,001,094,184
49266 :080,084,030,010,070,000,132
49272 :080,147,080,146,084,081,226
49278 :084,146,080,147,030,011,112
49284 :076,158,012,157,030,012,065
49290 :080,092,084,157,084,092,215
49296 :080,155,080,154,030,013,144
49302 :044,158,080,147,030,014,111
49308 .-116,159,088,158,116,159,184
49314 :088,081,080,159,080,158,040
49320 :030,015,044,159,080,081,065
49326 :030,016,080,146,084,081,099
49332 :084,159,080,081,116,159,091
493 38 -.088,158,030,017,044,158,169
49344 :016,157,030,018,001,003,161
49350 :070,001,116,092,088,155,208
49356 s116,092,024,157,016,092,189
49362 :016,155,030,019,001,003,178
49368 :012,157,012,092,030,020,027
49374 :001,003,016,159,016,158,063
49380 :016,157,016,092,030,021,048
49386 :001,003,044,155,001,174,100
49392 :016,158,030,022,070,000,024
49398 5116,159,088,081,016,146,084
49404 5016,081,016,159,030,023,065
49410 -.012,158,012,157,030,024,139
49416 5116,092,088,155,116,154,217
49422 5088,157,080,092,116,155,190
49428 5088,154,030,025,044,154,003
49434 5001,142,001,002,001,003,176
49440 5001,018,001,174,116,092,178
49446 5088,155,006,128,116,154,173
4945 2 s088,157,080,092,006,160,115
49458 sll6,155,088,154,044,154,249

357
Chapter 11

49464 :016,000, 001 ,079,006,112,014

49470 :001,136, 038 ,008,001/038,028
49476 :030,001, 016 ,000,030,002,147
49482 :001,252, 012 ,154,012,155,148
49488 :030,003, 044 ,092,001/228,222
49494 :080,089, 030 ,004,080,154,011
49500 :080,089, 080 ,154,116,155,254
49506 :088,154, 030 ,005,044,089,252
49512 :080,089, 030 ,006,116,154,067
49518 :088,155, 116 ,092,088,157,038
49524 :080,158, 080 ,089,030,007,048
49530 5016,154, 012 ,154,016,089,051
49536 s001,047, 030 ,008,016,166,140
49542 5016,167, 016 ,154,016,165,156
49548 :030,009, 044 ,100,080,158,049
49554 :030,010, 076 ,158,012,158,078
49560 5030,011, 016 ,154,012,154,017
49566 s016,089, 030 ,012,016,154,219
49572 :016,000, 016 ,000,016,000,212
49578 :030,013, 080 ,089,080,154,104
49584 5016,155, 080 ,081,030,014,040
49590 :080,092, 080 ,155,080,092,249
49596 :080,092, 030 ,015,080,093,066
49602 :080,090, 016 ,155,080,155,002
49608 :030,016, 012 ,158,016,158,073
49614 :052,093, 024 ,000,030,017,166
49620 :080,089, 080 ,154,016,155,018
49626 :016,089, 030 ,018,012,089,216
49632 s012,089, 030 ,019,012,154,028
49638 :016,154, 016 ,089,030,020,043
49644 :012,154, 016 ,089,016,154,165
49650 5030,021, 044 ,089,016,089,019
49656 5030,022, 116 ,154,088,155,045
49662 5116,092, 024 ,157,016,158,049
49668 5016,089, 030 ,023,016,154,076
49674 5012,154, 016 ,089,030,024,079
49680 5052,154, 024 ,000,052,167,209
49686 5024,000, 080 ,154,052,089,165
49692 5024,000, 030 ,025,044,100,251
49698 5001,034, 030 ,022,052,154,071
49704 5 024,000, 052 ,167,024,000,051

49710 5080,154, 052 ,089,024,000,189

49716 5 030,02 3, 016 ,100,016,000,237
49722 5016,000, 016 ,000,001,079,170
49728 5006,112, 001 ,136,038,008,109
49734 5001,054, 030 ,001,016,000,172
49740 5030,002, 012 ,162,012,097,135
49746 s030,003, 044 ,175,016,174,012
49752 5030,004, 016 ,162,016,163,223
49758 5016,100, 016 ,165,030,005,170

358
 Chapter 11

49764 :016,166, 016 ,163,016,174,139

49770 s016,100, 030 ,006,016,175,193
49776 2016,167, 016 ,166,016,165,146
49782 :030,007, 012 ,100,016,163,190
49788 :016,166, 001 ,047,030,008,136
49794 2016,162, 016 ,165,016,166,159
49800 2016,174, 030 ,009,016,162,031
49806 2016,174, 016 ,170,080,154,240
49812 2030,010, 080 ,089,080,167,092
49818 2080,166, 080 ,165,030,011,174
49824 2076,100, 016 ,163,016,166,185
49830 2030,012, 080 ,162,080,162,180
49836 2080,097, 080 ,175,030,013,135
49842 2080,174, 080 ,175,016,097,032
49848 2080,174, 030 ,014,080,162,212
49854 2080,097, 080 ,162,080,175,096
49860 2030,015, 080 ,163,080,100,152
49866 2016,101, 080 ,166,030,016,099
49872 2080,100, 080 ,162,080,163,105
49878 2080,171, 030 ,017,080,174,254
49884 2080,175, 016 ,097,016,174,010
49890 2030,018, 116 ,162,088,097,225
49896 2116,162, 024 ,163,016,162,107
49902 2016,097, 030 ,019,012,175,075
49908 2012,174, 030 ,020,016,165,149
49914 2016,100, 016 ,163,016,162,211
49920 2030,021, 016 ,166,016,163,156
49926 2016,174, 016 ,J 0 0 ,030,022,108
49932 2016,175, 016 ,167,016,166,056
49938 2016,165, 030 ,023,012,100,108
49944 2016,163, 016 ,166,030,024,183
49950 2016,162, 016 ,173,016,174,075
49956 2016,174, 030 ,025,016,162,203
49962 2016,174, 016 ,170,001,050,213
49968 2016,162, 016 ,173,016,174,093
49974 2016,174, 070 ,001,016,162,237
49980 2070,002, 016 ,174,070,003,139
49986 2016,170, 016 ,000,001,079,092
49992 2077,065, 082 ,067,072,032,211
49998 2070,082, 079 ,077,032,034,196
50004 2083,067, 073 ,080,073,079,027
50010 2034,013, 071 ,046,070,046,114
50016 2032,072, 065 ,078,068,069,224
50022 2076,013, 067 ,079,085,082,248
50028 2084,069, 083 ,089,032,072,025
50034 2065,082, 082 ,089,032,066,018
50040 2082,065, 084 ,084,013,013,205
50046 2000,162, 016 ,164,030,002,244

359
Chapter 11

Program 11-3. SIDDEMO

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147):PRINT " SIDPLAYER DEMONSTRATIO

N" :rem 171
110 PRINT " BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN":PRINT :rem 65
120 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783 srem 134
130 CY=214:DIM C$(15):FOR K=0 TO 15:READ P:C$(K)=C
HR$(P):NEXT :rem 83
140 GOSUB 57000:F$="SCIPIO":GOSUB 900:LA=PEEK(49)+
256*PEEK(50)+1000:GOSUB 57500 :rem 171
150 SYS H K ;POKE SX,LO:POKE SY,HI:SYS PL :rem 170
200 PRINT CHR$(147)sPOKE 53280,0:POKE 53281,0
srem 156
210 FOR K=832 TO 894:READ P :POKE K,P:NEXT :rem 54
220 FOR K=0 TO 7:POKE 2040+K,13:READ C:POKE 53287+
K ,C :rem 50
230 POKE 53248+K*2,(34+K*40)AND255:POKE 53249+K*2,
70+RND(0)*20:NEXT :rem 93
240 POKE 53264,192:POKE 53271,0:POKE 53277,0
:rem 37
250 FOR K=1 TO 3:POKE CY,3:PRINT:PRINT TAB(5) C$(K
) "PRESENTING..." srem 44
260 FOR J=1 TO 20:NEXT J,K:FOR K=1 TO 750:NEXT
:rem 8
270 FOR K=0 TO 3:POKE CY,3:PRINT:PRINT TAB(5) C$(3
-K) "PRESENTING..." :rem 141
280 FOR J=1 TO 20:NEXT J,K:FOR K=1 TO 300:NEXT:POK
E SS,7:FL=SS+1 :rem 126
300 FOR K=1 TO 3:POKE CY,6:PRINT :rem 55
310 IF PEEK(FL)<>K GOTO 310 :rem 189
320 PRINT TAB(10) C$(K) "SIDPLAYER":NEXT:WAIT FL,1
,1:PRINT:PRINT :rem 97
330 WAIT FL,1:PRINT TAB(10) "A COMPLETE":PRINT TAB
(10) "MUSIC SYSTEM" :rem 226
340 PRINT TAB(10) "FOR THE COMMODORE 64" :rem 200
400 WAIT FL,1,1:PRINT CHR$(147):POKE 53269,255:POK
E CY,8:PRINT :rem 52
410 PRINT "FEATURES:":PRINT:PRINT "JOYSTICK OR KEY
BOARD NOTE ENTRY":PRINT :rem 194
415 PRINT "SUPPORTS ANY TIME SIGNATURE":PRINT
:rem 139
420 PRINT "MEASURE EDITING":PRINT:PRINT "TRANSPOSI
NG BY HALF STEPS":PRINT :rem 179
430 PRINT "EASY INSERT/DELETE/REPLACE EDITING":PRI
NT :rem 71
440 PRINT "SIMPLE ENOUGH FOR A NOVICE TO USE":PRIN
T :rem 60
450 POKE 53249+INT(RND(0)*8)*2,70+RND(0)*20:IF PEE
K (FL)=0 GOTO 450 :rem 24

360
 Chapter 11

500 POKE 53269,0:PRINT CHR$(147):PRINTsPRINT:PRINT

"PLUS..." :rem 69
510 FOR K=5 TO 13 STEP 2:READ S$:POKE CY,K:PRINT:P
RINT TAB(10) S$ :rem 134
520 POKE CY,K:PRINT:PRINT TAB(10);:FOR J=1 TO 10:P
RINT CHR$(20); :rem 190
530 FOR 1=1 TO 20:NEXT I,J,K :PRINT:PRINT:PRINT
:rem 63
540 WAIT FL,1,1:PRINT "AND BEST OF ALL,":PRINT "MU
SIC CREATED BY SIDPLAYER" :rem 140
550 PRINT "CAN BE MERGED WITH":PRINT "YOUR BASIC P
ROGRAMS":WAIT FL,1 :rem 57
600 PRINT CHR$(147):POKE CY,10:PRINT:PRINT " SIDPL
AYER";:WAIT FL,1,1 :rem 24
610 PRINT TAB(15) "SIDPLAYER";:WAIT FL,1:PRINT TAB
(30) "SIDPLAYER":WAIT FL,1,1 :rem 58
630 PRINT CHR$(147):FOR K=1 TO 23:PRINT C$(RND(0)*
12+4) " SIDPLAYER" :rem 183
640 FOR J=1 TO 30:NEXT J,K :rem 121
650 FOR K=22 TO 0 STEP -l:POKE CY,K:PRINT :rem 30
660 PRINT TAB(15) C $ (RND(0)*12+4) "SIDPLAYER":FOR
{SPACE}J=1 TO 30:NEXT J,K :rem 202
670 POKE CY,0:PRINT:FOR K=1 TO 23:PRINT C$(RND(0)*
12+4) TAB(30) "SIDPLAYER" :rem 185
680 FOR J=1 TO 30:NEXT J,K :rem 125
690 IF PEEK(FL)<>1 GOTO 690 :rem 185
700 PRINT CHR$(147):POKE C Y ,16:PRINT:PRINT TAB(25)
C $ (3) "THAT’S":WAIT FL,1,1 :rem 92
710 PRINT TAB(27) "ALL,":WAIT FL,1:PRINT TAB(25) "
FOLKS 1" :rem 151
720 IF PEEK(SS)AND7 GOTO 720 :rem 32
730 SYS DP:PRINT CHR$(147) CHR$(154);:POKE 53280,1
4:POKE 53281,6 fEND :rem 228
800 DATA 144,151,152,155,5,28,30,31,129,149,150,15
3,154,156,158,159 :rem 235
810 DATA 0,3,192,0,3,224,0,3,240,0,3,120,0,3,56,0,
3,28,0,3,12,0,3,0,0,3,0 :rem 155
820 DATA 0,3,0,7,227,0,31,251,0,63,255,0,127,255,0
,127,255,0,127,254,0 :rem 75
830 DATA 63,252,0,31,248,0,7,224,0,0,0,0,0,0,0
:rem 160
840 DATA 10,7,4,13,5,3,8,15 :rem 32
850 DATA "ENVELOPES AND WAVEFORMS","REPEATS AND PH
RASES" :rem 166
860 DATA "AUTOMATIC FILTER MODE","GLISSANDO AND VI
BRATO" :rem 140
870 DATA "MANY OTHER FEATURES" :rem 19
900 IF DN=8 THEN RETURN :rem 62
910 PRINT "POSITION TAPE TO THE BEGINNING OF":PRIN
T F$; " THEN PRESS RETURN" :rem 0

361
Chapter 11

920 WAIT 198,15:GET K$:RETURN :rem 167

57000 POKE SA,1:POKE SX,DN:POKE SY,1:SYS65466:F$="
SID.OBJ":GOSUB 59000 :rem 106
57010 POKE SA,0:SYS 65493:IF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 591
00 :rem 126
57020 SS=49152:HK=49435:PL=49458:DP=49629:RETURN
:rem 77
57100 GOSUB 57000:POKE SX,LA-256*INT(LA/256):POKE
{SPACE}SY,INT(LA/256):SYS 51042 :rem 218
57110 LA=LA+1398:RETURN :rem 111
57500 POKE SA,1:POKE SX,DN:POKE SY,0:SYS 65466 :F$=
F$+".MUS":GOSUB 59000 :rem 61
57510 HI= INT(LA/256):LO=LA-256*HI :rem 137
57520 POKE SA,0:POKE SX,LO:POKE SY,HI:SYS 65493:IF
PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 59100 :rem 49
57530 LA=PEEK(SX)+256*PEEK(SY):RETURN :rem 29
59000 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$):POKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K )
):NEXT :rem 88
59010 POKE SA,LEN(F$):POKE SX,73:POKE SY,2:SYS 654
69:RETURN :rem 6
59100 P=PEEK(SA):PRINT " ERROR: ";:IF P=4 THEN PRI
NT "FILE NOT FOUND":END :rem 200
59110 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT":END
:rem 36
59120 PRINT ST.-END :rem 70

The halt command. With the FLG command, the BASIC

program waits until Sidplayer reaches a certain point in the
music. An alternative is to have the playing stop and wait un­
til the program is ready for the music to continue. This is pos­
sible with the HLT command.
HLT is used to stop the playing on a particular voice.
When processed, this command clears the corresponding sta­
tus bit and sets the frequency to 0 to reduce the background
noise of the SID chip. To make the playing continue, the
BASIC program can simply set the status bit again.
M ultiple songs. Once a song is through playing, it's a
simple matter to load and play another song. Just assign the
name of the new song to F$, recalculate the LOAD address
and assign it to LA, and call the subroutine at 57500. To play
the song, follow the standard HOOK, PLAY, and DROP
procedure.
Another possibility is to hold more than one song in
memory at the same time. The only limit to the number of
songs that can be stored in memory simultaneously is the
amount of free memory available. When the subroutine at

362
 Chapter 11

57500 loads a song, it changes the value of LA to the address

of the first free byte after the song, which is the address where
the next song should be loaded. This makes it easy to load
one song after another.
Load the first song in the usual way.
F$= "SONGl":LA= PEEK(49)+ 256*PEEK(50) + 1000:GOSUB 57500
Remember the values of LO and HI for later use.
L l=L O :H l=H I
To load the second song, assign the new filename to F$,
but don't change the value of LA. Call the subroutine at
57500, and remember the new values of LO and HI.
F$ = "SONG2":GOSUB 57500:L2= LO:H2= HI
This procedure can be repeated as many times as nec­
essary. To play one of the songs, just POKE the appropriate
low and high byte values into locations SX and SY before call­
ing the PLAY routine.
400 SYS HK:REM INSTALL SIDPLAYER
410 POKE SX,Ll:POKE SY,H1:SYS PL:POKE SS,7:REM START
SONG1
420 IF PEEK(SS)AND7 GOTO 420:REM WAIT UNTIL SONG1
ENDS
430 POKE SX,L2:POKE SY,H2:SYS PL:POKE SS,7:REM PLAY
SONG2
440 IF PEEK(SS)AND7 GOTO 440:REM WAIT UNTIL SONG2
ENDS
450 SYS DP:REM REMOVE SIDPLAYER
Compatibility. Sidplayer uses memory from location
49152 to location 51199, and zero page addresses 251 through
255. Sidplayer should be compatible with other utilities, such
as machine language routines for bitmapped graphics drawing
or sprite animation, as long as they don't use these memory
locations.
Since the bitmapped graphics routines published in this
book use some of the same memory as Sidplayer, there would
seem to be a problem. Fortunately, it's possible to relocate a
portion of Sidplayer to free memory so that there's no conflict.
To load and relocate the Sidplayer machine language, cal­
culate the LOAD address, assign it to the variable LA, and call
the subroutine at 57100. Do this instead of calling the sub­
routine at 57000.

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200 LA = PEEK(49)+ 256*PEEK(50)+ 1000:GOSUB 57100

The subroutine loads SID.OBJ into memory, then moves a
portion of it to the specified address in free memory. After the
relocation, only memory from 49152 to 49663 is used by
Sidplayer.
The subroutine at 57100 also sets LA to the address of the
first free byte after the Sidplayer code. Therefore, the LOAD
address should not be changed when the song is loaded.
210 F$= "SONG":GOSUB 57500
The song is now ready to be played.
If you're using bitmapped graphics shapes, the procedure
is just a little more complicated. The normal procedure to load
a shape file is to assign the name of the shape file to F$, cal­
culate the LOAD address and assign it to LA, and call the rou­
tine at 56500. When using shapes with Sidplayer, the same
procedure should be used, except that the value of LA should
not be changed.
220 F$= "SH APES":GOSUB 56500

U tility P rogram s
Here are four utility programs to help with song debugging
and music file management. Although they may look similar
to those utilities offered in the bitmapped graphics and sprite
sections of this book, they are for use only with Sidplayer mu­
sic files.
Each program, as listed, is set to work with the disk drive.
To make a program work with tape, find the statement DN = 8
near the beginning of the program and change it to DN = 1.
Lister. The bottom level of the editing screen can display
only a few notes at a time. Sometimes it would be helpful to
see more notes at one time. This would make it easier to
search for a particular note or command, such as a phrase
definition, and would also make it easier to find mistakes,
such as a measure with the wrong number of beats.
"Lister,” Program 11-4, is used to list the notes and com­
mands of the three voices in a music file. Although the notes
are not displayed in the grand staff format, the program does
let you see one or two full measures at a time when the listing
is shown on the screen. The listing can also be sent to a
printer for permanent reference.

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Tape users should remember to change D N = 8 to DN—1 in

line 820 when entering the program.

Program 1 1-4. Lister

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147):PRINT " SIDPLAYER MUSIC FILE L

ISTER" :rem 56
110 PRINT " BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN":PRINT:GOTO 800
:rem 76
300 K=LA+6+FNDP(LA)+FNDP(LA+2)+FNDP(LA+4):S$=" "
:rem 138
310 J=PEEK(K):K=K+1:IF J AND J<>13 THEN S$=S$+CHR$
(J ):GOTO 310 :rem 123
320 PRINT#1,S$ sIF J THEN S$ = " ":GOTO 310 :rem 90
330 B=LA+6:IF SV>1 THEN B=B+FNDP(L A ):IF SV=3 THEN
{SPACE}B=B+FNDP(LA+2) :rem 101
332 FOR V=SV-1 TO 2:PRINT#1," V O I C E V + l : M D = 0
:rem 20
335 T(1 )=12:N=144:FOR J=2 TO 7:T (J )= N :N=N/2:NEXT
:rem 196
340 FOR K=B TO B+FNDP(LA+2*V)-2 STEP 2:N=FRE(0)
:rem 43
350 N=PEEK(K):N2=PEEK(K+1):J=12:ON N AND 3 GOTO 50
0,530,690 :rem 164
400 T=N2 AND 7:S$="{5 SPACES)"+MID$("RCDEFGAB",T+l
,1)+" " :rem 117
410 IF T=0 THEN S$=S$+"{4 SPACES}”:GOTO 430
:rem 184
420 S$=S$+MID$("S F",N2/64,1 )+STR$(NOT N2/8 AND 7)
+" " srem 164
430 T=N/4 AND 7:IF T=0 THEN PRINT#1,S$;" A B S G O T O
{SPACE}480 :rem 132
440 S$=S$+MID$("UWHQEST",T ,1):IF N AND 32 THEN S$=
S$+" D":GOTO 460 :rem 248
450 S$=S$+"{2 SPACES}" :rem 51
460 IF N AND 64 THEN S$=S$+" T ” :rem 209
470 PRINT#1,S$:MD=MD+T(T ):IF N AND 32 THEN MD=MD+T
(T+l) :rem 57
480 NEXT K :B=B+FNDP(LA+2*V):PRINT#1,"{5 SPACES}MEA
SURE DURATION:";MD:PRINT#1:NEXT V :rem 34
490 CLOSE 1:END :rem 85
500 N=N2:IF (N AND 15) = 7 THEN T=INT(N/32)* 3+1:ON (
(N AND 16)=0)+2 GOTO 570,575 :rem 185
510 J= 1 :IF (N AND 7)=3 THEN T=INT(N/16):PRINT#1,"
{5 SPACES}";CN$(28+T);:GOTO 580 :rem 16
530 IF (N AND A M (J ))< >C M (J ) THEN J=J+l:GOTO 530
:rem 206
540 PRINT#1,"{5 SPACES } " ; C N $ ( J ) I F J<7 THEN PRINT
#1,(N AND NOT AM(J))/l6; :rem 207
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Chapter 11

550 IF J<10 THEN PRINT#1:GOTO 480 :rem 47

560 ON J-9 GOTO 600,600,610,620,630,640,650,650,65
0,660,660 :rem 112
565 ON J-20 GOTO 650,650,660,680,650,675,670
:rem 161
570 PRINT#1,"{5 SPACES}WAVEFORM ";MID$("N
{2 SPACES}T {2 SPACES}S {2 SPACES}TS P{2 SPACES}
TP SP TSP",T ,3):GOTO 480 :rem 58
575 PRINT#1,"{5 SPACES}FILTER MODE ";MID$("OFFL
{2 SPACES}B{2 SPACES}LB H{2 SPACES}LH BH LBH",
T ,3 ) :GOTO 480 :rem 204
580 IF T THEN PRINT#1,MID$(” NO YES”,l+(N/8 AND 1)
*3,4):GOTO 480 :rem 59
585 PRINT#1,MID$(" U P {2 SPACES}DOWN",((N AND 8)=0)
*4+5,5):GOTO 480 :rem 225
600 PRINT#1,N/8 AND 15:GOTO 480 :rem 160
610 PRINT#1,N2+16*(N AND 240):GOTO 480 :rem 247
620 T=N2+8*(N AND 224):IF N AND 16 THEN T=T-2048
:rem 160
625 PRINT#1,T:GOTO 480 :rem 13
630 IF N2=0 THEN N2=256 :rem 158
635 PRINT#1,INT(14400/N2) :FOR J=2 TO 7:T !J)=N2:N2=
N2/2:NEXT:GOTO 480 :rem 137
640 T (1)=N2 :rem 45
650 PRINT#l,N2:GOTO 480 :rem 55
660 PRINT#1,N2 + 256*(N2>127):GOTO 480 :rem 211
670 PRINT#1,M D :PRINT#1,N2+4*(N AND 192):MD=0:GOTO
{SPACE}480 :rem 224
675 PRINT#1,8*N2:GOTO 480 :rem 160
680 IF N2 AND 1 THEN PRINT#1,-(11-INT(N2/16)+12*(N
2/2 AND 7)):GOTO 480 :rem 79
685 PRINT# 1 ,INT (N2/l6)+12*(7-(N2/2 AND 7 )) :GOTO 48
0 :rem 186
690 PRINT#1,"{5 SPACES}PORTAMENTO"?N2+64*(N AND 25
2):GOTO 480 :rem 141
800 DV=3:PRINT "{2 SPACES}OUTPUT DEVICE ("DV")";:I
NPUT DV:IF DV<1 GOTO 800 :rem 189
805 OPEN 1,DV :rem 198
810 INPUT "{7 SPACES}MUSIC FILENAME";S $ :IF S$="" O
R LEN(S ? )>12 GOTO 810 :rem 93
815 SV=1:PRINT " STARTING VOICE ("SV")";:INPUT SV
:rem 142
816 IF SV<1 OR SV >3 OR SVOINT(SV) GOTO 815
:rem 127
820 K=0:J = 0 :T=0:B=0:MD=0:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=7
83:DN=8 :rem 140
825 DEF FN DP(K)=PEEK(K)+ 256*PEEK(K+l) :rem 63
830 DIM CN$ (33 ),AM (27 ),CM (27 ) :FOR I<=1 TO 33 :READ C
N$(K):NEXT :rem 206

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840 FOR K=1 TO 2 7 :READ AM(K),CM(K):NEXT:LA=PEEK(49

)+256*PEEK(50)+1000 :rem 57
850 POKE SA,2:POKE SX,DN:POKE SY,0:SYS 65466
:rem 69
860 S$=S$+".MUS":FOR K=1 TO LEN(S$):POKE 584+K.ASC
(MID$(S$,K)):NEXT :rem 9
865 POKE SA,LEN(S $ ):POKE S X ,73:POKE SY,2:SYS 65469
:rem 157
870 POKE SA,0:POKE S X ,LA-256*INT(LA/256):POKE SY,L
A/256:SYS 65493 :rem 242
875 P R I N T :IF (P E E K (S P )AND1)=0 GOTO 300 srem 161
880 PRINT " ERROR:"j:T=PEEK(SA):IF T=4 THEN PRINT
{SPACE}"FILE NOT FOUND":GOTO 490 :rem 112
882 IF T=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT":GOTO 49
0 :rem 201
885 PRINT S T :GOTO 490 :rem 233_
900 DATA DECAY RATE,RELEASE RATE,CALL PHRASE,DEFIN
E PHRASE,RESONANCE :rem 13
902 DATA MASTER V O L U M E ,REPEAT TAIL,PHRASE END,HALT
,ATTACK RATE,SUSTAIN LEVEL :rem 102
910 DATA PULSE WIDTH,DETUNE ,TEMPO,UTILITY DURATIO
N,RELEASE POINT :rem 220
912 DATA REPEAT H E A D ,F L A G ,PULSE WIDTH SWEEP ,"FILT
ER CUTOFF SWEEP " :rem 9
914 DATA VIBRATO DE P T H ,VIBRATO R ATE,AUTOFILTER ,TR
ANSPOSE ,AUXILIARY :rem 173
916 DATA FILTER CUTOFF,"MEASURE D U R A T I O N : r e m 105
920 DATA BUMP V O L U M E ,FILTER,RING MODULATION,SYNC M
ODE,EXTERNAL FILTER,30FF :rem 40
930 DATA 15,0,15,8,15,2,15,6,15,10,15,14 :rem 148
932 DATA 255,15,255,47,255,79 :rem 169
934 DATA 135,4,135,132 :rem 58
940 DATA 15,2,15,10,255,6,255,22,255,38,255,54,255
,70,255,86,255,102 :rem 28
942 DATA 255,118,255,134,255,150,255,166,255,182,3
1,14,63,30 :rem 150

Once run, the program first asks for an output device

number. Enter 3 for the screen, or 4 for the printer. For now,
just press the RETURN key to choose 3, the default value dis­
played in parentheses.
The next prompt asks for the name of the file to be listed.
As always, do not include the .MUS extension as part of the
filename. A good song to examine for purposes of explanation
is COMMODORE.MUS, Program 7-4.
Lister then requests a starting voice number. Usually a
listing begins with voice 1, but sometimes you may want to

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Chapter 11

skip voice 1 or voice 2. Enter the number of the first voice you
want to list, or just press the RETURN key to start at voice 1.
The program loads the requested file and begins the listing.
Each note is listed by its name, accidental, octave number,
and duration.
C S 4 Q (C sharp, octave 4, quarter note)
The first letter specifies the note name, and can be a letter
A through G or the letter R for rest. If the note is sharp or flat,
S or F is displayed after the note name. The octave number,
0-7, comes next, followed by a letter for the duration. The
duration can be W, H, Q, E, S, T, or U. Respectively, these let­
ters stand for whole, half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth, and
thirty-second notes. U represents the utility duration.
If the note is dotted, a D shows after the duration. If the
note is tied, the note listing ends with a T.
C S 4 Q D T (C sharp, octave 4, quarter note, dotted, and tied)
Commands are listed with their full names. If a command
has a data value, such as a number or yes/no indication, the
value is placed after the command name.
TEMPO 90
WAVEFORM T
Measure numbers are displayed at the left edge of the list­
ing, separate from the notes and commands. This makes it
easy to find a particular measure. At the end of each measure,
the total jiffy count for that measure is printed. This number is
affected by the tempo and the time signature. For example,
COMMODORE.MUS is written in 4 /4 time and is played in
M.M. 90. If you refer to Table 9-1, four beats at tempo 90 give
a total of 160 jiffies. That's why the measure duration for each
measure in COMMODORE.MUS is 160 jiffies.
If you're listing a song and one of the measures has a dif­
ferent jiffy count from the others, it could be an indication that
the measure doesn't have the correct total number of beats.
Either a duration is wrong, a note is missing, or there's an ex­
tra note.
The measure duration feature won't work properly when
repeats or phrases are used. Also, the total number of jiffies
for a measure may change from one voice to another if the
TEM command is not used on each voice.

368
 Chapter 11

If the listing goes by too fast, you can make the screen
scroll slower by pressing the CTRL key. If that's still too fast,
or if you want to stop the listing, just hit the RUN/STOP key.
Enter CONT to make the listing continue.
To send the listing to the printer, enter 4 in response to
the OUTPUT DEVICE prompt. Make sure that the printer is
connected and turned on.
If you have an RS-232 printer instead of a parallel printer,
you may have to change the OPEN statement in line 805 of
the Lister.
Merge. The Editor has a limited amount of memory avail­
able for editing a song. Some songs may be just too long for it
to handle. The solution is to edit the song in sections, and
then merge the sections together.
“Merge," Program 11-5, is used to combine two or more
music files into one larger file. This file can then be played by
the Player. Another use of Merge is to copy a music file from
one tape to another tape or from one disk to another disk. The
program can also be used to transfer a song from tape to disk.
Tape users must change line 120 so that DN = 1.

Program 11-5. Merge

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.
100 PRINT CHR$(147):PRINT ” SIDPLAYER MUSIC FILE M
ERGE UTILITY" srem 9
110 PRINT " BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN":PRINT :rem 65
120 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783:TA=0:TB=0 sDIM
LA(3),LB(3) :rem 98
130 DEF FNH(N )= INT(N/256);DEF FNL(N)=N-256*INT(N/2
56) :rem 206
140 DEF FNDP(N )=PEEK(N)+256*PEEK(N+l) :rem 62
150 FOR K=49152 TO 49313:READ NsPOKE K ,N :NEXTsMB=4
9152 :BG=49263 :rem 15
160 S=0:D=0:L=0:BA=FNDP(49)+100:MT=FNDP(51)-100
:rem 134
300 F $ = " " : INPUT " LOAD F I L E N A M E " ; F $ : I F L E N ( F $ ) > 1 2
{ SPACE}GOTO 3 0 0 : rem 9 8
310 GOSUB 6 0 0 : POKE S A , 0 : P O K E S X , F N L ( B A ) : POKE S Y , F N
H( BA) : rem 232
320 SYS 6 5 4 9 3 : I F P EE K ( S P ) AN D 1 GOTO 7 0 0 : rem 85
330 FOR V=1 TO 3 : L A ( V ) = F N D P ( B A + 2 * V - 2 ) : T A = T A + L A ( V ) :
NE X T : A = F N D P ( S X ) : rem 79
400 F $ = " " : I N P U T " APPEND F I L E N A M E " j F $ : I F L E N ( F $ ) > 1
2 GOTO 4 0 0 : rem 2 5 2
410 P R I N T : I F F $ = " " GOTO 5 0 0 : rem 1 6 4

369
Chapter 11

420 F$=F$+".MUS":OPEN 1,DN,0,F$:GET#1,L$,H $ :rem 40

430 FOR V=1 TO 3:GET#1,L$,H$:LB(V)=ASC(L$+CHR$(0))
+256*ASC(H$+CHR$(0)) :rem 222
435 TA=TA+LB(V )-2:NEXT :rem 59
440 IF TA>MT-BA THEN PRINT " ERROR: NOT ENOUGH MEM
ORY":CLOSE 1 :END :rem 145
450 A=BA+6:S=A+LA(1):L=LA(2)+LA(3)-2:D=MT-L:GOSUB
{SPACE}630:A=A+LA(1)-2:S=A:L=LB(1) :rem 70
460 GOSUB 660:A=A+L:L=LA(2)-2:S=MT-LA(3)-L:D=A:GOS
UB 630:A=A+L:S=A:L=LB(2) :rem 24
470 GOSUB 660:A=A+L:L=LA(3)-2:S=MT-L:D=A:GOSUB 630
:A=A+L:S=A:L=LB(3):GOSUB 660 :rem 51
480 A=A+L:IF ST GOTO 520 :rem 18
490 K=FRE(0):GET#1,F $ :IF F$<>"" THEN POKE A,ASC(F$
):A=A+1:GOTO 490 :rem 58
495 CLOSE 1:POKE A,0:A=A+1:FOR V=1 TO 3:LA(V)=LA(V
)+LB(V )-2:NEXT:GOTO 400 :rem 125
500 FOR V=1 TO 3:POKE BA+2*V-2,FNL(L A (V )):POKE BA+
2*V-1,FNH(LA(V)):NEXT :rem 252
510 F$="":INPUT " SAVE F I L E N A M E F $ :IF F$="" OR LE
N (F $ )>12 GOTO 510 :rem 3
520 GOSUB 600:POKE SA,251:POKE 251,FNL(BA):POKE 25
2 ,FNH(BA) :rem 45
530 POKE SX,FNL(A):POKE SY,FNH(A ) :SYS 65496:IF PEE
K (SP)AND1 GOTO 700 :rem 188
540 PRINT " SAVED" A-BA "BYTES":END :rem 170
600 PRINT:POKE SA,l:POKE SX,DN:POKE SY,0:SYS 65466
:F$=F$+”.MUS" :rem 225
610 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$):POKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K)):
NEXT :rem 241
620 POKE SA,LEN(F$):POKE SX,73:POKE SY,2:SYS 65469
:RETURN :rem 159
630 POKE 251,FNL(S ):POKE 252,FNH(S ):POKE 253,FNL(D
):POKE 254,FNH(D ) :rem 3
640 POKE SX,FNL(L ):POKE SY,FNH(L ) :SYS M B :RETURN
:rem 185
660 POKE 251,FNL(S ):POKE 252,FNH(S ):POKE 253,FNL(L
):POKE 254,FNH(L ) :rem 22
670 SYS B G :IF PEEK(SP)AND1 THEN CLOSE l:GOTO 700
:rem 235
680 RETURN :rem 126
700 PRINT " ERROR":END :rem 3
800 DATA 142,109,192,140,110,192,165,253,56,229,25
1,170,165,254,229,252,236,109 :rem 62
801 DATA 192,237,110,192,144,35,160,0,174,110,192,
240,14,177,251,145,253,200 :rem 143
802 DATA 208,249,230,252,230,254,202,208,242,174,1
09,192,240,8,177,251,145,253 :rem 8
803 DATA 200,202,208,248,96,173,110,192,168,101,25
2,133,252,152,24,101,254,133 :rem 243

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 Chapter 11

804 DATA 254,172,109,192,240,9,136,177,251,145,253

,192,0,208,247,174,110,192 :rem 174
805 DATA 240,16,198,252,198,254,136,177,251,145,25
3,192,0,208,247,202,208,240 srem 228
806 DATA 96,0,0,162,1,32,198,255,176,43,165,251,16
8,101,253,133,253,165,252,101 :rem 52
807 DATA 254,133,254,169,0,133,251,32,207,255,176,
21,145,251,200,208,2,230,252 :rem 246
808 DATA 196,253,208,240,165,252,197,254,208,234,3
2,204,255,24,96 :rem 156

The program begins by asking for a file to load. After you

enter the filename and the song is loaded, the program re­
quests the name of the file to be appended to the first file.
When you enter this second filename, the program reads each
voice in the file and adds it to the end of each voice in the
first song.
The program then asks for the name of another file to be
appended. You can append as many files as you like. When
you don't want to append any more files, just press RETURN.
The program finally asks for a filename to use in saving the
composite file.
To copy a music file from one tape to another tape or
from one disk to another disk, use Merge to load the file you
want to move, do not append any other files, and then save
the file to the new tape or disk. This is more convenient than
using the Editor to copy files.
With a slight modification, the Merge program can be
used to transfer a music file from tape to disk. Change the
DN = 8 in line 120 to DN = 1, and insert the statement DN = 8
at the beginning of line 520, right before the GOSUB 600.
Now when you load a music file, it will come from the
Datassette, but when you save the file again, it will go to the
disk drive.
Extract. “Extract,” Program 11-6, loads a music file, asks
for starting and ending measure numbers, extracts the mea­
sures in the specified range, and saves them as a new file. The
original file retains all its measures. Extract does not remove
measures from the original— it only pulls out specified mea­
sures and places them in a new file. (Change DN to equal 1 in
line 120 if you are using tape.)

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Chapter 11

Program 11-6. Extract

For error-free program entry, be sure to use “The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.
100 PRINT C H R $ (147):PRINT " SIDPLAYER"SPRINT " MUS
IC FILE EXTRACTION UTILITY" :rem 165
110 PRINT " BY CRAIG C H A M B E R L A I N P R I N T . srem 65
120 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783:DIM LN(3)
srem 184
130 DEF FNH(N)=INT(N/256):DEF FNL(N)=N-256*INT(N/2
56) srem 206
140 DEF FNDP(N)=PEEK(N)+256*PEEK(N+1):BA=FNDP(49) +
5 0 0 :PT=BA+6:DP=PT srem 140
300 F$=""sINPUT " LOAD F I L E N A M E F $ s I F F$="" OR LE
N ( F $ )>12 GOTO 300 srem 238
310 GOSUB 6 0 0 SPOKE SA,0sPOKE S X ,F N L (BA)sPOKE S Y ,FN
H (BA) srem 232
320 SYS 65493 sIF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 700 srem 85
330 FOR V=1 TO 3 sLN(V)=FNDP(BA+2*V-2)sNEXTsrem 128
350 SM=-lsINPUT " STARTING MEASURE";SMsIF SM<-1 OR
SM>1023 GOTO 350 srem 83
360 EM=0sINPUT "{3 SPACES}ENDING MEASURE"?EMsIF EM
<0 OR EM>1023 GOTO 360 srem 10
370 PRINTsSL=SM AND255sSH=(SM/4 A N D192)+30 s EL=EM A
ND255sEH=(EM/4 AND192)+30 srem 255
400 FOR V=1 TO 3 SPRINT " PROCESSING V O I C E " ;VsDB=DP
sMP=PT+LN(V )sIF S M <0 GOTO 450 srem 128
410 IF PEEK(PT)=SH THEN IF P E E K (P T + 1 )=SL GOTO 450
srem 248
420 PT=PT+2 sIF PT<MP GOTO 410 srem 140
430 PRINT " ERRORS STARTING MEASURE NOT FOUND"sEND
srem 40
450 P=PEEK(P T )sQ=PEEK(PT+1)sIF P=EH THEN IF Q=EL G
OTO 480 srem 19
460 POKE DP,PsPOKE D P + 1 ,QsDP=DP+2sPT=PT+2sIF PT<MP
GOTO 450 srem 223
470 PRINT " NOTES RAN TO END OF VOICE"sGOTO 490
srem 82
480 POKE DP,1 sPOKE D P + 1 ,79sDP=DP+2 srem 173
490 POKE BA+2*V-2,FNL(DP-DB)sPOKE BA+2*V-1,F N H (DP-
DB)sPT=MPsNEXTsPRINT srem 238
500 P=PEEK(P T )sPT=PT+1s POKE D P ,PsDP=DP+1sIF P GOTO
500 srem 178
510 F$=""sINPUT " SAVE F I L E N A M E F $ s I F F$="" OR LE
N (F $ )>12 GOTO 510 srem 3
520 GOSUB 6 0 0 sPOKESA,2 5 1 sPOKE 251,F N L (BA)sPOKE 25
2,FNH(BA) srem 45
530 POKE S X ,F N L (D P )sPOKE SY,FNH(D P )sSYS 654 9 6 sIF P
EEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 700 srem 98
540 CLRsEND srem 139

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 Chapter 11

600 PRINT:POKE SA,1sPOKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,0:SYS 65466

:F$=F$+".MUS" :rem 225
610 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$):POKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K )):
NEXT :rem 241
620 POKE SA,LEN(F$):POKE SX,73:POKE SY,2:SYS 65469
:RETURN :rem 159
700 PRINT " ERROR":END srem 3

When you run the program, the first prompt asks for the
name of the file to load. After you enter the filename, the pro­
gram loads the song.
The program requests a starting measure number. Type
the number of the first measure that should be extracted. If
you want the extraction to start at the beginning of the file in­
stead of at a later measure, just press RETURN.
When prompted for the ending measure number, type the
number of the measure at which the extraction should stop.
For example, if you want to extract measures 26 through 50
inclusive, the ending measure should be 51. Press RETURN by
itself if you want the extraction to go to the end of the voice.
The program displays the message PROCESSING VOICE
1 while it searches for the starting measure marker. If the
measure marker is not found in the voice, the program stops
with the message ERROR:STARTING MEASURE NOT
FOUND.
Having found the starting measure marker, the program
continues to search until it comes to the ending measure
marker or the end of the voice. If the searching reaches the
end of the voice, the program prints the warning NOTE:RAN
TO END OF VOICE.
The program repeats this procedure for voices 2 and 3.
Finally, the program asks for the filename to use in saving
the new music file.
One use of the Extract program is to break a large music
file into parts. Another application is to copy a sequence of
notes in a song to the end of the song. For example, a song
may repeat a chorus, but the chorus might be played a little
differently the second time. Repeats or phrases cannot be used
if there are minor changes when the notes are repeated. In­
stead of entering all the notes in the chorus again, just extract
the notes which form the chorus, use Merge to merge them to
the end of the song, and make the necessary changes.

373
Chapter 11

Cross File Merge. The last utility, Program 11-7, is a

cross file merger. This program lets you construct a new music
file from the voices of different music files. Voice 1 of the new
file can come from one file, voice 2 can come from another
file, and voice 3 can come from yet another. (Tape users need
to change DN = 8 in line 120 to DN = 1.)

Program 11-7. Cross File Merge

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.
100 PRINT C H R $ (147):PRINT " SIDPLAYER CROSS FILE M
ERGE UTILITY” :rem 18
110 PRINT " BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN":PRINT :rem 65
120 D N = 8 :SA=780:SX=781:SY=7 8 2 :SP=783:T A = 0 :T B = 0 :DIM
LA(3),LB(3):Z $=CHR$(0) :rem 217
130 DEF F N H (N)=INT(N / 2 5 6 ):DEF F N L (N )=N-256*INT(N/2
56) :rem 206
140 DEF F N D P (N )=P E E K (N )+256*P E E K (N + l ):BA=FNDP(49) +
100:A=BA+6 :rem 118
300 FOR V=1 TO 3 :rem 20
310 F$="":PRINT " FILE FOR VOICE";V;:INPUT F$:IF F
$="" OR L E N (F $ )>12 GOTO 310 :rem 100
320 V N = 0 :INPUT "{2 SPACESlUSE WHICH VOICE ";VN:IF
{SPACE}VN<>INT(V N ) OR VN<1 OR VN>3 GOTO 320
:rem 102
330 F$=F$+".MUS":OPEN 1,D N ,0,F $ :GET#1,L $ ,H $ :PRINT
:rem 239
340 FOR K=1 TO 3:GET # 1 ,L $ ,H $ :L B (K )= A S C (L$+Z$)+256*
A S C (H$ + Z $ ):NEXT :rem 57
350 FOR K=1 TO 3:FOR J=1 TO L B (K )/ 2 :N= F R E (0):GET#1
,L$,H$ :rem 218
360 IF K=VN THEN POKE A , A S C (L$ + Z $):POKE A+1,ASC(H$
+ Z $ ):A=A+2 :rem 37
370 NEXT:NEXT:L A ( V )= L B (VN)sCLOSE l:NEXT:POKE A,0:A
=A+1 :rem 53
500 FOR V=1 TO 3:POKE BA+2*V-2,F N L (L A (V )):POKE BA+
2*V - l ,F N H (L A (V )) :NEXT :rem 252
510 F$="":INPUT " SAVE FILENAME";F $ :IF F$="" OR LE
N (F $ )>12 GOTO 510 :rem 3
520 POKE SA,1:POKE SX,DN:POKE SY,0:SYS 65 4 6 6 :F$=F$
+".MUS" :rem 27
530 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$):POKE 584+K,A S C (M I D $ (F $ ,K )):
NEXT :rem 242
540 POKE SA,LEN(F $ ):POKE SX,73:POKE SY,2:SYS 65469
:rem 134
550 POKE SA,251:POKE 251,F N L (B A ):POKE 252,FNH(BA)
:rem 224

374
 Chapter 11

560 POKE S X ,FNL (A ):POKE S Y ,FNH (A ) :SYS 65496:IF PEE

K (S P )AND1 GOTO 700 srem 191
570 CLR:END :rem 142
700 PRINT " ERROR":END :rem 3

The program begins by constructing voice 1. It asks for

the name of the file which contains the voice to be used for
voice 1. The program then asks which of the three voices in
that file is to be used. For instance, if the first voice of the file
being created is to come from voice 3 of the song
COMMODORE.MUS, here's how you would respond:
FILE FOR VOICE 1 ? COMMODORE
USE WHICH VOICE ? 3
The program loads the requested voice from the specified
file. This may take a while. The procedure is then repeated for
voices 2 and 3.
After all the voices have been loaded, the program re­
quires one more filename to use when saving the new file.
The “Cross File Merge" program can be used to change
the order of the voices in a file. This is sometimes necessary if
you start a song and later decide to use the synchronization
mode or ring modulation. As an example, let's say that you
want to switch voices 2 and 3 in the song "MINUET." Here's
how you would reply to the program prompts:
FILE FOR VOICE 1 ? MINUET
USE WHICH VOICE ? 1
FILE FOR VOICE 2 ? MINUET
USE WHICH VOICE ? 3
FILE FOR VOICE 3 ? MINUET
USE WHICH VOICE ? 2
If you're using disk, remember to choose a filename other
than MINUET when saving the new file to avoid the FILE EX­
ISTS error.

Sidplayer Editor Command Index

SYS Calls
DP (DROP routine) 354
HK (HOOK routine) 353
PL (PLAY routine) 353-54

375
Chapter 11

Sidplayer Editor commands

ABS SET (absolute set pitch) 342-43
ATK (attack rate) 283-84
AUT (autofilter mode) 293-94
BMP (bump the master vol­
ume) 306-307
CAL (call a phrase) 301-302
DCY (decay rate) 284
DEF (define a phrase) 300-301
DTN (detune a voice) 320
END (end definition of a
phrase) 300-301
F-C (filter cutoff) 292
FLG (flag location) 355-56
FLT (voice pass through filter) 293
F-M (filter mode) 290, 292
F-S (filter sweep) 294
HED (repeat head) 299-300
HLT (halt a voice) 362
M S# (measures) 258-59
N (key signature level) 310
PNT (release point) 284-87
POR (controls glide rate) 315
P-S (pulse width sweeping) 274-75
P-W (pulse width) 273-74
RES (resonance level) 292-93
RLS (release rate) 284
RNG (ring modulation) 333-37
SNC (synchronization mode) 324-25
SUS (sustain level) 284
TAL (repeat tail) 299-300
TEM (tempo) 256-58
TPS (transpose a voice) 323
UTL (utility duration) 312-13
VDP (vibrato depth) 315
VOL (volume) 258
VRT (vibrato rate) 320
WAV (waveform) 273

376
Part 4
Sprite
Control
System
Chapter 12

Introduction to the Sprite

C ontrol System

So far, you've seen utilities that let you access the Commodore
64's excellent bitmapping and sound capabilities. There's one
more area to cover. One of the most widely used features of
your computer is sprites, the movable object blocks of the 64.
Games especially make wide use of sprites.
This last part of this book deals with sprites and sprite
animation. In the pages which follow, you'll see how easy it
can be to define a sprite and make it move across the screen.
Just as you were provided with utilities to help you use
the bitmap screen and create sophisticated sound, so you'll
have a Sprite Editor at your disposal. The Editor lets you use
the joystick to create sprite definitions. You'll also find several
machine language routines you can use to make it easier to
move the sprites you create. You'll be able to get up to eight
sprites moving at the same time, each with its own shape,
color, size, direction, and speed. Best of all, you'll be able to
do all of this from a BASIC program, without using a single
POKE!
Before you see how to define and animate sprites, how­
ever, it's important to understand the basic characteristics of
animation, and the advantages of sprite graphics over charac­
ter and bitmapped graphics.

Principles of Animation
There are two ways in which an object can be animated. The
object can change its position or it can change its appearance.
Motion, which occurs when the position of an object is
changing, is probably the more common type of animation.
Two important characteristics of a moving object are its direc­
tion and its speed.
But an object can be animated even when it's not moving,
simply by changing its appearance in some way. This can be
done by altering the shape of the object, but it can also be
done by changing its color or size.
To create effective animation on the Commodore 64, you

379
Chapter 12

need a graphics system in which an object's position or

appearance can be changed quickly and easily.

Character Graphics
There are many reasons why it's preferable not to use charac­
ter graphics for animation. New character shapes can be cre­
ated by redefining the character set, but each character is
always limited to an 8 X 8 grid. This size is often too small to
be useful.
Another problem is in motion. A character can be moved
to another place on the screen by just a couple of POKE state­
ments, but the positioning is limited to 40 columns X 25
rows, so motion appears jerky.
Bigger shapes can be created by using several characters,
but motion is then more difficult because each character
comprising the large figure has to be moved.
Thus, for many applications, character graphics are simply
unsuitable for animation.

Bitmapped Graphics
With bitmapped graphics, there are no size or positioning
restrictions. A shape of any size can be drawn, starting at any
of 64,000 (320 X 200) positions. Sometimes these shapes can
be redrawn fast enough so that they appear to change shape.
(Refer back to the shape demonstrations in Part 2 for a few
examples.)
The only drawback to using bitmapped graphics is that
motion is impossible in BASIC. Moving an object means eras­
ing each point in the shape and replotting it at an adjacent po­
sition. Bitmapped graphics shapes usually contain too many
points to be erased and redrawn quickly. If a shape is moved
like this, it moves very slowly, with considerable flicker.
These problems are magnified when you want the shape
to move without disturbing other things already on the screen.
For instance, you may want to make a figure walk in front of
a building. As the points in the figure are plotted in new po­
sitions, they may be placed in the same positions as points
used to display the building. Those points must be restored
after the figure has walked past. Motion is not as simple as
just plotting and erasing points. For each point, the original
contents must be remembered before the position is plotted so
that the contents can later be restored.

380
 Chapter 12

Although bitmapped graphics has many applications (just

some of which you saw in Part 2), animation is not one of
them.

Sprite Graphics
This graphics system combines the best features of character
and bitmapped graphics. A sprite is a super character, because
it can be defined on a grid of 24 X 21 points, about the size
of eight characters. This size is large enough to create detailed
shapes. Positioning is allowed on any of the 320 X 200
points, so a sprite can be placed anywhere on the screen. It
also means sprite motion is smooth.
The best feature, however, is that the sprite definition is
stored in memory separate from screen memory. This means
you can use sprites at the same time as character graphics or
bitmapped graphics. Also, the screen memory is not changed
when the sprite is moved, so the background does not have to
be restored.
The fact that a sprite is completely independent of the
screen greatly simplifies its display and movement. Only three
POKE statements are needed to move a whole sprite. Just one
changes its shape, size, or color.
If this were all the Commodore 64 did, it would be an ex­
cellent system. What makes it even better is that the 64 sup­
ports up to eight sprites. Each sprite can have its own shape,
color, size, and position. Other features, such as multicolor
mode and priority, will be discussed later.

The Sprite Control System

Sprites are well suited for animation, but there are a couple of
problems. One is that it's difficult to create a sprite definition.
The other is that the three POKE statements required to po­
sition a sprite are rather complicated and take time to execute.
BASIC programs run too slowly to make a sprite move very
quickly. And making eight sprites move at once is simply not
feasible in BASIC.
That's where the Sprite Control System comes in. The
Control System consists of a group of programs and machine
language routines which make sprite animation easier than
you ever thought possible.
Sprite Editor. The first part of the Control System is a
Sprite Editor. Using the joystick, you plot points on a 24 X 21

381
Chapter 12

grid to define a shape. A variety of editing features are avail­

able to scroll the shape, flip it to create a mirror image, turn it
upside down, and so on. If necessary, over 100 shapes can be
defined. The definitions can be saved as a disk or tape file, or
can be converted into DATA statements and merged with a
BASIC program. You'll never have to do any calculations or
work with bits and bytes.
Machine language routines. The second part of the Con­
trol System is a set of machine language routines. These
routines can be called from BASIC to make a sprite change its
shape, color, size, or position. The routines can also make a
sprite move in a given direction at a specified speed. There are
even advanced features to make a sprite move under joystick
control or change shape automatically whenever it changes
direction. All of this is done without a single POKE statement.

Before You See It Work

There are three impressive demonstration programs included
here, but before you can enter them, you have to prepare two
other files. Type in the following lines and save them with the
filename SCS.BAS. It's important that you use this filename.
We'll be referring to this filename throughout the next few
chapters.

Program 12-1. SCS.BAS

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

58000 POKE SA,1 sPOKE SX,DN:POKE SY,1:SYS 65466:F$=

"SCS.OBJ":GOSUB 59000 srem 116
58010 POKE SA,0 sSYS 65493 :IF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 591
00 :rem 127
58020 IN=49664:RE=49667:RL=49670:RS=49673:DF=49676
:BL=49679:CO=49682:WI=49685 srem 172
58030 HE=49688:PO=49691:DI=49694sWR=49697:BO=49700
:MO=49703:LB=49706:RB=49709 srem 148
58040 TB=49712 sBB=49715 sFR=49718sUN=49721sPR=49724
sMU=49727sEN=49730sJS=49733 srem 14'9
58050 AU=49736sCH=49739sRETURN srem 14
58100 GOSUB 58000 sSYS 51123,LAsLA=LA+1191sRETURN
srem 11
58400 POKE 49749,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE 49750,INT
(LA/256) srem 182
58410 READ JsPOKE 49751,JsFOR K=0 TO J sREAD JsPOKE
LA,JsLA=LA+l srem 16
58420 IF J THEN FOR LA=LA TOLA+J-1sREAD IsPOKE LA
,IsNEXT LA srem 92

382
 Chapter 12

58430 NEXT K:RETURN :rem 168

58500 POKE SA,1sPOKE SX,DN:POKE SY,0:SYS 65466:F$=
F$+".DEF"sGOSUB 59000 srem 24
58510 POKE SA,0:POKE S X ,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE SY
,INT(LA/256) srem 78
58520 SYS 65493sIFPEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 59100 srem 44
58530 LA=LA+1s POKE 49749,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE 4
9750,INT(LA/256) srem 167
58540 POKE 49751,PEEK(LA-1)sLA=PEEK(SX)+2 56*PEEK(S
Y)sRETURN srem 31
59000 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$)sPOKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K )
)sNEXT srem 88
59010 POKE SA,LEN(F$)sPOKE SX,73sPOKE SY,2sSYS 654
69sRETURN srem 6
59100 P=PEEK(SA)SPRINT "ERRORS M?sIF P=4 THEN PRI
NT "FILE NOT FOUND"sEND srem 200
59110 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT"sEND
srem 36
59120 PRINT STsEND srem 70

These lines do not form a complete program. Rather,

they're subroutines which must be included in every program
that uses the Sprite Control System.
The next file contains the machine language routines used
to display sprites and make them move. As with all the com­
plete machine language programs in this book, you have to
use "The Machine Language Editor: MLX," found in Appendix
C, to type it in. Be sure to read the accompanying article if
you haven't already. If you have a copy of MLX from another
COMPUTE! publication, you can use it to enter the listings in
this book. However, if you use tape and have another version
of MLX, you must change line 763 to match what's listed in
this book. (Tape users who have a copy of MLX which does
not have a line 763 must use this book's version of MLX.)
Once you've loaded and run MLX, you'll be asked to
make two responses. Here are the numbers you should enter:
Starting Address: 49664
Ending Address: 51199
Filename: SCS.OBJ
Begin typing in Program 12-2. Follow the instructions in
Appendix C if you enter the program in more than one sitting.
When you're finished, save this file using the filename
SCS.OBJ. If you're saving to tape, put it on a cassette all by it­
self so that you can easily find it when you need it. A bit later,
you'll have to load it into memory to see the demonstration.
383
 Program 12-2. SCS.OBJ 49826 5194,032, 241 ,183,138,166,092

384
To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language 49832 5002,096, 032 ,253,174,032,245
Editor (MIX)," a program found in Appendix C.
49838 5138,173, 032 ,155,188,165,001
49844 5101,164, 100 ,166,002,096,041
49664 s076,012,195,076,177,195,219
Chapter 12

49850 5064,169, 015 ,141,025,208,040

49670 :076,100,199,076,157,199,045 49856 5173,089, 194 ,048,007,169,104
49676 :076,210,195,076,052,196,049 49862 5000,141, 088 ,194,240,061,154
49682 s076,073,196,076,097,196,220 49868 5088,216, 173 ,001,220,073,207
49688 :076,100,196,076,134,196,034 49874 5031,141, 090 ,194,173,000,071
49694 s076,007,197,076,061,197,132 49880 5220,073, 031 ,141,091,194,198
49700 :076,064,197,076,025,197,159 49886 5174,092, 194 ,240,014,173,085
49706 :076,085,197,076,088,197,249 49892 5030,208, 141 ,093,194,173,043
49712 s076,119,197,076,122,197,067 49898 5031,208, 141 ,094,194,162,040
49718 :076,188,196,076,200,196,218 49904 5000,173, 088 ,194,061,097,085
49724 :076,103,196,076,106,196,045 49910 5194,240, 006 ,142,089,194,087
49730 :076,109,196,076,210,196,161 49916 5032,078, 194 ,232,224,008,252
49736 :076,146,197,076,253,196,248 49922 5208,237, 169 ,255,141,089,077
49742 5076,173,197,000,000,007,019 49928 5194,108, 081 ,194,169,194,180
49748 s000,000,000,000,000,000,084 49934 5205,021, 003 ,208,001,096,036
49754 s000,000,000,000,000,000,090 49940 5169,000, 141 ,021,208,141,188
49760 5000,001,002,004,008,016,127 49946 5023,208, 141 ,027,208,141,006
49766 5032,064,128,254,253,251,060 49952 5028,208, 141 ,029,208,141,019
49772 5247,239,223,191,127,000,111 49958 5016,208, 160 ,016,169,050,145
49778 s009,008,010,002,006,004,153 49964 s136,153, 000 ,208,169,024,222
49784 5005,001,012,000,003,015,156 49970 5136,153, 000 ,208,208,242,229
49790 5004,008,001,002,005,009,155 49976 5162,007, 189 ,224,236,157,007
49796 s006,010,002,004,002,008,164 49982 5039,208, 169 ,000,157,060,183
49802 5000,002,006,007,008,187,092 49988 5003,157, 068 ,003,157,116,060
49808 5194,186,194,032,241,183,150 49994 5003,169, 017 ,157,076,003,243
49814 5224,008,176,003,134,002,185 50000 5169,012, 157 ,084,003,169,162
49820 5096,076,072,178,032,147,245 50006 5159,157, 092 ,003,169,050,204
 50012 :157,100, 003 ,169,228,157,138 50198 s041,252,120,133,001,138,195
50018 s108,003, 202 ,016,211,142,012 50204 :160,063,136,145,099,208,071
50024 :088,194, 142 ,089,194,169,212 50210 :251,177,097,240,008,168,207
50030 :004,141, 037 ,208,169,000,157 50216 :177,097,136,145,099,208,134
50036 :141,038, 208 ,173,030,208,146 50222 s249,104,133,001,088,096,205
50042 s173,031, 208 ,169,127,141,203 50228 :032,160,194,16J3,248,132,210
50048 :013,220, 162 ,001,189,020,221 50234 :099,172,083,194,132,100,070
50054 :003,157, 081 ,194,189,143,133 50240 :164,002,145,099,160,000,122
50060 :194,157, 020 ,003,189,145,080 50246 5056,176,046,032,160,194,222
50066 :194,157, 250 ,255,202,016,196 50252 sl57,039,208,032,121,000,121
50072 :235,169, 249 ,141,018,208,148 50258 s240,012*032,241,183,142,164
50078 :173,017, 208 ,041,127,141,097 50264 5037,208,032,241,183,142,163
50084 :017,208, 169 ,015,141,025,227 50270 5038,208,096,160,008,044,136
50090 s208,169, 001 ,141,026,208,155 50276 5160,002,044,160,006,044,004
50096 :096,169, 194 ,205,021,003,096 50282 5160,007,044,160,000,132,097
50102 :208,025, 169 ,000,141,026,239 50288 5020,032,160,194,164,020,190
50108 :208,141, 021 ,208,173,081,252 50294 5074,185,021,208,061,105,004
50114 :194,141, 020 ,003,173,082,039 50300 5194,144,003,029,097,194,017
50120 :194,141, 021 ,003,169,129,089 50306 sl53,021,208,096,032,147,019
50126 :141,013, 220 ,096,173,086,167 50312 5194,032,170,194,133,020,111
50132 :194,240, 014 ,032,163,194,025 50318 5132,021,032,170,194,072,251
50138 :072,032, 241 ,183,236,087,045 50324 sl38,010,168,104,024,105,185
50144 :194,144, 005 ,240,003,076,118 50330 5050,120,153,001,208,165,083
50150 :072,178, 104 ,160,000,132,108 50336 5020,024,105,024,153,000,230
50156 :099,074, 102 ,099,074,102,018 50342 5208,165,021,105,000,074,227
50162 :099,013, 084 ,194,133,100,097 50348 5173,016,208,061,105,194,161
50168 :173,085, 194 ,133,097,173,079 50354 5144,003,029,097,194,141,018
50174 :086,194, 133 ,098,232,202,175 50360 5016,208,088,096,032,163,019
50180 :240,013, 177 ,097,056,101,176 50366 s194,073,255,045,088,194,015
w 50186 :097,133, 097 ,144,244,230,187 50372 5141,088,194,096,032,163,142
* 50192 :098,208, 240 ,165,001,072,032
Chapter 12

50378 5194,013,088,194,141,088,152
 50384 :194,096 032 , 1 6 0 , 1 9 4 , 1 6 8 , 0 2 8 50570 :101,020, 1 6 8 ,104,153,100,016

386
50390 :240,022 201 , 0 0 3 , 1 7 6 , 0 5 8 , 1 4 6 50576 :003,096, 0 3 2 ,160,194,168,029
50396 :009,001 133 , 0 2 0 , 0 3 2 , 1 2 1 , 0 2 4 50582 :240,017, 1 3 6 ,136,152,041,104
50402 : 0 0 0 , 240 011 , 0 3 2 , 1 7 0 , 1 9 4 , 1 0 5 50588 :007,009 ,1 2 8 ,157,116,003,064
Chapter 12

50408 :041,003 010 , 0 1 0 , 0 0 5 , 0 2 0 , 0 6 5 50594 :032,163, 1 9 4 ,157,124,003,067

50414 :133,020 166 , 0 0 2 , 1 8 9 , 0 6 0 , 0 4 0 50600 :096,157, 1 1 6 ,003,096,189,057
50420 :003,041 224 , 0 0 5 , 0 2 0 , 1 5 7 , 1 8 2 50606 :076,003, 0 1 6 ,005,165,162,089
50426 :060,003 096 , 0 3 2 , 1 6 0 , 1 9 4 , 0 2 7 50612 :074,176, 2 4 5 ,189,060,003,159
50432 : 0 4 1 ,007 056 , 0 4 2 , 0 4 2 , 2 0 8 , 1 4 0 50618 :133,251 ,0 4 1 ,003,240,117,203
50438 : 2 3 1 ,032 160 , 1 9 4 , 2 0 1 , 0 0 9 , 0 6 5 50624 :074,144, 0 3 3 ,168,185,090,118
50444 :176,008 168 , 1 8 5 , 1 1 3 , 1 9 4 , 0 8 8 50630 :194,041, 0 1 5 ,168,240,015,103
50450 :157,068 003 , 0 9 6 , 0 7 6 , 0 7 2 , 2 3 4 50636 :165,251 ,0 4 1 ,004,240,006,143
50456 : 178,032 160 , 1 9 4 , 0 4 1 , 0 0 7 , 1 2 4 50642 :152,074, 1 4 4 ,253,208,093,110
50462 :010,010 010 , 1 3 3 , 0 2 0 , 0 3 2 , 2 4 5 50648 :152,208, 0 8 7 ,165,251,041,096
50468 :16 3 , 1 9 4 041 , 0 0 7 , 0 0 5 , 0 2 0 , 2 1 0 50654 :008,208, 0 8 4 ,152,240,078,224
50474 :157,07b 003 , 0 3 2 , 1 2 1 , 0 0 0 , 1 7 5 50660 :165,251 ,0 4 1 ,028,074,168,187
50480 :240,010 032 , 1 6 3 , 1 9 4 , 0 3 0 , 2 0 5 50666 :185,000, 2 0 8 ,133,252,185,173
50486 :076,003 074 , 1 2 6 , 0 7 6 , 0 0 3 , 1 5 6 50672 :001,208, 1 3 3 ,253,152,074,037
50492 :096,169 064 , 0 4 4 , 1 6 9 , 1 2 8 , 2 1 8 50678 :168,173, 0 1 6 ,208,057,097,197
50498 :133,020 032 , 1 6 0 , 1 9 4 , 0 7 4 , 1 6 7 50684 :194,240, 001 ,056,102,252,073
50504 :189,060 003 , 0 4 1 , 0 6 3 , 1 4 4 , 0 6 0 50690 :138,010, 1 6 8 ,169,000,133,108
50510 : 0 0 2 ,005 020 , 1 5 7 , 0 6 0 , 0 0 3 , 0 6 9 50696 :254,173, 0 1 6 ,208,061,097,049
50516 :096,169 000 , 0 4 4 , 1 6 9 , 0 0 8 , 0 5 8 50702 :194,240, 001 ,056,185,000,178
50522 : 13 3 , 0 2 0 032 , 1 4 7 , 1 9 4 , 0 3 2 , 1 3 6 50708 :208,106, 1 9 7 ,252,240,007,006
50528 : 1 7 0 , 194 024 , 1 0 5 , 0 2 4 , 0 7 2 , 1 7 3 50714 :169,004, 1 7 6 ,001,010,133,007
50534 : 1 5 2 , 105 000 , 0 7 4 , 1 0 4 , 1 0 6 , 1 3 1 50720 :254,185, 001 ,208,197,253,106
50540 : 0 7 2 , 138 024 , 1 0 1 , 0 2 0 , 1 6 8 , 1 1 9 50726 :240,008, 1 6 9 ,001,176,001,121
50546 : 1 0 4 , 153 084 , 0 0 3 , 0 9 6 , 1 6 9 , 2 1 1 50732 :010,005, 2 5 4 ,044,165,254,008
50552 :000,044 169 , 0 0 8 , 1 3 3 , 0 2 0 , 2 3 8 50738 :157,068, 0 0 3 ,138,010,168,082
50558 : 0 3 2 , 147 194 , 0 3 2 , 1 7 0 , 1 9 4 , 1 2 7 50744 :189,068, 0 0 3 ,240,071,041,156
50564 :024,105 050 , 0 7 2 , 1 3 8 , 0 2 4 , 0 3 3 50750 :003,240, 0 6 2 ,074,189,076,194
 50756 :003,041, 0 0 7 , 1 3 3 , 252,185,177 50942 :000,208, 070 ,254,173,016,207
50762 :001,208, 1 4 4 ,017,229,252,157 50948 :208,061, 105 ,194,144,003,207
50768 :221,100, 0 0 3 ,176,039,165,016 50954 :029,097, 194 ,141,016,208,183
50774 :2 51,010, 0 1 6 ,019,189,108,167 50960 s189,116, 003 ,240,078,041,171
50780 :003,144, 0 2 9 ,101,252,221,074 50966 s007,074, 133 ,251,168,189,076
50786 :108,003, 1 4 4 ,022,240,020,123 50972 s068,003, 208 ,007,144,065,011
50792 :16 5,2 51 ,010 ,048,012,144,222 50978 s185,134, 194 ,208,041,185,213
50798 :016,189, 0 6 8 ,003,073,003,206 50984 :122,194, 208 ,010,189,068,063
50804 :157,068, 0 0 3 ,208,006,189,235 50990 :003,074, 144 ,253,208,047,007
50810 :100,003, 1 5 3 ,001,208,189,008 50996 :169,015, 061 ,068,003,240,096
50816 :068,003 ,0 4 1 ,012,240,066,046 51002 s040,160, 007 ,217,126,194,034
50822 :189,076, 0 0 3 ,074,074,074,112 51008 s240,005, 136 ,016,248,048,245
50828 :041,007 ,1 3 3 ,252,185,000,246 51014 :028,165, 251 ,201,002,208,157
50834 :208,133, 2 5 3 ,173,016,208,113 51020 :002,136, 136 ,152,024,125,139
50840 :061,097, 1 9 4 ,240,002,169,147 51026 :124,003, 072 ,169,248,133,063
50846 :001,133, 2 5 4 ,189,068,003,038 51032 s251,173, 083 ,194,133,252,150
50852 :074,074, 0 7 4 ,165,253,144,180 51038 :138,168, 104 ,145,251,096,228
50858 :031,229, 2 5 2 ,133,253,165,209 51044 :173,002, 221 ,009,003,141,137
50864 :254,233, 000 ,133,254,074,100 51050 s002,221, 032 ,241,183,138,155
50870 :165,253, 1 0 6 ,221,084,003,246 51056 2141,136, 002 ,024,105,003,011
50876 sl76,061. 1 6 5 ,251,010,016,099 51062 2141,083, 194 ,041,192,141,142
50882 :03 3,189, 0 9 2 ,003,144,043,186 51068 2084,194, 010 ,042,042,073,057
50888 :240,070, 101 ,252,133,253,225 51074 2003,077, 000 ,221,041,003,219
50894 :165,2 54, 1 0 5 ,000,133,254,093 51080 2077,000, 221 ,141,000,221,028
50900 :074,165, 2 5 3 ,106,221,092,099 51086 2138,010, 010 ,077,024,208,097
50906 :003,144, 0 3 0 ,240,028,165,060 51092 2041,240, 077 ,024,208,141,111
50912 :251,010, 0 4 8 ,012,144,042,219 51098 2024,208, 096 ,169,004,141,028
50918 :189,068, 0 0 3 ,073,012,157,220 51104 2136,002, 162 ,002,189,000,139
50924 :068,003, 2 0 8 ,032,189,084,052 51110 2221,009, 003 ,157,000,221,009
50930 :003,010, 1 3 3 ,253,169,000,042 51116 2202,202, 016 ,244,076,129,017

387
50936 :042,133, 2 5 4 51122 2255,032, 170 ,194,133,251,189
Chapter 12

,165,253,153,224
 51128 :132,252, 056 , 233,012 f133 #234

388
51134 :253,152, 233 ,195,133,254,130
51140 s160,081, 185 ,254,193,024,069
51146 s101, 253, 153 ,254,193,185,061
Chapter 12

51152 s255,193, 101 ,254,153,255,139

51158 :193,136, 136 ,136,208,234,233
51164 :169, 012, 133 ,253,169,195,127
51170 :133,254, 162 ,004,177,253,185
51176 :145, 251 ,200 ,208,249,230,235
51182 s252,230, 254 ,202,208,242,090
51188 :177 #253 f145 ,251,200,192,182
51194 :167 #208, 247 ,096,013,013,226
 Chapter 12

Once you have this program on disk or tape, you can

easily make copies of it to place on other disks or tapes. This
will be necessary when you begin to write your own programs
which make use of "SCS.O BJ" (the Sprite Control System, ex­
plained in more detail in Chapters 14 and 15).
Here's how you can create copies. First of all, load and
run MLX. When you see the beginning and ending address
prompts, enter 49664 and 51199, respectively. Press the SHIFT
and L keys at the same time (this is MLX's Load feature).
You'll be asked for a filename. Enter SCS.OBJ and press RE­
TURN. Another prompt appears, asking you whether you're
using disk or tape. Make sure the disk or tape containing
SCS.OBJ is in the drive or Datassette, then press D or T. The
program loads into memory. You'll know it's completed when
you see the DONE message. Press the SHIFT and S (Save)
keys at the same time, then enter the filename SCS.OBJ.
Check that the disk or tape you want SCS.OBJ to be copied to
is in the drive or recorder before hitting D or T. When the
DONE message appears again, you know that the machine
language file has been successfully copied to the new disk or
tape.
You can use this same procedure to make copies of
''SID.OBJ,'' "BMG.OBJ," "EDITOR.OBJ,'' or any machine lan­
guage program which requires MLX for its entry. Of course,
the beginning and ending addresses, as well as the filenames,
will change.

On with the Show

Each of these three examples is composed of several parts.
You need all of them in order to make the Sprite Control Sys­
tem operate as it should. SCS.OBJ, the program you just typed
in, displays the sprites and makes them move. You also need
a BASIC program (which contains all the lines from Program
12-1, "SCS.BAS") and another machine language file that cre­
ates the sprite shapes or definitions.
If you're using disk, just make sure all three components
are on the same disk. If you're using tape, however, you have
to save the programs in a specific order.
Save the BASIC program first, then the machine language
definition file. Since SCS.OBJ, Program 12-2, is on a tape by
itself already, all you'll have to do is follow the prompts on
the screen, changing tapes after loading the BASIC program

389
Chapter 12

and before loading the definition file.

You're now ready to enter the first example program. No­
tice that much of this program is a repetition of what you en­
tered for Program 12-1, SCS.BAS. When you type in Program
12-3, you can save time by first loading Program 12-1 into
memory, then adding the additional lines. Once SCS.BAS is in
memory, just type in all the lines you see up to line 58000.
Save this program using the filename D EM O #l. (If you're
using the Datassette, change the DN = 8 in line 120 to
D N = 1.)

Program 1 2-3. D E M O #l
For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 POKE 53280,12:POKE 53281,0:PRINT "{CLR}{DOWN}

E53 SPRITE CONTROL SYSTEM DEMO #1" :rem 182
110 PRINT " BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN":PRINT :rem 65
120 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783:REM DN=1 FOR
{SPACE}TAPE :rem 181
125 F$="SCS.OBJ":GOSUB 900 :rem 200
130 GOSUB 58000:REM LOAD CONTROL SYSTEM :rem 85
140 F$="BUNNY":LA=16384:GOSUB 900:GOSUB 58500:REM
{SPACElLOAD DEFINITIONS :rem 159
300 SYS IN:REM INSTALL :rem 94
310 SYS DF,255,0:REM DEFINE BLOCK 255 WITH DEFINIT
ION 0 :rem 102
320 FOR SN=0 TO 7:REM LOOP WITH SPRITE NUMBER
:rem 152
330 SYS PO,SN,150,90:REM SET POSITION (SAME FOR AL
L SPRITES) :rem 56
340 SYS DI,SN,INT(SN/2)*2 + 1:REM SET DIRECTION (DIF
FERENT FOR EACH SPRITE) :rem 116
350 SYS MO,SN,SN/2+1,(SN+I)/2+1:REM SET SPEED (DIF
FERENT FOR EACH SPRITE) :rem 243
360 SYS BO,SN,1:REM TURN ON BOUNCE :rem 19
370 SYS BL,S N ,255:REM ASSIGN BLOCK 255 TO SPRITE (
AND ENABLE) :rem 235
380 NEXT SN :rem 123
390 GET K $ :IF K$="" GOTO 390:REM WAIT FOR KEYPRESS
:rem 41
400 SYS RE:REM REMOVE :rem 22
410 END :rem 108
800 REM DEFINITION DATA (USED IN LATER DEMONSTRATI
ON) :rem 247
801 DATA 0,63,12,0,48,15,129,240,12,195,48,12,102,
48.7.102.224.3.231.192.0. 195 :rem 229
802 DATA 0,1,255,128,3,24,192,7,255,224,12,60,48,1
5.0. 240.7.255.224.0.255.0.28:rem230
390
 Chapter 12

803 DATA 60,56,7,60,224,1,255,128,48,126,12,124,60

,62,127,60,254,255,255,255 :rem 163
900 IF DN=8 THEN RETURN :rem 62
910 PRINT "POSITION TAPE TO THE BEGINNING OF":PRIN
T F$;" AND PRESS RETURN" rem 164
920 VJAIT 198,15 :GET K$: RETURN rem 167
58000 POKE SA,1:POKE SX,DN:POKE SY,1:SYS 65466:F$=
"SCS.OBJ"sGOSUB 59000 :rem 116
58010 POKE SA,0 sSYS 65493:IF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 591
00 :rem 127
58020 IN=49664:RE=49667:RL=49670:RS=49673:DF=49676
:BL=49679:00=49682:WI=49685 :rem 172
58030 HE=49688:PO=49691:DI=49694:WR=49697:BO=49700
:MO=49703:LB=49706:RB=49709 :rem 148
58040 TB=49712:BB=49715:FR=49718:UN=49721:PR=49724
:MU=49727 :EN=-,49730 :JS=49733 :rem 149
58050 AU=49736:CH=49739:RETURN :rem 14
58100 GOSUB 58000:SYS 5112 3, L A :LA=LA+1191:RETURN
:rem 11
58400 POKE 49749,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE 49750,INT
(LA/256) srem 182
58410 READ JsPOKE 49751,JsFOR K=0 TO J :READ JsPOKE
LA,J :LA=LA+1 srem 16
58420 IF J THEN FOR LA=LA TO LA+J-1sREAD IsPOKE LA
,IsNEXT LA srem 92
58430 NEXT KsRETURN srem 168
58500 POKE SA,1sPOKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,0sSYS 65466sF$=
F$+".DEF"sGOSUB 59000 srem 24
58510 POKE SA,0 sPOKE SX,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE SY
,INT(LA/256) srem 78
58520 SYS 65493sIF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 59100 srem 44
58530 LA=LA+1sPOKE 49749,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE 4
9750,INT(LA/256) srem 167
58540 POKE 49751,PEEK(LA-l)sLA=PEEK(SX)+256*PEEK(S
Y)sRETURN srem 31
59000 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$ ) sPOKE 584+K, ASC? (MID$ (F$ ,K)
)sNEXT srem 88
59010 POKE SA,LEN(F$)sPOKE SX,73sPOKE SY,2sSYS 654
69 sRETURN srem 6
59100 P=PEEK(SA)-.:PRINT "ERRORS ” ; sIF P=4 THEN PRI
NT "FILE NOT FOUND"sEND srem 200
59110 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT"sEND
rem 36
59120 PRINT STsEND rem 70

391
Chapter 12

Now type in and save the sprite definition file. It's in ma­
chine language, so you'll need MLX to enter it. These are the
responses you need to give:
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49217
Filename: BUNNY.DEF
Make sure the filename is BUNNY.DEF, or the "D E M O #l''
program will not be able to load it properly. If you're using
disk’, place this on the same disk as the previous two pro­
grams. If you're using tape, make sure BUNNY.DEF follows
D EM O #l.

Program 12-4. BUNNY.DEF

To enter this program,you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MLX)," a program
found in Appendix C.
49152 :000,063,012,000,048,015,138
49158 : 1 2 9 , 2 4 0 , 0 1 2 , 1 9 5 , 0 4 8 , 0 i 2 , 130
49164 :102,048,007,102,224,003,242
49170 : 231,192,000,195,000,001,12 5
49176 :255,128,003,024,192,007,121
49182 : 255,224,012,060,048,015,132
49188 :000,240,007,255,224,000,250
49194 :255,000,028,060,056,007,192
49200 :060,224,001,255,128,048,252
49206 :126,012,124,060,062,127,05 3
49212 s060,254,255,255,255,013,128

Load and run DEM O #l. If you're using disk, the SCS.OBJ
and BUNNY.DEF files are automatically loaded. All eight
sprites then appear on the screen.
However, if you're using the Datassette, you'll have to do
some tape switching. Once DEM O#l is run, you'll see the
prompt POSITION TAPE TO THE BEGINNING OF SCS.OBJ
AND PRESS RETURN. Take the tape containing DEM O#l out
of the Datassette and insert the tape you made earlier which
has SCS.OBJ on it. (Make sure this second tape is rewound to
the beginning of the SCS.OBJ file.) Press RETURN, then the
PLAY button on the recorder. The machine language file will
load. Once it's finished, you'll see another prompt, this time
POSITION TAPE TO THE BEGINNING OF BUNNY AND
PRESS RETURN. Insert the first tape (don't rewind it— leave it
where it ended after loading DEM O#l). Press RETURN, and
then PLAY. The machine language sprite definition file now
loads. When that's completed, you'll see the eight sprites
392
 Chapter 12

bouncing around the screen.

The sprites all have the same shape, but each sprite has a
different color, direction, and speed. Also notice that when­
ever a sprite hits the screen edge, it rebounds.
While the program is running, press the RUN/STOP key.
The sprites continue to move! Type LIST, and watch the bun­
nies go bouncing over the program listing. This illustrates that
the Sprite Control System can animate sprites while BASIC is
doing something else. A program can handle things like print­
ing a score and generating sound effects while the Control
System is moving the sprites.
Enter the command CONT to make the program resume
execution, then press any key to end the program and turn off
the sprites.

Getting Fancy
The second example demonstrates some of the more advanced
features of the Sprite Control System. Enter the following pro­
gram and save it with the filename DEMO#2. Again, if you're
using tape, change line 120 so that DN = 1.

Program 12-5. DEMO#2

For error-free program entry; be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 POKE 53280,0sPOKE 53281,12 *PRINT "{CLR}{DOWN}

{BLK} SPRITE CONTROL SYSTEM DEMO #2" srem 175
110 PRINT " BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN"sPRINT srem 65
120 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781s SY=782:SP=783:REM DN=1 FOR
{SPACE}TAPE srem 181
125 F$="SCS.OBJ"sGOSUB 900 srem 200
130 GOSUB 58000sREM LOAD CONTROL SYSTEM srem 85
140 F$="GOBBLER"sLA=l6384sGOSUB 900sGOSUB 58500sRE
M LOAD DEFINITIONS srem 16
300 SYS INsREM INSTALL srem 94
310 FOR K=0 TO llsSYS DF,244+K,KsNEXTsREM DEFINE B
LOCKS 244 TO 255 srem 135
320 SYS CO,0,7sREM SET COLOR TO YELLOW srem 237
330 SYS JS,0,2 sREM SELECT JOYSTICK 2 srem 108
340 SYS MO,0,3,2sREM SET MOTION (SPEED) srem 237
350 SYS WR,0,1sREM TURN ON WRAPAROUND srem 0
360 SYS PO,0,80,80sREM POSITION SPRITE srem 37
370 SYS BL,0,252 sREM ASSIGN BLOCK 252 TO SPRITE 0
{SPACE}(AND ENABLE) srem 164
380 SYS AU,0,9,244sREM AUTOSHAPE 8 DIRECTIONS PLUS
CENTERING, BASE BLOCK = 244 srem 23
390 SYS CO,1,2,1,0sREM COLORS RED, BLACK, AND WHIT
E srem 117
393
Chapter 12

400 SYSM U ,1,1;REM TURN ON MULTICOLOR :rem 253

410 SYSPO,1,240,120sREM POSITION SPRITE srem 123
420 SYSMO,1,1,1:REM SET MOTION (SPEED) srem 234
430 SYSCH,1,0:REM HAVE SPRITE 1 CHASE SPRITE 0
:rem 143
440 SYS BL,1,254:K=20:REM ASSIGN BLOCK 254 TO SPRI
TE 1 (AND ENABLE) :rem 204
450 IF PEEK(53278) GOTO 510:REM COLLIDED srem 212
460 K=K-1:IF K GOTO 450:REM LOOP 20 TIMES OR UNTIL
COLLISION srem 198
470 SYS BL,1,255:K=20:REM ASSIGN BLOCK 255 TO SPRI
TE 1 srem 6
480 IF PEEK(53278) GOTO 510:REM COLLIDED srem 215
490 K=K-1:IF K GOTO 480:REM LOOP 20 TIMES OR UNTIL
COLLISION srem 204
500 GOTO 440:REM CONTINUE ALTERNATING BETWEEN TWO
{SPACE}SHAPES srem 234
510 SYS EN,1,0:REM DISABLE SPRITE 1 srem 251
520 SYS JS,0,0:SYS DI,0,0:REM STOP MOVING SPRITE 0
srem 164
530 SYS AU,0,0:SYS BL,0,253sREM TURN AUTOSHAPE OFF
, DISPLAY FROWN FACE srem 151
540 FOR K=1 TO 999:NEXT:REM DELAY LOOP srem 199
550 SYS REsREM REMOVE srem 28
560 END srem 114
900 IF DN=8 THEN RETURN srem 62
910 PRINT "POSITION TAPE TO THE BEGINNING OF":PRIN
T F$;" AND PRESS RETURN" srem 164
920 WAIT 198,15:GET K $ :RETURN srem 167
58000 POKE SA,1sPOKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,1:SYS 65466:F$=
"SCS.OBJ"sGOSUB 59000 srem 116
58010 POKE SA,0:SYS 65493: IF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 591
00 srem 127
58020 IN=49664:RE=49667:RL=49670:RS=49673:DF=49676
sBL=49679:CO=49682:WI=49685 srem 172
58030 HE=49688:PO=49691:DI=49694:WR=49697:BO=49700
:MO=49703:LB=49706:RB=49709 srem 148
58040 TB=49712sBB=49715sFR=49718:UN=49721:PR=49724
:MU=49727:EN=49730:JS=49733 srem 149
58050 AU=49736:CH=49739 sRETURN srem 14
58100 GOSUB 58000 sSYS 51123,LAsLA=LA+1191sRETURN
srem 11
58400 POKE 49749,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE 49750,INT
(LA/256) srem 182
58410 READ JsPOKE 49751,JsFOR K=0 TO J sREAD JsPOKE
LA,J:LA=LA+1 srem 16
58420 IF J THEN FOR LA=LA TO LA+J-1:READ IsPOKE LA
,IsNEXT LA srem 92
58430 NEXT KsRETURN srem 168
58500 POKE SA,1sPOKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,0:SYS 65466:F$=
F$+".DEF"sGOSUB 59000 srem 24
394
 Chapter 12

58510 POKE SA,0 sPOKE SX,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE SY

,INT(LA/256) :rem 78
58520 SYS 65493:IF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 59100 srem 44
58530 LA=LA+1:POKE 49749,LA-256*INT(LA/256) sPOKE 4
9750,INT(LA/256) srem 167
58540 POKE 49751,PEEK(LA-1)sLA=PEEK(SX)+256*PEEK(S
Y):RETURN srem 31
59000 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$):POKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K)
)sNEXT :rem 88
59010 POKE SA,LEN(F$)sPOKE SX,73:POKE SY,2:SYS 654
69sRETURN srem 6
59100 P=PEEK(SA)SPRINT " ERRORS ";sIF P=4 THEN PRI
NT "FILE NOT FOUND"sEND srem 200
59110 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT"SEND
srem 36
59120 PRINT S T 8END srem 70

You'll also need to type in and save the file containing

the definitions used by the "DEM O #2'' program. That's this
next program, which is in machine language. The starting and
ending addresses you'll need for MLX are:
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49829
Filename: GOBBLER.DEF
Save it with the filename GOBBLER.DEF immediately after
the DEMO#2 program if you're using tape.
If you've got a Datassette, the procedure for loading the
three sections is the same as that for the DEM O#l program.
Refer to the explanation if you've forgotten the process.
Before you run DEMO#2, plug a joystick into port 2. Be
ready to move the joystick as soon as you see the sprites.
The motion of the first sprite, the one with the smiling
face, is controlled by the joystick. If you move this sprite past
the edge of the screen, it wraps around to the other side. Also
notice that this sprite changes shape when you change direc­
tions. There's a different shape for each of the eight directions,
plus a shape for when the sprite is stationary.
The second sprite alternates between two shapes and
chases the first sprite. The program ends when the second
sprite catches the first.
While all the action is taking place, the BASIC program is
doing only two things. It's alternating the second sprite be­
tween the two shapes, and it's watching for when the two
sprites collide.
395
 Program 12-6. GOBBLER.DEF 49320 :000,000, 000 ,000,000,000,168

396
To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language 49326 :000,000, 001 ,255,128,007,053
Editor (MLX)," a program found in Appendix C. 49332 5255,224, 015 ,255,240,031,176
49152 :011 ,054,000,000 ,000,000,065 49338 5255,248, 063 ,255,252,061,040
Chapter 12

49158 :000 ,000,000,000 ,000,001,007 49344 ;255,252 ,120 ,255,254,120,168

49164 s255 ,128,007,255 ,224,015,128 49350 5254,254, 125 ,252,254,063,120
49170 :255 ,240,031,159 ,248,063,246 49356 5252,252, 063 ,248,252,031,022
49176 :015 ,252,063,159 ,252,127,124 49362 5248,248, 015 ,240,240,007,184
49182 :255 ,254,031,255 ,254,007,062 49368 5240,224, 001 ,224,192,054,127
49188 :255 ,254,001,255 ,252,000,029 49374 5000,000, 000 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,000,222
49194 s127 ,252,063,255 ,248,031,250 49380 5000,000, 000 ,001,255,128,100
49200 s255 ,240,007,255 ,224,001,006 49386 s007,255, 224 ,007,255,240,198
49206 :255 ,128,054,000 ,000,000,235 49392 s007,255, 248 ,003,255,252,236
49212 :000 0 0 0 000,000 ,000,000,060
, , 49398 5003,252, 252 ,113,248,126,216
49218 :001 ,255,128,007 ,255,224,168 49404 5120,252, 254 ,124,255,254,231
49224 :015 ,255,240,031 ,249,248,086 49410 s062,255, 252 ,063,255,252,117
49230 :063 ,240,252,063 ,249,252,173 49416 s031,255, 248 ,015,255,240,028
49236 :127 ,255,254,127 ,255,248,070 49422 s007,255, 224 ,001,255,128,116
49242 :127 ,255,224,063 ,255,128,118 49428 5054,000, 000 ,000,000,000,074
49248 :063 ,254,000,031 ,255,252,183 49434 5000,000, 000 ,000 i 001,255,026
49254 :015 ,255,248,007 ,255,224,082 49440 5128,007, 255 ,224,015,255,148
49260 :001 ,255,128,054 ,000,000,034 49446 5224,031, 255 ,224,063,255,066
49266 :000 0 0 0 000,000 ,000,000,114 49452 5192,063, 063 ,192,126,031,199
, , 49458 5142,127, 063 ,030,127,255,026
49272 :000 ,003,007,128 ,007,015,024
49464 5062,063, 255 ,124,063,255,110
49278 :224 ,015,015,240 ,031,031,170
49470 s252,031, 255 ,248,015,255,094
49284 :248 ,063,031,252 ,063,063,084
49476 5240,007, 255 ,224,001,255,026
49290 :252 ,127,063,190 ,127,127,000
49296 :030 ,127,255,030 ,063,255,136 49482 , , ,
s128,054, 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 000,000
49488 5000,000, 000 ,000,000,001,081
49302 :188 ,063,255,252 ,031,255,170
49494 5255,128, 007 ,255,224,015,202
49308 :248 ,015,255,240 ,007,255,152
49500 5255,240, 031 ,255,248,063,160
49314 :224 ,001,255,128 ,054,000,056
 49506 :159,252, 063 ,015,252,127,198 49692 :000,248, 015 ,060,240,007,086
49512 :159,254, 127 ,255,254,127,000 49698 :255,224, 001 ,255,128,063,192
49518 :255,254, 063 ,031,252,060,001 49704 :002,170, 128 ,010,^70,160,168
49524 :063,252, 000 ,127,248,000,038 49710 :042,170, 168 ,169,105,106,038
49530 :255,240, 001 ,255,224,001,074 49716 :169,105, 106 ,171,107,106,048
49536 :255,128, 054 ,000,000,000,053 49722 s171,107, 106 ,171,107,106,058
49542 :000,000, 000 ,000 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ,134 49728 :170,170, 170 ,170,170,170,060
49548 :001, 255, 128 ,007,255,224,242 49734 :170,170, 170 ,170,105,170,001
49554 :015,255, 240 ,031,255,248,166 49740 s170,150, 170 ,170,170,170,052
49560 :063,249, 252 ,063,240,252,247 49746 s042,170, 168 ,042,170,168,074
49566 5127,249, 254 ,127,255,254,144 49752 :010,000, 160 ,010,000,160,172
49572 :127,255, 254 ,063,248,252,083 49758 :010,000, 160 ,042,128,160,082
49578 :063,252, 060 ,031,254,000,062 49764 :000,002, 168 ,062,002,170,248
49584 5015,255, 000 ,003,255,128,064 49770 :128,010, 170 ,160,042,170,018
49590 5001,255, 128 ,054,000,000,108 49776 :168,169, 105 ,106,169,105,166
49596 5000,000, 000 ,000,000,000,188 49782 s106,169, 233 ,234,169,233,238
49602 5000,001, 255 ,128,007,255,072 49788 :234,169, 233 ,234,170,170,054
49608 s224,015, 255 ,240,030,126,066 49794 :170,170, 170 ,170,170,170,126
49614 5120,060, 060 ,060,062,126,182 49800 :170,170, 105 ,170,170,150,047
49620 5124,127, 231 ,254,127,195,246 49806 :170,170, 170 ,170,042,170,010
49626 5254,115, 231 ,206,057,255,056 49812 :168,042, 170 ,168,010,000,194
49632 5156,060, 000 ,060,030,000,018 49818 :160,010, 000 ,160,010,000,238
49638 5120,015, 129 ,240,007,255,228 49824 :160,010, 002 ,168,042,128,158
49644 5224,001, 255 ,128,054,000,130
49650 5000,000, 000 ,000,000,000,242
49656 5000,000, 001 ,255,128,007,127
49662 5255,224, 015 ,255,240,030,249
49668 5126,120, 062 ,126,124,062,112
49674 5126,124, 127 ,231,254,127,231
49680 5195,254, 127 ,219,254,063,104

397
49686
Chapter 12

5255,252, 063 ,129,252,031,236

Chapter 12

Hi, Guy
This final program demonstrates a few other features of the
Sprite Control System. Enter Program 12-7 and save it with
the filename DEMO#3. Remember to change the value of DN
in line 120 to 1 if you're using the Datassette.

Program 12-7. DEMO#3

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 POKE 53280,12sPOKE 53281,0sPRINT M{CLR}{DOWN}

&5| SPRITE CONTROL SYSTEM DEMO #3" srem 184
110 PRINT " BY MARK THOMAS"sPRINT srem 188
115 PRINT:FOR K=1 TO 17 SPRINT "{6 SPACES}{RVS}
{4 SPACES}{OFF}{7 SPACES}{RVS}{5 SPACES}{OFF}
{7 SPACES}{RVS}{4 SPACES}"sNEXT srem 231
120 DN=8 sSA=780:SX=781:SY=782 sSP=783:REM DN=1 FOR
{SPACE}TAPE srem 181
125 F$="SCS.OBJ"sGOSUB 900 srem 200
130 GOSUB 58000sREM LOAD CONTROL SYSTEM srem 85
140 F$="GUY":LA=16384 sGOSUB 900:GOSUB 58500SREM LO
AD DEFINITIONS srem 8
300 SYS INsREM INSTALL srem 94
310 SYS DF,254,0:SYS DF,255,1:REM DEFINE BLOCKS
srem 175
320 SYS FR,1+2+4+8:REM FREEZE FIRST FOUR SPRITES
srem 117
330 REM SET FIRST PERSON srem 197
340 SYS CO,0,3,7,10:SYS CO,l,13:REM SET COLORS
srem 103
350 FOR SN=0 TO 1 srem 97
360 SYS M U ,SN,1sREM TURN ON MULTICOLOR MODE
srem 151
370 SYS W I ,SN,1s SYS HE,SN,Is REM SET DOUBLE WIDTH A
ND HEIGHT srem 36
380 SYS PO,SN,84,40+SN*42:REM SET POSITION srem 9
390 SYS JS,SN,2,3sREM SET JOYSTICK 2 CONTROL, 4 DI
RECTIONS, MOMENTUM srem 129
400 SYS MO,SN,1,1sREM SET SPEED srem 49
410 SYS WR,SN,1sREM TURN ON WRAPAROUND srem 110
420 SYS RB,SN,319-48sSYS TB,SN,SN*42:SYS BB,SN,199
-73+42*SNsREM SET BOUNDARIES srem 147
430 NEXT SN srem 119
440 REM SET SECOND PERSON srem 251
450 SYS CO,2,4sSYS CO,3,6:REM SET COLORS srem 80
460 FOR SN=2 TO 3 srem 103
465 SYS PR,SN,1s REM SET PRIORITY BEHIND SCREEN DAT
A srem 122

398
 Chapter 12

470 SYS MU,SN,1:REM TURN ON MULTICOLOR MODE

srem 153
480 SYS W I ,SN,1s SYS HE,SN,Is REM SET DOUBLE WIDTH A
ND HEIGHT srem 38
490 SYS PO,SN,180,102+(SN-2)*42 sREM SET POSITION
srem 23
500 SYS JS,SN,1,3sREM SET JOYSTICK 1 CONTROL, 4 DI
RECTIONS, MOMENTUM srem 120
510 SYS M O ,SN,1,1sREM SET SPEED srem 51
520 SYS BO,SN,IsREM TURN ON BOUNCE srem 17
530 SYS RB,SN,319-48sREM SET BOUNDARIES srem 80
535 SYS TB,SN,(SN-2)*42 sSYS BB,SN,199-73+42*(SN-2)
sREM SET BOUNDARIES srem 254
540 NEXT SN srem 121
550 SYS BL,0 ,254sSYS BL,l,255sSYS BL,2,254$SYS BL,
3,255sREM MAKE SPRITES APPEAR srem 47
560 SYS UN,1+2+4+8 sREM UNFREEZE SPRITES srem 101
570 IF (PEEK(56320)AND16) AND (PEEK(56321)AND16) G
OTO 570sREM WAIT FOR TRIGGER srem 36
580 SYS REsREMOVE SPRITE CONTROL SYSTEM srem 24
585 POKE 198,0sREM CLEAR KEY BUFFER srem 247
590 END srem 117
900 IF DN=8 THEN RETURN srem 62
910 PRINT M{CLR}{DOWNjPOSITION TAPE TO THE BEGINNI
NG OF"SPRINT F$;" AND PRESS RETURN" srem 72
915 PRINTS FOR K=1 TO 17sPRINT "{6 SPACES}{RVS}
{4 SPACES}{OFF}{7 SPACES}{RVS}{5 SPACES}{OFF}
{7 SPACES}{RVS}{4 SPACES}"sNEXT srem 239
920 WAIT 198,15 sGET K$ sRETURN srem 167
58000 POKE SA,1sPOKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,lsSYS 65466sF$=
"SCS.OBJ"sGOSUB 59000 srem 116
58010 POKE SA,0 sSYS 65493sIF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 591
00 srem 127
58020 IN=49664 sRE=49667 sRL=49670 sRS=49673 sDF=49676
sBL=49679 sCO=49682 sWI=49685 srem 172
58030 HE=49688 sPO=49691sDI=49694 sWR=49697 sBO=49700
sMO=49703 sLB=49706 sRB=49709 srem 148
58040 TB=49712 sBB=49715 sFR=49718 sUN=49721sPR=49724
sMU=49727 sEN=49730sJS=49733 srem 149
58050 AU=49736sCH=49739sRETURN srem 14
58100 GOSUB 58000sSYS 51123,LAsLA=LA+1191sRETURN
srem 11
58400 POKE 49749,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE 49750,INT
(LA/256) srem 182
58410 READ JsPOKE 49751,JsFOR K=0 TO J sREAD JsPOKE
LA,J sLA=LA+1 srem 16
58420 IF J THEN FOR LA=LA TOLA+J-1sREAD IsPOKE LA
,IsNEXT LA srem 92

399
Chapter 12

58430 NEXT KsRETURN srem 168

58500 POKE SA,1 :POKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,0:SYS 65466:F$=
F$+".DEF"sGOSUB 59000 srem 24
58510 POKE SA,0sPOKE SX,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE SY
»INT(LA/256) ' srem 78
58520 SYS 65493:IF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 59100 srem 44
58530 LA=LA+1sPOKE 49749,LA-256*INT(LA/256) sPOKE 4
9750,INT(LA/256) srem 167
58540 POKE 49751,PEEK(LA-l)sLA=PEEK(SX)+256*PEEK(S
Y)sRETURN srem 31
59000 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$)sPOKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K)
)sNEXT srem 88
59010 POKE SA,LEN(F$)sPOKE SX,73:POKE SY,2:SYS 654
69sRETURN srem6
59100 P=PEEK(SA)SPRINT " ERROR: ";:IF P=4 THEN PRI
NT "FILE NOT FOUND"sEND srem 200
59110 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT"sEND
srem 36
59120 PRINT STsEND srem70

Type in and save the following machine language file to

tape or disk. Your responses to MLX's prompts will be:
Starting Address: 49152
Ending Address: 49265
Filename: GUY.DEF
If you have a tape drive, place this file immediately after
"D EM O #3."

Program 12-8. GUY.DEF

To enter this program, you must use "The Machine Language Editor (MLX)," a program
found in Appendix C.

49152 s001,063,000,085,000,000,149
49158 :085,000,001,085,064,001,242
49164 s255,064,001,255,064,003,142
49170 s060,192,003,255,192,000,208
49176 :195,000,000,255,000,000,218
49182 5060,000,002,170,128,010,144
49188 :170,160,042,170,168,042,020
49194 s170,168,040,170,040,040,158
49200 s170,040,040,170,040,040,036
49206 s170,040,040,170,040,040,042
49212 :170,040,060,170,060,048,096
49218 :060,085,060,002,170,128,059
49224 s002,170,128,002,170,128,160
49230 5002,170,128,002,170,128,166
49236 5002,130,128,002,130,128,092
49242 5002,130,128,002,130,128,098

400
 Chapter 12

49248 5002,130,128,002,130,128,104
49254 5002,130,128,003,195,192,240
49260 5015,195,240,063,195,252,044
Loading from tape is identical to the previous two exam­
ples. Make sure you have the tape with the SCS.OBJ file
handy.
A joystick plugged into port 2 controls the figure on the
left. The figure actually consists of two sprites, one above the
other. The sprites are synchronized so that they move together
to create the appearance of one large object.
Also notice that the figure doesn't stop moving when you
stop pushing the joystick. Instead, it keeps moving in the cur­
rent direction. Another feature is that only four directions are
allowed. The joystick is ignored when it's pushed in a diag­
onal direction.
To make the other guy move, plug the joystick into port
1. The Sprite Control System can control sprites through either
joystick port, or even both at the same time. This second fig­
ure does not wrap around the screen, but simply rebounds off
the edges.
One other feature demonstrated by this program is the
foreground/background priority feature. The first figure (ini­
tially on the left) moves in front of the drawing on the screen,
while the second moves behind the drawing.
Press the joystick button to end this program.
These three demonstration programs have illustrated
many of the things possible with the Sprite Control System.
But this has been only an introduction. The next chapters will
show you how to design your own sprites using the Sprite
Editor, how to use the Sprite Control System in your own
BASIC programs, how to control sprites with joysticks, how to
automatically change their shapes, even how to detect sprite-
to-sprite collisions. You've just started. But as promised, you'll
find the Control System simple to use, easy to learn, and a
tremendous aid when it comes to anything dealing with
sprites.

401
Chapter 13

Defining Sprite Shapes

You've just seen how the Sprite Control System can quickly
and easily move and animate sprites on your Commodore 64's
screen. But before you can use the Control System, you have
to have some sprites. "The Sprite Editor" is a utility which
helps you design and create sprites, without the tedious task
of plotting on graph paper, counting up bit values, or even
retyping the sprite definition into the computer. The Editor
does all this for you. With this program and a joystick, it's
easy, even fun, to design sprite shapes.
Here's the listing for the Sprite Editor. Remember to
change DN = 8 in line 110 to D N = 1 if you're using tape.

Program 13-1. The Sprite Editor

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.
100 PRINT CHR$(147)SPRINT ” SPRITE DEFINITION EDIT
OR"sREM VI.0 srem 161
110 PRINT " BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN":DN=8sSA=780:SX=7
8 1 :SY=782;SP=783 sGOTO 800 srem 178
200 IF SN AND SN=NS AND SL=0 THEN NS=NS-1:TA=AS-1:
RETURN srem 23
205 IF SN>NS AND SL THEN NS=SNsAS=TA+1sSL%(SN)=0sT
A=AS srem 191
206 IF SN>NS THEN RETURN srem 182
210 IF SL=SL%(SN) GOTO 230 srem 130
220 SYS MV,AS+SL%(SN),TA-AS-SL%(SN),AS+SL sTA=TA-SL
%(SN)+SLsSL%(SN)=SL srem 224
230 SYS M V ,DB,SL,ASsRETURN srem 142
250 PRINT "{UP}" TAB(6) N ”{LEFT}{2 SPACES}"sFOR K
=1 TO 30 sNEXTsWAIT 56320,28,28 srem 122
260 P=PEEK(56320)sIF PAND4 GOTO 270 srem 141
262 IF N AND N<=NS THEN N=N-1sSL=SL%(N)sA=A-SL-1sS
YS 51257,A,SL,DB sGOTO 250 srem 229
264 IF N=0 AND SL%(NS) AND NS<MX THEN N=NS+lsSL=0s
SYS 51266sGOTO 250 srem 8
266 N=NS sSL=SL%(N)sA=TA-SLs SYS 51257,A,SL,DBsGOTO
{SPACE}250 srem 141
270 IF PAND8 GOTO 280 srem 86
272 IF N<NS THEN N=N+1sA=A+SL+1sSL=SL%(N)sSYS 5125
7 ,A,SL,DBsGOTO 250 srem 130
274 IF N=NS AND SL AND NS<MX THEN N=NS+1sSL=0sSYS
{SPACE}51266sGOTO 250 srem 99
276 N=0 sSL=SL%{0)sA=BA+2 sSYS 51257,A,SL,DBsGOTO 25
0 srem 126

403
Chapter 13

280 IF PAND16 GOTO 250 :rem 131

290 WAIT 56320,16:POKE 198,0:RETURN :rem 228
300 GOSUB 620:PRINT "EDITING" SN :rem 91
310 K=FRE(0):SYS 50832:SL=PEEK(SX):GET K$ :rem 117
320 IF K$="E" AND (NS OR SN OR SL) GOTO 500
:rem 110
325 IF K$="C" AND (NS OR SN OR SL) GOTO 510
:rem 114
330 IF K$="{INST}" THEN A=DB+3*PEEK(50983):SYS 505
11, A,E-A,A+3,A:GOTO 310 :rem 163
335 IF K$=CHR$(20) THEN A=DB+3*PEEK(50983):SYS 505
33,A+3,E-A,A :GOTO 310 srem 27
340 IF K$="{LEFT}" THEN SYS 50643:GOTO 310:rem 234
342 IF K$="{RIGHT}" THEN SYS 50671:GOTO 310
:rem 109
344 IF K$="{U P }" THEN SYS 50549:GOTO 310 :rem 231
346 IF K$="{DOWN}" THEN SYS 50568:GOTO 310:rem 106
350 IF K$="F" THEN SYS 50699:GOTO 310 :rem 159
355 IF K$="I" THEN SYS 50587:GOTO 310 :rem 163
360 IF K$="{F1}" THEN POKE 50371,170:GOTO 310
:rem 198
362 IF K$="{F3}" THEN POKE 50371,85:GOTO 310
:rem 158
364 IF K$="{F5}" THEN POKE 50?371,255:GOTO 310
:rem 208
370 IF K$ <>"{F2}" GOTO 373 :rem 181
371 GOSUB 640:IF N>=0 THEN POKE 53288,N:POKE 50373
-I-PEEK(50370), N :SYS 50735 :rem 27
372 GOTO 300 :rem 104
373 IF K$ <>"{F4}" GOTO 376 :rem 188
374 GOSUB 640:IF N>=0 THEN POKE 53285,N:POKE 50374
-PEEK(50370),N :SYS 50735 :rem 30
375 GOTO 300 :rem 107
376 IF K$ <>"{F6}" GOTO 380 :rem 187
377 GOSUB 640:IF N> = 0 THEN POKE 53286,N:POKE 50375
,N :SYS 50735 :rem 129
378 GOTO 300 :rem 110
380 IF K$ <>"{F8}" GOTO 390 :rem 184
381 GOSUB 640:IF N>=0 THEN POKE 53282,N :rem 84
382 GOTO 300 :rem 105
390 IF K$="M" THEN SYS 51179:GOTO 310 :rem 164
400 IF K$="W" THEN POKE 53277,NOTPEEK(53277)AND2:G
OTO 310 :rem 119
405 IF K$="H" THEN POKE 53271,NOTPEEK(53271)AND2:G
OTO 310 :rem 97
410 IF K$ <>"{CLR}" GOTO 420 :rem 179
412 GOSUB 620:PRINT "ERASE?":GOSUB 630:IF K$="Y" T
HEN SYS 51266 :rem 0
414 GOTO 300 :rem 101
420 IF K$="L" GOTO 520 :rem 49

404
 Chapter 13

430 IF K$="S " AND (NS OR SN OR SL) GOTO 530

:rem 129
440 IF K$=MD n AND (NS OR SN OR SL) GOTO 540
:rem 116
450 IF K$<>"Q" GOTO 310 :rem 115
452 GOSUB 620:PRINT "QUIT?":GOSUB 630:IF K$="N" GO
TO 300 :rem 102
454 POKE 648,4:SYS 51386:END :rem 31
500 GOSUB 200:IF TA>MT THEN F$="MEMORY FULL":GOTO
{SPACE}710 :rem 21
505 GOSUB 620:PRINT "EDIT":N=SN:A=AS:GOSUB 250:SN=
N:AS=A:GOTO 300 :rem 158
510 GOSUB 200:GOSUB 620:PRINT "COPY":N=SN:A=AS:GOS
UB 250:GOTO 300 :rem 73
520 GOSUB 620:PRINT "LOAD:";:F$="":GOSUB 670:IF F$
="" GOTO 300 :rem 75
521 GOSUB 660:SYS 51266:GOSUB 600 :rem 65
522 POKE SA,0:POKE SX,FNL(BA):POKE SY,FNH(BA):POKE
214,20:GOSUB 680 :rem 131
523 SYS 65493:GOSUB 690:IF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 700
:rem 179
524 IF PEEK(SX)+256*PEEK(SY)>MT THEN F$="NOT ENOUG
H MEMORY":GOTO 710 :rem 243
525 NS=PEEK(BA):A=BA+1:FOR K=0 TO N S :SL%(K )=PEEK(A
):A=A+SL%(K)+l:NEXT :rem 14
526 TA=A:SL= SL%(0):SYS 51260,A S ,SL,DB:GOTO 300
:rem 133
530 GOSUB 620:PRINT" S A V E F $ = " ":GOSUB 670:IF F$
= GOTO 300 :rem 91
531 GOSUB 200:POKE BA,NS:A=BA+1:FOR K=0 TO NS:POKE
A,SL%(K ):A=A+SL%(K )+ 1 :NEXT :rem 167
532 GOSUB 600:POKESA,251:POKE251,FNL(BA):POKE 25
2,FNH(BA) :rem 48
534 POKE SX,FNL(TA):POKE SY,FNH(TA):POKE 214,21:GO
SUB 680 :rem 82
535 SYS 65496:GOSUB 690:ON (PEEK(SP)AND1)+1 GOTO 3
00,700 :rem 51
540 GOSUB 620:PRINT "LINE:";:D$="" :rem 124
541 WAIT 198,15:GET K$:IF D$="" THEN ON (K$=CHR$(1
3))+2 GOTO 300,544 :rem 175
542 IF K$=CHR$(20) THEN PRINT K $ ;:D$=LEFT$(D$,LEN(
D$)-1):GOTO 541 :rem 6
543 IF K$=CHR$(13) THEN N=VAL(D $):GOTO 546:rem 245
544 IF VAL(D$)>6399 OR K$<"0" OR K$>"9" OR (K$="0"
AND D$="") GOTO 541 :rem 13
545 PRINT K$;:D$=D$+K$:GOTO 541 :rem 195
546 GOSUB 200:POKE BA,NS:A=BA+1:FOR K=0 TO N S :POKE
A,SL%(K):A=A+SL%(K)+l:NEXT :rem 173
547 GOSUB 620:P=BA:A=TA :rem 79

405
Chapter 13

550 PRINT NsPRINT "{UP}{2 R I G H T Q = 7 6 - L E N (STR$(N

)):D$=STR$(PEEK(P)) :rem 231
551 P=P+1:IF P=TA GOTO 554 :rem 150
552 K$=STR$(PEEK(P )):J=FRE(0) :rem 155
553 IF LEN(D $ )+LEN(K $ )<Q THEN D$=D$+","+MID$(K $ ,2)
:P=P+1:IF P<TA GOTO 552 :rem 107
554 R=A+6+LEN(D$):POKE A,FNL(R):POKE A+l ,FNH(R)
:rem 156
555 POKE A+2,FNL(N ) :POKE A+3,FNH(N ) :POKE A+4,131
:rem 144
556 FOR K=1 TO LEN(D$):POKE A+4+K,ASC(MID$(D$,K ))s
NEXT:POKE R-1,0:A=R :rem 116
557 IF A>MT THEN F$="NOT ENOUGH MEMORY":GOTO 710
:rem 5
558 IF P<TA THEN N=N+l:GOTO 550 :rem 195
559 POKE A,0:POKE A+l,0:A=A+2 :rem 39
560 GOSUB 620:PRINT " F I L E F $ = " ":GOSUB 670:IF F$
=""{2 SPACES}GOTO 300 :rem 79
561 POKE SA,1:POKE SX,DN:POKE SY,0:SYS 65466:F$=F$
+ " .DAT":GOSUB 610 :rem 85
562 POKE SA,251:POKE 251,FNL(TA):POKE 252,FNH(TA):
POKE SX,FNL(A ):POKE SY,FNH(A ) :rem 104
563 POKE 214,21sGOSUB 680:SYS 65496:GOSUB 690:ON (
PEEK(SP)AND1)+1 GOTO 300,700 :rem 27
600 POKE SA,1:POKE SX,DN:POKE SY,0:SYS 65466:F$=F$
+".DEF" :rem 244
610 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$):POKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K ) ) :
NEXT :rem 241
615 POKE SA,LEN(F $ ):POKE SX,73:POKE SY,2:SYS 65469
:RETURN :rem 163
620 POKE 214,22:PRINT:PRINT "{20 SPACES}":PRINT "
{UP}{2 SPACES}";:RETURN :rem 177
630 GET K$ :IF K $ o " Y " AND K$<>"N" GOTO 630 :rem 87
635 RETURN :rem 126
640 GOSUB 620:PRINT "ENTER COLOR:"; :rem 47
641 GET K $ :IF K$=CHR$(13) THEN N=-l:RETURN :rem 71
642 IF K$ < "0" OR K$> "9" GOTO 641 :rem 233
643 PRINT K $ ;:N=ASC(K $ )-48 :rem 201
644 GET K $ :IF K$=CHR$(13) THEN RETURN :rem 39
645 IF K$=CHR$(20) THEN PRINT K$;:GOTO 641 :rem 2
646 IF K<>1 OR K$<"0" OR K$>"5" GOTO 644 :rem 134
647 PRINT K$;:N=ASC(K $ )-38 :rem 204
648 GET K $ :IF K$=CHR$(13) THEN RETURN :rem 43
649 IF K$=CHR$(20) THEN PRINT K$;:N=l:GOTO 644
:rem 255
650 GOTO 648 :rem 118
660 NS=0:SN=0:AS=BA+2:SL=0:SL%(0)=0:TA=AS:RETURN
:rem 201
670 K=FRE(0):WAIT 198,15:GET K $ :IF K$<" " OR K$>"Z
” OR LEN(F $ )=12 GOTO 674 :rem 8

406
 Chapter 13

672 F$=F$+K${PRINT K$;:GOTO 670 :rem 203

674 IF K$=CHR$(20) AND F$>"" THEN PRINT K$?:F$=LEF
T$ (F$,LEN(F$)-1):GOTO 670 :rem 212
676 IF K$ <>CHR$(13) GOTO 670 :rem 167
678 RETURN srem 133
680 POKE 648,4:PRINT "{WHT}";POKE 53269,0{RETURN
:rem 199
690 POKE 53269,3:POKE 648,192{PRINT "{HOME}|43"{RE
TURN {rem 216
700 P=PEEK(SA){IF P=4 THEN F$="FILE NOT FOUND"{GOT
O 710 {rem 106
702 IF P=5 THEN F$="DEVICE NOT PRESENT"{GOTO 710
{rem 209
704 F$="ERROR"+STR$(ST) {rem 80
710 GOSUB 620{PRINT F${WAIT 198,15{GET K${GOTO 300
{rem 19
800 FOR K=50370 TO 51421{READ P{POKE K,P{NEXT
{rem 245
810 DB=50304{MV=50376{E=50367{DEF FNH(N)=INT(N/256
){DEF FNL(N)=N-256*FNH(N) {rem 209
815 SYS 51149{SYS M V ,53248,2048,53248{FOR K=53464
{SPACEjTO 53503{READ P{POKE K,P{NEXT {rem 124
820 SYS 51164 {POKE 648,192 {PRINT " { C L R H w HT} {H} " :S
YS 51272 {rem 82
835 FOR K=1 TO 21{PRINT "{2 SPACES}{RVS}[£[£[£[
£[£[£[£[£[£[£[£[£t"{NEXT srem 206
840 PRINT "{2 SPACES}{RVS}]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
-<E43{HOME}" {rem 64
845 FOR K=1 TO 8 {PRINT TAB(28) "{10 SHIFT-SPACE}"{
NEXT {rem 114
848 PRINT{FOR K=1 TO 12{READ F${PRINT TAB(28) F${N
EXT {rem 13
850 SYS 51246{SYS MV,DB,63,50176{SYS MV,DB,63,5024
0 {rem 58
860 FOR K=0 TO 18 STEP 3 {READ P,Q,R{POKE 50176+K.P
{rem 183
865 POKE 50240+K,Q:POKE50241+K,R{NEXT {rem 146
869 MX=255{DIM SL%(MX) {rem 243
870 BA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50)+500{MT=PEEK(51)+256*P
EEK(52)-500{GOSUB 660 {rem 170
890 POKE 53269,3{GOTO 300 {rem 62
900 DATA 0,170,1,14,2,7,32,70,197,132,251,133,252,
32,70,197,140,68,197,141,69 {rem 203
901 DATA 197,32,70,197,132,253,133,254,165,253,56,
229,251,170,165,254,229,252 {rem 235
902 DATA 236,68,197,237,69,197,144,35,160,0,174,69
,197,240,14,177,251,145,253 {rem 253
903 DATA 200,208,249,230,252,230,254,202,208,242,1
74,68,197,240,8,177,251,145 {rem 219

407
Chapter 13

904 DATA 253,200,202,208,248,96,173,69,197,168,101

,252,133,252,152,24,101,254 :rem 218
905 DATA 133,254,172,68,197,240,8,136,177,251,145,
253,152,208,248,174,69,197 srem 206
906 DATA 240,15,198,252,198,254,136,177,251,145,25
3,152,208,248,202,208,241,96 :rem 34
907 DATA 0,0,32,253,174,32,138,173,76,247,183,32,2
00,196,32,70,197,132,251,133 srem 4
908 DATA 252,169,0,160,2,145,251,136,16,251,76,47,
198,169,0,162,2,157,191,196 srem 233
909 DATA 202,16,250,32,200,196,76,47,198,162,2,189
,128,196,157,191,196,202,16 srem 242
910 DATA 247,162,0,32,176,199,76,47,198,162,2,32,1
76,199,162,2,189,191,196,157 srem 52
911 DATA 128,196,202,16,247,76,47,198,160,27,162,3
3.185.128.196.72.189.128.196 srem 56
912 DATA 153,128,196,104,157,128,196,185,129,196,7
2.189.129.196.153.129.196.104 srem 110
913 DATA 157,129,196,185,130,196,72,189,130,196,15
3,130,196,104,157,130,196,232 srem 87
914 DATA 232,232,136,136,136,16,206,48,92,162,60,1
72,194,196,189,128,196,10,62 srem 31
915 DATA 130,196,62,129,196,62,128,196,136,16,240,
202,202,202,16,232,48,64,162 srem 12
916 DATA 60,172,194,196,189,130,196,74,126,128,196
,126,129,196,126,130,196,136 srem 53
917 DATA 16,240,202,202,202,16,232,48,36,160,60,18
5,128,196,32,142,199,72,185 srem 219
918 DATA 130,196,32,142,199,153,128,196,185,129,19
6.32.142.199.153.129.196.104 srem 50
919 DATA 153,130,196,136,136,136,16,222,169,42,133
,97,169,216,133,98,169,2,133 srem 36
920 DATA 99,173,194,196,56,42,133,254,169,23,133,1
00,164,99,185,128,196,133,253 srem 95
921 DATA 162,8,165,253,37,254,168,185,196,196,164,
100,145,97,172,194,196,240,9 srem 52
922 DATA 198,100,70,253,202,164,100,145,97,198,100
,70,253,202,208,223,198,99 srem 174
923 DATA 165,100,16,208,165,97,24,105,40,133,97,14
4,2,230,98,165,99,24,105,6 srem 174
924 DATA 133,99,201,65,208,182,96,32,130,199,165,1
98.240.11.162.63.189.127.196 srem 44
925 DATA 208,3,202,208,248,96,173,0,220,73,15,41,1
5,240,6,32,40,199,32,130,199 srem 0
926 DATA 173,0,220,41,16,208,219,173,38,199,74,74,
74,133,254,173,39,199,10,109 srem 33
927 DATA 39,199,101,254,168,173,38,199,41,7,174,19
4.196.208.10.170.185.128.196 srem 58
928 DATA 93,26,199,76,251,198,74,170,189,34,199,17
0,45,195,196,133,254,138,57 srem 28

408
 Chapter 13

929 DATA 128,196,197,254,208,5,89,128,196,176,8,13

8,73,255,57,128,196,5,254,153 :rem 124
930 DATA 128,196,32,47,198,32,130,199,173,0,220,41
,16,208,130,173,0,220,73,15 :rem 203
931 DATA 41,15,240,240,32,40,199,76,181,198,128,64
,32,16,8,4,2,1,192,48,12,3,0 srem 249
932 DATA 0,172,39,199,74,144,5,136,16,2,160,20,74,
144,7,200,192,21,208,2,160,0 :rem 241
933 DATA 140,39,199,174,38,199,172,194,196,240,15,
74,144,6,202,202,16,2,162,22 :rem 23
934 DATA 74,144,20,232,208,11,74,144,5,202,16,2,16
2,23,74,144,6,232,224,24,208 :rem 240
935 DATA 1,170,142,38,199,173,38,199,10,10,10,105,
41,141,0,208,173,39,199,10,10 :rem 44
936 DATA 10,105,59,141,1,208,96,162,8,165,162,197,
162.240.252.202.208.247.96 :rem 178
937 DATA 174,194,196,208,11,162,8,10,102,253,202,2
08.250.165.253.96.162.4.10.38 :rem 57
938 DATA 254,10,102,253,70,254,102,253,202,208,243
,165,253,96,169,128,133,251 :rem 216
939 DATA 133,253,169,196,133,252,133,254,169,131,1
49,251,169,63,141,68,197,169 :rem 55
940 DATA 0,141,69,197,76,223,196,173,14,220,41,254
,141,14,220,165,1,41,251,133 :rem 249
941 DATA 1,96,165,1,9,4,133,1,173,14,220,9,1,141,1
4,220,96,173,194,196,170,73,1 :rem 42
942 DATA 141,194,196,24,105,16,168,189,42,200,141,
28,208,32,205,199,189,44,200 srem 22
943 DATA 162,6,157,225,208,202,16,250,32,220,199,7
8,38,199,14,38,199,140,248 :rem 194
944 DATA 195,32,107,199,173,197,196,174,198,196,14
2,197,196,141,198,196,76,47 :rem 40
945 DATA 198,2,0,255,127,169,0,160,62,153,128,196,
136,16,250,96,32,46,200,32 :rem 170
946 DATA 200,196,76,47,198,32,46,200,76,47,198,120
,169,217,141,40,3,169,200,141 :rem 74
947 DATA 41,3,88,173,2,221,9', 3,141,2,221,173,0,221
,41,252,141,0,221,169,4,141 :rem 176
948 DATA 24,208,169,11,141,32,208,169,1,141,33,208
,169,0,141,34,208,141,35,208 :rem 0
949 DATA 141,39,208,141,27,208,141,28,208,169,91,1
41,17,208,169,16,141,248,195 :rem 35
950 DATA 169,18,141,249,195,169,8,141,2,208,169,2,
141,23,208,141,29,208,141,16 ;rem 18
951 DATA 208,169,66,141,3,208,169,14,141,40,208,16
9.2.141.37.208.169.7.141.38 :rem 227
952 DATA 208,76,107,199,120,169,237,141,40,3,169,2
46,141,41,3,88,173,2,221,9,3 :rem 16
953 DATA 141,2,221,173,0,221,9,3,141,0,221,76,129,
255.169.255.201.127.96 :rem 212

409
Chapter 13

960 DATA 0,127,127,127,127,127,127,127,0,127,127,1

27,127,127,127,127,0,255,255 srem 5
961 DATA 255,255,255,255,255,127,127,127,127,127,1
27,127,127,127,255,255,255 srem 196
962 DATA 255,255,255,255 srem 175
970 DATA EDIT,COPY,LOAD,SAVE,DATA,QUIT,,FLIP,INVER
T,MULTICOLOR,WIDTH,HEIGHT srem 241
980 DATA 254,255,254,198,192,6,198,192,6,198,192,6
,198,192,6,198,192,6,254,255 srem 76
981 DATA 254 srem 87

Plug a joystick into port 2 and run the program. It takes a

moment to initialize. You'll see a 24 X 21 grid on the left side
of the screen. In the upper-right corner will be a black square,
and below that a list of some of the editing commands. At the
bottom of the screen the message EDITING 0 appears, indicat­
ing that you're currently editing definition number 0.

Joystick Editing
The cursor is displayed in the grid as a small box with thick
edges. Push the joystick in any of the eight directions to move
the cursor from one grid square to another. If you move the
cursor off one side of the grid, it wraps around to the other
side.
Press the joystick button to fill a square. To fill an area or
draw a line, hold down the button while you push the joy­
stick. Erasing is just as simple; move the cursor to the desired
square and press the button again. If you hold the button
down and move the cursor over filled areas, you can erase en­
tire sections.
As you edit on the large grid, you'll notice that the shape
is displayed as an actual sprite in the black square at the top-
right corner of the screen. This can give you an idea of what
the sprite will look like in a BASIC program.
The remainder of this chapter explains each of the Sprite
Editor's features and commands. As you read, try them out
with a shape you've drawn on the editing grid.

T he Sprite Editor Commands and Features

Flip and Invert. To flip the current definition left to right,
press the F key. This gives you a mirror image of the defi­
nition. Of course, the change will not be noticeable if the defi­
nition is symmetrical. Press the I key to invert the definition.
This turns the definition upside down.
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 Chapter 13

Scrolling. Use the cursor keys (along with the SHIFT key
to move up or left) to scroll the shape in any of four
directions.
Insert. Sometimes it's necessary to expand or contract a
sprite definition. To expand it, move the cursor to the row
where you want the expansion to occur and press the SHIFT
and INST/DEL keys at the same time. The row on which the
cursor is positioned, and all the rows below it, will scroll
down one row to create a gap. The bottom row will scroll off
the grid and will not be recoverable.
Delete. This contracts a sprite definition. Press the DEL
key (unSHIFTed INST/DEL) to delete the row on which the
cursor is currently positioned. All the rows below the cursor
will scroll up one row to fill in the gap.
Erase. To clear the editing grid, press SHIFT-CLR/HOME
and then hit the Y key in response to the ERASE? prompt. If
you accidentally hit SHIFT-CLR/HOME, press the N key to
cancel the clear.
Change color. You can change the color of the sprite at
any time. This color, however, does not necessarily have to be
the same color that will be used to display the sprite in
BASIC.
To change the current color, press the f2 key (SHIFT and
fl together). When the prompt ENTER COLOR: appears, type
a color number from 0 to 15. The color numbers are listed in
the Commodore 64 User's Guide. The color changes as soon as
you press the RETURN key. Notice that the color changes in
both the editing grid and in the shape box in the upper-right
corner.
If you decide not to change the color, just press the RE­
TURN key without entering a number. The color will not be
changed.
You can also change the background color of the box in
the upper right. Press the f8 key (SHIFT and f7 keys) and en­
ter the number of the desired color. This feature shows you
how a sprite will look on different background colors.
To set the box background back to black, press the f8 key
and enter 0.
Width and Height. Press the W key to make the sprite
shown in the upper right alternate between normal and double
width. Press the H key to alternate the sprite between normal
and double height. You can use these keys in combination to

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Chapter 13

reduce or enlarge the sprite in either, or both, directions.

Like the color change feature, this is provided for editing
purposes only. The size chosen in the Editor has no effect on
the size used when the sprite is displayed by a BASIC
program.
Multicolor. The Sprite Editor also supports multicolor
mode editing. In multicolor mode, a sprite can display up to
three different colors, instead of just one. The only trade-off is
that the horizontal resolution of the sprite is reduced from 24
to 12 pixels across.
Press the M key to switch to multicolor mode. The grid
will change to show a grid 12 X 21. Any previous drawing
will appear as garbage, so you may also want to press SHIFT-
CLR/HOME.
Push the joystick and press the trigger as normal to fill in
the squares with the first color. To change to the second color,
press f3. All subsequent drawing is now done in the second
color. Press the f5 key to switch to the third color. When you
want to return to the first color, press the fl key.
Key effect, fl: Draw using first color; f3: Draw using sec­
ond color; f5: Draw using third color.
If you want to change one of these colors, just press
SHIFT with the corresponding function key. Recall that you
pressed f2 (SHIFT and fl) to change the first color when you
were in normal color mode. Press f4 (SHIFT-f3) or f6 (SHIFT-
f5) to change the second or third color.
Key effect. f2: Change first color; f4: Change second
color; f6: Change third color.
Changing a color does not change which color is currently
used for drawing. This means that if you're filling in squares
with the first color and then press f6 to change the third color,
the third color will change, but drawing will continue with the
first color.
Press the M key a second time to turn off the multicolor
mode. The drawing in the grid will appear distorted again.
Edit. The Sprite Editor lets you edit multiple definitions.
In fact, the program can handle up to 256 definitions, but it's
doubtful that you'll ever need that many.
The Edit feature is used to switch from one definition to
another. The program won't let you use this feature until at
least one of the squares in definition 0 has been filled. Once
definition 0 has been edited, definition 1 can be accessed.
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To switch from one definition to another, select the Edit

feature by pressing the E key. Now as you push the joystick
left or right, the grid will switch between definitions 0 and 1.
Definition 1 will be blank because it has not been edited yet.
To edit definition 1, push the stick until definition 1 appears,
press the joystick button to select that grid, and then begin
editing. The message at the bottom of the screen should now
read EDITING 1.
As soon as you've filled some of the squares in definition
1, you can press the E key and push the stick left or right to
select definition 0, 1, or 2. You can go back to definition 0,
continue editing definition 1, or create a new definition 2. Just
press the joystick button when you see the desired definition.
After definition 2 has been defined, definition 3 can be
accessed, and so on. This process of creating new definitions
one at a time can be continued for as long as necessary.
When you have a sequence of definitions, press the E key
and push the joystick left or right to cycle through them all.
This creates an animation effect. For example, you could de­
fine a sequence of definitions to show a person walking. The
person's legs are in a slightly different position in each defi­
nition. Pressing the E key and cycling through the definitions
will make the person appear to walk.
The number of definitions is reduced whenever the last
one is erased. For instance, if definitions 0 through 6 have
been edited, pressing the E key lets you cycle through defi­
nitions 0 to 7. Definition 7 will be blank because it has not
been defined yet. But if definition 6 is erased, it will be blank,
so the Edit feature will only cycle through definitions 0 to 6.
This happens only when the last definition is erased. If
definitions 0 to 6 have been edited and you erase definition 3,
you'll still be able to access all the definitions. Definition 3
will just be blank.
One final note is that when you press the E key, the other
editing features won't work until you select a definition. If it
seems that the keyboard has locked up, it's probably because
you forgot to press the joystick button to select a definition.
Copy. Use this feature to copy a definition into the cur­
rent definition space. This can be a very handy feature when
two definitions are very similar to each other. For example,
definition 0 may show a figure walking to the left. You want
definition 1 to show the same figure, only walking to the

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Chapter 13

right. Instead of drawing definition 1 from scratch, it's a lot

easier to copy definition 0 into definition 1 and then use the F
key to flip the definition.
To use the Copy feature, make sure you're in the destina­
tion definition, the one that is going to be changed. You
should see the prompt EDITING n, where n is the number of
the definition. Press the C key and push the stick left or right.
When you come to the source definition, the one you want to
copy to the destination definition, press the joystick button.
You'll now be editing the destination definition. (The source
definition has not been altered.)
Let's run through an example. You want to copy defi­
nition 2 into definition 4. Definition 4 is the destination, defi­
nition 2 is the source. Make sure you're currently editing
definition 4. If not, use the Edit feature to select it. Then press
the C key, push the joystick until definition 2 appears, and
press the button. Definition 4 now matches definition 2. Defi­
nition 2, remember, has not been changed.
Save. The Save feature is used to store the current set of
definitions as a tape or disk file. This file can later be loaded
by a BASIC program, or retrieved for more editing by the
Editor.
To save the current definitions, press the S key and enter
a filename up to 12 characters long. You may have noticed in
Chapter 12 that the definition filenames have the extension
.DEF— don't include this in the filename. It's automatically
added by the Editor.
If you're saving the file to disk, be sure that the filename
is not already in use to avoid the FILE EXISTS error. If an er­
ror does occur, the drive light will start to flash. The only error
reported by the program is the DEVICE NOT PRESENT error.
The normal PRESS PLAY & RECORD ON TAPE prompt
will not appear if you're using the Datassette, so you'll have to
remember to press both the buttons yourself. Also make sure
that the tape has been advanced to an unused area so that
you're not overwriting another program you may want intact.
If you accidentally press the S key and don't want to save
a file, just press the RETURN key without entering a filename.
When you are defining a lot of shapes, it's a good idea to
periodically save your work. There may be a power failure, or
surge, which could erase all your work currently in memory.

414
 Chapter 13

Load. Use this feature to retrieve a set of definitions

stored on tape or disk by the Save feature.
Since loading a new set of definitions erases those already
in memory, you may want to save the current definitions
before using Load.
To load a definition file, press the L key and enter the de­
sired filename. The requested file is loaded into memory,
replacing the current definitions. If you're using disk, the error
FILE NOT FOUND will be reported if the requested file is not
on the disk.
If you're using the Datassette, there will be no PRESS
PLAY ON TAPE prompt, so you must remember to press the
PLAY button on the Datassette. Be careful that you don't also
press the RECORD button.
If you accidentally press the L key and don't want to load
a new file, just press the RETURN key without entering a
filename. The current definitions will not be erased.
(Note: The Load feature can be used to load the definition
files used by the demonstration programs you earlier typed in
from Chapter 12.)
Errors. If you get an error while using the Sprite Editor,
such as DEVICE NOT PRESENT or FILE NOT FOUND, the
program will wait for you to press a key to acknowledge the
error. You can then continue editing, or try to load or save
again.
Data. This feature lets you save the definition information
to tape or disk in the form of DATA statements. The DATA
statements can then be merged with a BASIC program.
To create the file of DATA statements, press the D key.
The Editor will ask for a starting line number, the line number
used for the first DATA statement. Line numbers will be in­
cremented by one for the succeeding DATA statements.
After you enter the starting line number and press RE­
TURN, the Editor begins building the DATA statements in
memory. The line number is displayed as the line is built. This
process takes awhile.
The Sprite Editor then asks for a filename before it saves
the file. Type in a filename (up to 12 characters long). The
Editor automatically adds the extension .DAT to the filename
and saves the file to tape or disk. As with the Save feature,
you should choose a filename not already in use on your disk.
Since the prompts do not appear, remember to press both the

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Chapter 13

PLAY and RECORD buttons if you're using the Datassette.

The file created by the Data feature is an actual program
which can be loaded in BASIC. A merge utility is provided in
Appendix E to help you append this data file with other
programs.
If the Editor reports the error NOT ENOUGH MEMORY
while it's building DATA lines, it means that the current defi­
nition file is too large to be converted. Use Program 16-2, “Ex­
tract” to break the file into two parts, then convert each to
DATA statements. Be aware, however, that the DATA lines
for large definition files eat up memory very quickly and are
usually not practical.
The Load feature can load only definition files stored by
the Save feature and cannot be used to load definition files
stored as DATA statements by the Data feature. Therefore,
whenever you store the definitions as a file of DATA state­
ments, it's a good idea also to save the definitions with the
Save feature, in case you want to modify them later.
To cancel the Data feature, press the RETURN key instead
of entering either the starting line number or the filename.
The advantage of storing sprite definitions as data in a
program is that when the program runs, one less file has to be
loaded. Each time you ran Program 12-3, “D EM O #l," for in­
stance, it had to load both “SCS.OBJ” and a definition file. If
you're using the Datassette, it can take awhile for these two
files to be found and loaded. Storing the definitions in DATA
statements in the program eliminates the need for loading the
second file.
If you choose not to use the Sprite Control System ma­
chine language routines for sprite motion, you can still use the
Sprite Editor to create definitions and convert them to DATA
statements. The format used to store definitions as data is very
simple.
Here's a sample sprite definition data file. It's what you
could use in your own BASIC program to recreate the bunny
shape you saw in Chapter 12.
The first data number is the number of definitions minus
one. For example, if you have a set of four definitions, num­
bered 0 to 3, the first data number will be a 3. Notice that in
Program 13-2, the first number is 0. It indicates that there's
only one definition.

416
 Chapter 13

Program 13-2. Bunny Data

3000 DATA 0,63,12,0,48,15,129,240,12,195,48,12,102
,48,7,102,224,3,231,192,0,195
3001 DATA 0,1,255,128,3,24,192,7,255,224,12,60,48,
15,0,240,7,255,224,0,255,0,28
3002 DATA 60,56,7,60,224,1,255,128,48,126,12,124,6
0,62,127,60,254,255,255,255

The next number specifies the number of bytes in the first

definition. This number can range from 0, if the definition is
empty, to 63, if the definition is full. The bunny definition is
full, for it has 63 bytes. If the definition is not empty, the
following data numbers form the actual definition. If the
length is less than the full 63 bytes, the remaining bytes in the
definition block should be set to 0.
Assume that the second data number indicates the defi­
nition is 43 bytes long. The next 43 numbers form the sprite
definition, and the remaining 20 bytes in the definition block
would all be set to 0.
This format, a length byte followed by 0 to 63 definition
bytes, is repeated for each definition.
Quit. When you're finished editing and have saved your
work, press the Q key and type Y in response to the QUIT?
confirmation prompt. The program ends and returns you to
BASIC. If you accidentally press the Q key and don't want to
quit the Editor yet, just press N to cancel.
Note that the RUN/STOP key has been disabled to pre­
vent you from accidentally stopping the program without hav­
ing a chance to save your created definitions or convert them
to DATA statements. The only way to exit the Sprite Editor is
to use the Quit command.

Sprites and More Sprites

What sprites you design with the Editor are, of course, up to
you. The Editor is only a tool. It can't design the sprites for
you, it can only make that design easier. That's the purpose of
this program, and it fills that purpose very well. You can cre­
ate several sprites with the Editor in the time that it used to
take you to design just one on paper. Better yet, since the Edi­
tor is so easy to use, and because it does so much for you, you

417
Chapter 13

can almost forget about the mechanics and concentrate just on

sprite design. In a matter of a few minutes, you can have a
handful of intricate sprite shapes ready to be placed in motion
or animation.
To do that, however, you need to know more about the
Sprite Control System, the machine language routines which
make it simple to move and control sprites from BASIC pro­
grams. That's what Chapter 14 is all about.

418
Chapter 14

Using the Sprite Control

System in BASIC

Moving and controlling sprites in a BASIC program can be a

difficult task. Simply getting a sprite across the invisible
"seam " on the screen means POKEs and constant checking.
Even more complicated sprite movements are almost impos­
sible in BASIC, especially if you're planning on having more
than one or two sprites on the screen at the same time. The
more sprites, the more time it takes for your Commodore 64
to execute the commands. In BASIC, this can slow a program
down to a crawl.
That's why you see so many programs with sprites writ­
ten in machine language. Machine language gives you the
speed to move all eight sprites on the screen at once, without
slowing anything down. Unfortunately, not everyone knows
how to write machine language programs. If you're like most
people, you learned to program in BASIC. And even if you do
know machine language programming, BASIC is often the lan­
guage of choice, for it's simple to write.
With the Sprite Control System, first demonstrated in
Chapter 12, you can move and control sprites with the speed
of machine language, but from the convenience of your own
BASIC program. Just like the demonstration programs in
Chapter 12, your BASIC programs, whether they're spread­
sheets or arcade games, can call on the Control System.

Sophisticated
The Sprite Control System, sophisticated as it is, requires you
to follow a very specific procedure when you use it with a
BASIC program. Because of the Control System's power, this
may seem complicated at first. It can be a bit involved. But
with some practice, you'll soon find it second nature.
This procedure consists of calling two subroutines in
BASIC and using several SYS statements. To help you learn
this procedure, we'll go through it step by step in the immedi­
ate mode (without using line numbers). As you become more
familiar with them, the steps will seem both simple and
logical.

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Every program that uses the Sprite Control System must

contain the lines in the "SCS.BA S" file (Program 12-1), so
before you begin, load these lines into memory with the
command:
LOAD "SC S.B A S"
Make sure you add 8 if you're using a disk. You'll now exe­
cute several statements in the immediate mode, in the order
that they would actually be used in a program calling the
Sprite Control System.

Variable Assignments
The first step is to perform the standard assignments that have
been used throughout this book in preparation for SYS calls
and disk and tape file input/output (I/O). Enter the following
statement. As always, change the DN = 8 to DN = 1 if you're
using the Datassette.
DN= 8:SA = 780:SX= 781:SY= 782:SP=783

Load Machine Language Routines

Now that these variables have been assigned, you can load
the "SCS.OBJ" file (Program 12-2), which contains the ma­
chine language routines. To do this, make sure that the pro­
gram is on the disk currently in the drive or that the
Datassette contains the tape with the program. Type in the
following line. It calls the subroutine at line 58000.
GOSUB 58000
Besides loading the SCS.OBJ file, this subroutine assigns
several more variables that will be used later in SYS
statements.

Load Definitions
You also need to load a definition file. For this demonstration,
use the bunny definition from Chapter 12. To load the defi­
nition file, you must assign the filename to a string variable,
specify a LOAD address, and call a subroutine.
Assign the name of the definition file to the variable F$.
Do not include the .DEF extension as part of the filename.
Assuming that you called the file BUNNY, you'd type:
F $="B U N N Y "

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The LOAD address is set to be in the middle of free mem­

ory with the statement:
L A =16384
Finally, call the subroutine at 58500 to load the defi­
nitions with:
GOSUB 58500
You've just loaded the "BUNNY.DEF" file.

Install Sprite Control System

Next, use the following SYS statement to install the Control
System. This SYS call establishes a raster scan interrupt and
initializes sprite graphics.
SYS IN
This SYS call should be done only once, and must be
done before you use any of the Control System SYS calls de­
scribed below.
In case you're wondering, the variable IN, which stands
for INstall, was assigned by the subroutine at 58000. You
could have used SYS 49664 instead, the value assigned to IN.
But it's much easier to remember variable names than the
corresponding numbers.
The only problem is that you must type the variable name
exactly. Remember that all variables have an initial value of 0.
If you make a mistake and type a variable name which has
not been assigned, the address for the SYS statement will be
interpreted as location 0, and the computer may crash. The
keyboard may lock up, and the screen may be altered.
If the computer does crash, no permanent damage has
been done. Just turn the power off and back on, and start over
from the beginning of the procedure. To avoid this inconven­
ience, be careful as you're typing.
(Note: Since entering a program line clears all variables,
do not enter any program lines while working in the immedi­
ate mode.)

Define Block
To make a sprite appear, you have to give it a shape. Unfortu­
nately, it's not possible to directly assign one of the definitions
loaded from the definition file to a sprite. Instead, you have to
copy a definition into a definition block, and then assign the
definition block to the sprite.
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Sprite memory is divided into 64-byte sections. These sec­

tions are called definition blocks and are numbered from 0 to
255. Each block can hold one definition.
To define a block with one of the definitions loaded in the
file, you'll use the following SYS statement format:
SYS DF,block num ber,definition num ber
(The SYS statement normally allows only one number after
the keyword, but the machine language routines of the Sprite
Control System have been designed so that several numbers
can be used.)
Let's assume that block 255 is available. The BUNNY.DEF
file contains only one definition, numbered 0, so to define
block 255 with definition 0, enter the statement:
SYS DF,255,0
Definition 0 has now been copied into block 255. Block
255 is ready to be assigned to a sprite.
For now, you'll be using only block 255. A more complete
discussion on which definition blocks are available is provided
in the next chapter.
The preceding SYS calls have been general system calls.
The SYS IN installs the Sprite Control System so that sprites
can be used, and SYS DF defines blocks that can be used by
all of the sprites.
Now that the general SYS calls have been issued, you can
take a look at SYS statements which pertain to an individual
sprite. Each of the following SYS statements contains a sprite
number to identify which sprite is to be affected. The letters
SN represent this Sprite Number. For purposes of demonstra­
tion, you'll use only sprite 0.

Assign Block to Sprite

The following statement format assigns a block to a sprite to
give it a shape and make it appear.
SYS BL,SN ,block number
You've already defined block 255, so to make sprite 0 ap­
pear, enter:
SYS BL,0,255
The sprite should appear in the upper-left corner of the
screen. If it didn't display, you've made an error somewhere in

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the procedure. Double-check what you typed in (much of it

should still be on the screen) or begin again.

Set Sprite Color

The format to set a sprite's color is:
SYS CO,SN ,color num ber
where color number ranges from 0 to 15. The default color of
sprite 0 is white, or color 1. Type in the following to change
sprite 0's color to light red (color 10). You can find the color
numbers listed in the Commodore 64 User's Guide.
SYS CO,0,10

Set Sprite Size

One of the interesting features of sprites on the Commodore
64 is the ability to enlarge, both horizontally and vertically, a
sprite shape. To do this with the Sprite Control System, use
the following statements:
SYS WI,SN,0 to select normal width (default)
SYS WI,SN,1 to select double width
SYS HE,SN,0 to select normal height (default)
SYS HE,SN,1 to select double height
For instance, to expand sprite 0 to twice its normal width,
just type:
SYS WI,0,1
When you double the width of a sprite, the expansion al­
ways occurs to the right. Doubling the height makes the sprite
expand downward. Let's expand the bunny's height as well
with this statement:
SYS HE,0,1

Set Sprite Position

Another vital part of sprite manipulation is its position. You
have a huge number of possible positions for any sprite—
62,400 to be exact. Placing a sprite at any of these locations
insures that at least part of the sprite will appear on the
screen.
To position a sprite, you'll use this format:
SYS PO,SN,X,Y

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where X and V represent points on a coordinate system. This

system is the same as the one used for bitmapped graphics in
Part 2. Take a look at Figure 14-1 to see how the coordinates
are mapped out.

Figure 14-1. Sprite Position Coordinates

0,0 x

()

n ^ x - <1-10

I S >9
_______________________________________

319,199

The coordinates you specify refer to the upper-left corner

of the sprite. For example, if a sprite is moved to the position
80,120, the upper-left pixel of the sprite appears at this po­
sition. The rest of the definition is displayed below and to the
right of this location.
The default position of a sprite is 0,0, known as the home
position. Let's move sprite 0 out of the home position. To
move sprite 0 to the center of the screen, enter this statement.
SYS PO,0,160,100
Remember that the position refers to the upper-left corner of
the sprite. That's why the sprite may not seem to be actually
centered on the screen.
Type in this statement to move sprite 0 to the right edge
of the screen.
SYS PO,0 ,3 1 9 - 24,100

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The 24 was subtracted from the rightmost position to ac­

count for the sprite width. If the X coordinate was 319, only
the leftmost edge of the sprite would be visible. But because
you earlier expanded the sprite horizontally, you still see only
part of the shape. Reduce the sprite to normal size by
entering:
SYS WI,0,0
and
SYS HE,0,0
Now the entire sprite should be visible. The rightmost edge of
the shape just fits on the screen.
This statement places sprite 0 in the lower-right corner of
the screen.
SYS P O ,0 ,3 1 9 -24,199-21
To make sure all the sprite stayed on the screen, 21 was
subtracted from the maximum Y coordinate. The numbers
which are subtracted need to be adjusted if the sprite is dis­
played with double width or height.
Negative values or values greater than 319 or 199 may be
used to position a sprite so that it's partially off the screen.
When this is done, the part off the screen is covered by the
border.
SYS P 0 ,0 , - 1 0 , - 1 0
You can even make the sprite disappear from the screen
display area altogether. This feature can be used to make a
sprite appear to vanish without actually disabling or turning
off the sprite. Try this:
SYS PO,0,—10,—30
Now the bunny is completely hidden. You can bring it back
on the screen with something like:
SYS PO,0,160,100
All of the above SYS calls have dealt with a sprite's
appearance— how and where the sprite is displayed. The
following SYS calls deal with motion.

Set Sprite Direction

Moving the sprite is just as simple as placing it. The move­
ment statement format is:
SYS DI,SN ,direction num ber
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where direction number refers to one of the eight directions.

Figure 14-2 illustrates the directions and their numbers.

Figure 14-2. Sprite Direction Numbers

Go ahead and enter this statement. Try several different

direction numbers. To make sprite 0 move up and to the left,
for instance, type:
SYS DI,0,7
You can change the direction at any time. To stop a
sprite's movement, use 0 for the direction number.

Select Wraparound or Bounce

You've already noticed that the screen edges act as boundaries
which limit a sprite's motion. When a sprite reaches one of
these boundaries, it stops moving.
You may elect instead to have the sprite wrap around to
the opposite side of the screen when it reaches a boundary. To
select the wraparound option, you'll use the following format:
SYS WR,SN,1
Thus, to select the wraparound option for sprite 0, you'd
use:
SYS WR,0,1
Sprite 0 will now move continuously, as long as the direction
set by SYS DI is a value from 1 to 8.

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The wraparound option is turned off by:

SYS WR,SN,0
Another boundary option is bounce. With this option se­
lected, a sprite reverses direction whenever it hits a boundary.
This was used in Program 12-3, "D E M O #!."
Turning on the bounce option requires this format:
SYS BO ,SN ,l
Selecting bounce for sprite 0 just needs:
SYS BO,0,1
Bounce is turned off by:
SYS BO,SN,0
The wraparound and bounce options cannot be used at
the same time. Turning on one turns off the other.
For the next few examples, the sprite needs to continue
moving, so leave the bounce option turned on.

Set Sprite Speed

When a sprite's direction is other than 0, it appears to move
because its position is changed at regular intervals. This inter­
val is called a frame and lasts 1/60 second (1/50 second on
European Commodore 64s). A value is added to either or both
of the sprite's coordinates each frame, depending on the cur­
rent direction.
If this value is 1, the sprite moves one position every
frame. If the value is larger, the sprite moves several positions
each frame so that it appears to move faster. To control the
speed of a sprite, then, all you have to do is specify how far it
should be moved each frame.
To set the speed of a sprite, you'll use this format:
SYS M O ,SN ,delta X,delta Y
The delta values are the offsets added to the position co­
ordinates each frame, and can range from 0 to 7. The larger
the delta value, the further the sprite moves in that direction
each frame, so the faster it appears to move.
The default values are 2 for delta X and 1 for delta Y. To
see sprite 0 move a little faster, enter:
SYS MO,0,3,3
A sprite can move extremely fast. Enter this statement to
see sprite 0 move at top speed.
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SYS MO,0,7,7
It's almost out of control!
A delta value of 0 prevents a sprite from moving in the
corresponding direction. Let's try it out. The next statement
sets the delta Y value at 0, so the sprite never moves verti­
cally, no matter which direction number is used. All the sprite
does is bounce back and forth across the screen.
SYS MO,0,3,0
Slow the sprite down by typing:
SYS MO,0,1,1
This is pretty slow, but for some applications this speed
may still not be slow enough. To make the speed even slower,
add a ,1 to the end of the SYS MO statement. This selects the
half-speed option.
SYS MO,0,1,1,1
When the half-speed option is in effect, a sprite moves
every other frame. For the best results, use this option only
with delta X and delta Y set to 1. Motion appears too jerky
when other delta values are used.
To return to normal speed, either remove the ,2 or change
it to 0.
SYS MO,0,1,1
or
SYS MO,0,1,1,0
Though it might be easier to remember the variable name
SP (for SPeed), that variable is already used for tape and disk
I/O SYS calls. The variable name MO, representing MOtion,
is used instead.

Set Sprite Boundaries

The movement boundaries are normally set at the screen
edges, but they can be changed. To modify a boundary, use
one of these SYS statement formats.
SYS Call Boundary
SYS LB,SN,X Left
SYS RB,SN,X Right
SYS TB,SN,Y Top
SYS BB,SN,Y Bottom

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X and Y refer to the normal coordinate locations. If you

wanted to move the top boundary for sprite 0 down to the
middle of the screen, for example, you could use:
SYS TB,0,100
Sprite 0 is now confined to the bottom half of the screen.
The default values for the boundaries are:
Boundary Default Values
Left 0
Right 295(319-24)
Top 0
Bottom 178 (199-21)
As with the SYS PO statement, values are subtracted to
take into consideration a sprite's width or height. These values
may have to be adjusted in some cases. Negative boundary
values are also allowed.

Remove Sprite Control System

To turn off sprite graphics and remove the Sprite Control Sys­
tem from the raster scan interrupt processing, simply enter:
SYS RE
This call undoes everything done by the SYS IN. Tape
and disk I/O will not work properly when the Sprite Control
System is installed, so you must remember to remove the sys­
tem when you've finished using sprites. Once the Control Sys­
tem has been removed, it can be reinstalled by using SYS IN
again.
The SYS RE should be done only after the Control Sys­
tem has been installed, and should not be done a second time
unless the system is installed again.
Hitting RUN/STOP-RESTORE also removes the Sprite
Control System. If you hit this key combination, you must re­
install the Control System in order for motion to work.

Review
Here's a quick review of the whole procedure. You might find
this checklist useful as a reminder once you're actually trying
to place the SYS calls in your own program.
1. Make sure the lines from the SCS.BAS file (Program 12-1)
are included as part of your BASIC program.
2. Assign variables and load the SCS.OBJ file and a definition
file.
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DN = 8:S A = 780:SX = 781 :SY = 782:SP = 783

GOSUB 58000
F$ = filename:LA = 16384:GOSUB 58500
3. Install the Sprite Control System as part of regular interrupt
processing and define a block with a definition from the
definition file.
SYS IN
SYS DF, block number,definition number
4. Use the following SYS calls, in any order, to make a sprite
appear and to set its color, size, position, direction, speed,
boundaries, and boundary options.
Appear— SYS BL,SN ,block number
Color— SYS CO,SN,color number
Width— SYS Wl,SN,width number
Height— SYS HE,SN,height number
Position— SYS PO,SN,X,Y
Direction— SYS Dl,SN,direction number
Wraparound— SYS WR,SN ,wraparound on/off
Bounce— SYS BO,SN ,bounce on/off
Speed— SYS MO,SN,delta X, delta Y (,1 for half speed)
Boundaries— SYS LB,SN,X; SYS RB,SN,X; SYS TB,SN,Y; SYS
BB,SN,Y
It's suggested that you set values for color, size, and po­
sition before using SYS BL to make the sprite appear.
5. Remove the Sprite Control System when you are finished
using sprites.
SYS RE
The procedure is really very simple. Only the description is
long.

Errors
Some errors in SYS calls are detected. If you forget one of the
required parameters, BASIC will report a SYNTAX ERROR.
This also occurs if you try to use SYS DF before loading a
definition file.
The ILLEGAL QUANTITY error may occur when a value
is out of range. Using a sprite number out of the range 0 -7 is
one way of causing this error.

Multiple Sprites
Now that you've seen how to animate one sprite, let's see how
easy it is to animate several.
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Begin by reinstalling the Sprite Control System with:

SYS IN
The machine language routines and the definition file
should still be in memory, which is why you don't need to
load them again. In fact, block 255 should still be defined, so
you can skip ahead and assign block 255 to sprite 0 to make
the sprite appear.
SYS BL,0,255
The SYS IN resets all the default values, which is why the
sprite appeared back in the upper-left corner, normal sized,
and in white.
Set the sprite so that it moves continuously.
SYS DI,0,3:SYS BO,0,1
Though this is the first time you've put two SYS statements
on one line, remember that it's always allowed, whether
you're in program or immediate mode. Just separate the state­
ments with the usual colon (:).
Now make sprite 1 appear:
SYS BL,1,255
and make it move continuously.
SYS DI,1,3:SYS BO,1,1
How about the rest?
FOR S N = 2 TO 7:SYS BL,SN,255:SYS DI,SN,3:SYS BO,SN,l:NEXT
Wasn't that easy?
Take the time now to experiment with multiple sprites.
When you're done, remember to remove the Control System.
SYS RE
What you've just done in the immediate mode can also be
done in a program. It would be a good idea to go back and
look at the listing of Program 12-3, "D E M O #l." You should
now be able to understand everything that happens in the
program. You may also want to run the program several
times, changing some of the statements and adding new ones
each time. One suggestion is to change the size of the sprites.
If you do this, you will also need to change the right and bot­
tom boundaries. Experiment with the Sprite Control System.
The more you play with it, the more familiar you'll become
with its powerful features and abilities.

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SCS Advanced Features

There's more to the Sprite Control System than just position­

ing and moving sprites. What you saw demonstrated in Chap­
ter 14 isn't all the Control System can do. Various advanced
features, including vital elements like joystick control and
automatic shape changing, are also available. As always, the
best way to learn how these features work, and how to work
them yourself, is through example. Let's take a look at the ad­
vanced capabilities of the Sprite Control System.

Available Definition Blocks

A definition block must be assigned to a sprite so that it can
display a shape. As you saw both in Chapter 12 and in Chap­
ter 14, all eight sprites can use the same definition block.
(Remember the bunnies?) But if you want each sprite to dis­
play a different shape, each requires a different definition
block. To do this, more blocks are needed.
There are 256 definition blocks, numbered 0-255. This
would seem to be enough. The only problem is that many of
these blocks are not available. Some are located in memory
that's needed by the Commodore 64 Kernal or by BASIC.
Others are located in memory which holds the current BASIC
program. The remaining, located in BASIC free memory, are
the ones safe to use.
Since the amount of free memory changes according to
the size of the current BASIC program, the number of avail­
able blocks may vary. Higher numbered blocks are usually
available, but lower numbered ones are not.
To find out exactly which are available, execute the
following line anytime after most of the variables have been
assigned and all arrays have been dimensioned.
PRINT INT((PEEK(49)+ 256*PEEK(50))/64)+16
This will tell you the number of the lowest block that can
be used. All blocks from this number through block 255
should be available for use.
You'll probably never run out of definition blocks. A typi­
cal application may need 20, or at most 30, blocks. In Program
12-3, "D E M O #l," for instance, only one block is used, but the
program is so short that blocks 81-255 are available. Program
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12-5, "D EM O #2," is a little longer, but with blocks 96-255

available, there are still more than enough. The only time
when you should be concerned about available blocks is when
your program starts to get larger than 8K.
Just to be safe, it's a good idea to always work from the
top down. If you need only 1 block, use block 255. If you
need 5 blocks, use blocks 251-255. Or, if you need 16 blocks,
use blocks 240-255.
A quick and easy way to define several blocks at once is
to use a FOR-NEXT loop. If a definition file contains 16 defi­
nitions, a line like this copies them in order to 16 blocks.
FOR K = 0 TO 15:SYS DF,240+K,K:NEXT
Block 240 gets definition 0, block 241 gets definition 1, and
so on.
To assign one of these blocks to a sprite, just use the
corresponding block number in the SYS BL call (see Chapter
14 for a description of this SYS statement). Here's how you
would assign block 247 to sprite 5:
SYS BL,247,5
The block assigned to a sprite can be changed at any
time. That's often how animation is done with sprites. When
you have several blocks defined in a sequence, you can simply
cycle through them. The second sprite in Program 12-5 alter­
nated between two shapes like this. A bird could be made to
fly by cycling through several sprite definition blocks, each
showing the bird with its wings in a slightly different position.

Automatic Shape Changing

When a sprite moves in different directions, it makes the
movement more realistic if the sprite displays a different shape
for each direction. The autoshape feature can do this shape
changing for you automatically.
To show how to use this feature, let's start with a sprite
that can move in all eight directions. Eight definition blocks
are needed, one for each direction. These blocks must be
consecutive, and they must be defined in a particular order.
This order is:
Block Definition Direction
B a se + 0 Left
B ase+1 Right
Base + 2 Up

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Base+ 3 Down
Base + 4 Up and left
Base+ 5 Up and right
Base + 6 Down and left
Base+ 7 Down and right
The number of the first block being used is called the
Base, so if blocks 240-247 are being used, block 240 must con­
tain the definition for left, block 241 must contain the defi­
nition for right, and so on.
To turn on the autoshape feature, use the following state­
ment format (in program or immediate mode).
SYS AV,SN,direction code,base block number
Direction code specifies whether two, four, or eight direc­
tions are to be supported. The values 2, 4, or 8 indicate the
number. In the example above, eight directions are supported,
and the base block number is 240, so the SYS statement
would look like this:
SYS AU,SN,8,240
The sprite shape will now automatically change to reflect
the direction in which it's moving.
The autoshape feature does not always have to work with
all eight directions. Only two directions, left and right, may be
supported. The direction code for this is 2, and the order in
which the blocks must be defined is:
Block Definition Direction
Base + 0 Left
Base+1 Right
To enable the autoshape feature using only these two
directions (and assuming the Base is still block definition 240),
you'd enter:
SYS AU,SN,2,240
Now, whenever the sprite moves in a leftward direction,
whether it's left, up and left, or down and left, the shape for
left displays. The shape for right appears when the sprite
moves rightward. If the sprite moves straight up or down, the
shape does not change from its previous shape.
To support only the four cardinal directions, use 4 for the
direction code and define the blocks like this:

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Block Definition Direction

Base + 0 Left
Base + 1 Right
Base+ 2 Up
Base+ 3 Down
One other arrangement that's supported is two directions,
up and down. The direction code for this arrangement is 6,
and the blocks must be defined in this order:
Block Definition Direction
Base + 0 Up
Base + 1 Down
Each of these four arrangements supports a centering op­
tion. With centering, one additional block is specified which is
displayed by the sprite only when the sprite isn't moving.
To select centering, add 1 to the direction code, and put
the centered definition in the last block. For example, to sup­
port eight directions with centering, the direction code would
be 9 and block BASE + 8 would hold the definition used when
the sprite stops moving.
For reference, look to the following two tables.
Direction Directions
Code
2 Horizontal directions only
4 Four cardinal directions only
6 Vertical directions only
8 All eight directions
To support no motion (centering), add 1 to the direction code.
Direction Order of Blocks
Code
2 Left, right
3 Left, right, center
4 Left, right, up, down
5 Left, right, up, down, center
6 Up, down
7 Up, down, center
8 Left, right, up, down, up left, up right, down left, down
right
9 Left, right, up, down, up left, up right, down left, down
right, center
The autoshape feature is turned off with:
SYS AU,SN,0

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Multicolor Mode
When a sprite is displayed in multicolor mode, it can consist
of three different colors. The trade-off is that the sprite's hori­
zontal resolution is reduced from 24 to 12 pixels. (For help in
creating multicolored sprites, take a look at the Sprite Editor in
Chapter 13.)
To turn the multicolor mode on or off, use these
statements:
SYS MU,SN,0 Turn off multicolor mode (default)
SYS MU,SN,1 Turn on multicolor mode
The sprite's main color, the one displayed when the
multicolor mode is turned off, is used as the first of the three
colors. To set the additional colors, use the following variation
of the SYS CO format:
SYS CO,SN,first color,second color,third color
Any combination of sprites may select the multicolor
mode. When two or more are displayed in multicolor mode,
however, there's one restriction. All sprites in multicolor mode
must share the same second and third colors. If you change the
second and third colors on one sprite, those colors will change
on all the other sprites displayed in multicolor mode.
Each sprite has its own default color, the color which it
shows if it's not changed.
Sprite Color
0 1 (White)
1 2 (Red)
2 3 (Cyan)
3 4 (Purple)
4 5 (Green)
5 6 (Blue)
6 7 (Yellow)
7 12 (Medium Gray)
When in multicolor mode, the second and third colors
also have default settings. Normally, the second color is 4
(purple) and the third color is 0 (black).

Priority
Sprites are completely independent of the normal screen dis­
play, and except for sharing colors in multicolor mode, they're
independent of each other. This independence is handy, be­
cause it lets you use several sprites on one screen, and it lets

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you use sprites along with text or bitmapped graphics.

The only time that this causes a problem is when a sprite
is positioned at the same location as another sprite or other
screen information. What happens when two sprites are placed
so that they partially overlap? The sprites' colors don't blend
together— only one sprite is displayed in the overlapped area.
But which one?
This is where priority is important. It establishes which
sprite will appear in front of other sprites, or whether a sprite
seems to be in front of, or behind, other screen displays. Sprite
priority is fixed; lower numbered sprites always have priority
over higher numbered sprites whenever they overlap. If, for
instance, sprites 2 and 3 overlap, only sprite 2 will be dis­
played in the overlapped area. In other words, sprite 2 appears
to be in front of sprite 3. Sprite 0 always seems to be in front
of all the other sprites; sprite 7 always appears behind the
others.
Priority over normal screen information, however, can be
individually set for each sprite. A sprite can be made to appear
in front of or behind text characters and bitmapped graphics.
To set this priority, use one of the following statements:
SYS PR,SN,0 Make sprite appear in front of screen data (default)
SYS PR,SN,1 Make sprite appear behind screen data
Sprites always appear in front of screen data displayed by
the multicolor mode bit pair 01, regardless of how the priority
is set. If multicolor bitmapped graphics is used (modes 1, 3, 5,
and 7 in Part 2), sprites will always appear in front of points
displayed by the bit pair 01 (those points drawn with pen 1).
Priority can be used to add the illusion of depth to a
screen for three-dimensional effects. Program 12-7,
"D EM O #3," was a good example.

Joystick Control
Up to now, the direction of a moving sprite has been set in the
immediate mode or in a program by the SYS DI call. With the
Sprite Control System, a sprite's motion can also be controlled
by a joystick. This is the general form of the statement to
switch from program control to joystick control.
SYS JS,SNjoystick port number
Thus, to make sprite 0 move under control of a joystick
plugged into port 2, you'd use:

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SYS JS,0,2
Sprite 0 now moves in the same direction that the joystick
is pushed. The sprite will not move when the joystick is not
being pushed.
Speed. When a sprite is being moved by a joystick, its
speed is still controlled by the delta values. The following
statement makes sprite 0 move very quickly whenever the joy­
stick is pushed.
SYS MO,0,5,5
For slow movement, use this statement.
SYS MO,0,1,1
In other words, simply use the usual SYS MO call, as you
did earlier for setting sprite speed under program control.
Note that you don't have to set the speed with a SYS MO,
since the default values are 2 for delta X and 1 for delta Y.
However, if you want a different speed, do use the SYS MO.
Limiting directions. If you want a sprite to move in only
two directions, set one of the delta values to 0. In this line, the
delta Y value is 0, so sprite 0 won't move up or down even
when the joystick is pushed in those directions.
SYS MO,0,3,0
How about limiting the sprite's movement to up and
down? It's just as simple— set the delta X value to 0, as in:
SYS MO,0,0,3
(Reset the delta X value by entering SYS MO,0,2,1 before go­
ing on.)
To limit a sprite's movements to just the four cardinal
directions, you can use a special option of the SYS JS call. If a
,1 is added to the end of the call, the diagonal directions of the
joystick will be ignored. This is what the format should look
like:
SYS ]S,SN,joystick number,1 (Allows only four directions)
An interesting effect is to force the sprite to continue to
move, even when the joystick isn't being pushed. With the
Sprite Control System, this effect is just a matter of adding ,2
to the end of the SYS JS call. When this is used, the sprite will
keep moving in the last direction the joystick was pushed. It's
sort of a ''momentum'' effect.
SYS JS,SN,joystick number,2 (Turn on momentum)
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Both of these options may be used at the same time. Just

add the 1 and 2 together.
SYS ]S,SN,joystick number,3 (Select both four directions and
momentum)
To turn off these options, simply omit the additional value
after the joystick number, or use 0.
SYS JS,SNJoystick number
or
SYS JS,SN,joystick number,0
Port 1. You used port 2 in all the previous examples, but
port 1 can also be used. In fact, you can have one sprite con­
trolled by a joystick in port 2, while another is controlled by a
joystick plugged into port 1. This feature is vital for two-player
games.
Keep in mind, however, that if you experiment with joy­
stick control in the immediate mode, use only port 2. Be care­
ful not to push the joystick while you're typing. The keyboard
and the joystick ports can interfere with each other, and using
both at the same time causes the wrong keys to be read.
This interference between the keyboard and joystick ports
is even worse when port 1 is used. Pushing a joystick plugged
into this port makes the computer think that keys are being
pressed. It's okay to use port 1 in a program as long as that
program doesn't require input from the keyboard. At the end
of the program, use the following POKE statement to clear the
keyboard buffer:
POKE 198,0
Back to program control. To take a sprite off joystick con­
trol and return it to program control, use:
SYS JS,SN,0
The sprite will continue moving in the current direction.
For example, if the joystick is being pushed to the left when
motion returns to program control, the sprite will continue to
move to the left until its direction is changed by a SYS DI call.

Chase Mode
One more way to make a sprite move is to have it chase after
another sprite. The Sprite Control System includes a SYS call
format which allows you to do this. It looks like:

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SYS CH,SN,number o f sprite to chase

To make sprite 2 chase sprite 6, for example, you could
use:
SYS CH,2,6
Sprite 2 will always move in the same direction as sprite
6, and will stop moving only when it's at the same position as
sprite 6.
If a sprite in chase mode has delta values greater than 1,
it may appear to jiggle when it stops moving. Try using dif­
ferent delta values and starting positions for both sprites to
eliminate this problem.
Selecting the chase mode for a sprite turns off its program
or joystick control. To disable the chase mode and return the
sprite to program control, enter (either in program or immedi­
ate mode):
SYS JS,SN,0

Synchronized Sprite Motion

Sometimes it's useful to make two or more sprites move to­
gether. One application of this is to create objects made up of
more than one sprite, as was done in Program 12-7,
"D EM O #3."
The only problem with this is getting the sprites to start
moving at the same time. If two sprites are to move together,
for example, a SYS DI must be executed for each one. But after
the SYS DI is executed for the first sprite, that sprite may start
moving before the. second SYS DI can be executed.
To solve this problem, the Control System provides a
method for stopping and starting the motion of any or all
sprites, all at the same time. To freeze one or more sprites, use
the following SYS format:
SYS FR,sprite number total
To calculate the sprite number total, first decide which
sprites you want to have stopped. Look at the numbers in the
chart below which correspond to these sprites, and add the
numbers together.

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Sprite Number
0 1
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
5 32
6 64
7 128
Freezing sprites 2 and 3 requires this line:
SYS FR ,4+8
or
SYS FR,12
Once the motion of these sprites is stopped, any values,
such as position, direction, and speed, can be set without the
sprites going anywhere. After the desired values have been
set, the sprites can be unfrozen with:
SYS UN,sprite number total
To unfreeze sprites 2 and 3, you'd use:
SYS UN,12
Both sprites will now start moving, with the new motion val­
ues in effect.
This feature helps you get sprites traveling together, but if
you want several sprites to move side by side, a couple of
other things must be done. First, the boundaries for the dif­
ferent sprites must be set differently. Let's say you want two
sprites to move together. One displays the left half of an ob­
ject, the other displays the right half. Each sprite is defined as
a full 24 pixels wide. Here are the left and right boundaries
that should be used.
Left sprite
Left boundary: 0
Right boundary: 319 —24 —24
Right sprite
Left boundary: 0 + 24
Right boundary: 3 1 9 —24
All these boundary settings do is limit the movement of
each sprite. The leftmost sprite can go all the way to the left
edge, but it can only move as far right as position 271. It's
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prevented from overlapping any of the rightmost sprite.

You must experiment to find combinations of starting po­
sitions and delta values which allow the sprites to stay syn­
chronized. With some delta values, for example, synchronized
sprites will be separated when they hit a boundary.
Another application of synchronized sprite motion is to
display several sprites at one position, to get an overlay effect
for color. Perhaps you want more colors than available with
multicolor mode, or you want several colors without reducing
the horizontal resolution from 24 to 12 pixels. Since the sprites
should all start at the same position, any position can be used,
and the boundaries would be the same for each sprite.

Enable /Disable
The display of a sprite can be turned off or on.
SYS EN,SN,0 Disable (default)
SYS EN,SN,1 Enable
When a sprite is disabled, it can continue to move, change
shape, and so on. It just isn't displayed.
All sprites are initially disabled. The SYS BL call enables a
sprite when it assigns a block number.
Disabling a sprite is an easy way (even easier than placing
the sprite off the screen) to make a sprite disappear. Other
than that, this SYS call has very few uses.

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Chapter 16

Miscellaneous Topics

Although you've seen how to use the Sprite Control System,

from simple sprite movement to advanced synchronized
sprites, there's still more you can do. This chapter presents
two utility programs and gives additional tips on how to use
the Sprite Control System in your own BASIC programs.
Some of these tips, hints, and techniques are quite sophis­
ticated, like relocating the Control System or relocating screen
memory. Others are much simpler, such as detecting sprite-to-
sprite collisions or protecting free memory. You'll even see
how to use all three major utilities included in this book
together.

T h e Merge Utility
Once in a while you may want to add the definitions in one
file to those in another. Program 16-1, "Merge," lets you com­
bine two or more sprite definition files to create one larger file.
It's simple to use and can save you considerable redefining.
With Merge, you can combine as many definition files (which
you create with the Sprite Editor) as you want.
As with almost all other programs in this book, make sure
you change the DN = 8 to DN = 1 if you're using tape. That
variable value is assigned in line 110.

Program 16-1. Merge

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147)SPRINT ” SPRITE DEFINITION MERG

E UTILITY” srem 123
105 PRINT ” BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN"sPRINT srem 69
110 DN=8 sSA=780 sSX=781s SY=782 sSP=783 sREM DN=1 FOR
{SPACE}TAPE srem 180
120 DEF FNDP(N)=PEEK(N)+256*PEEK(N+l)sBA=FNDP(49) +
1000 srem 8
130 DEF FNH(N)=INT(N/256)sDEF FNL(N)=N-256*FNH(N)
srem 243
300 F$=""sINPUT "{YEL} LOAD FILENAME!7l";F$ sIF F$=
"" OR LEN(F$)>12 GOTO 300 srem 38
310 LA=BAsGOSUB630sNS=PEEK(BA)SPRINT " LOADED DEF
INITIONS 0 TO" NS srem 169
400 EA=FNDP(SX)SPRINT srem 66
410 F$=""sINPUT "{YEL} APPEND FILENAME!7§";F$sIF L
EN(F$)>12 GOTO 410 srem 54

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Chapter 16

420 IF F$="" THEN PRINT:GOTO 500 sre m 212

430 LA=EA-IsP=PEEK(LA)sGOSUB 630 SPRINT " APPENDED
{SPACE}DEFINITIONS" NS+1 "TO"; :re m 9
440 NS=NS+PEEK(LA)+1SPRINT NSsPOKE LA,P:IF NS<256
{SPACE}GOTO 400 sre m 139
450 PRINT " ERRORS TOO MANY DEFINITIONS"sEND
srem 162
500 F$=""sINPUT "{YEL} SAVE FILENAMEi7|";F $ :IF F$=
"" OR LEN(F$)>12 GOTO 500 srem 57
510 POKE BA,NS sGOSUB 600sPOKE SA,251sPOKE 251,FNL(
BA)sPOKE 252,FNH(BA) srem 229
520 POKE SX,FNL(EA)sPOKE SY,FNH(EA)sSYS 65496sIF P
EEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 700 srem 69
530 PRINT " SAVED" EA-BA "BYTES"sEND srem 238
600 PRINTsPOKE SA,lsPOKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,0sSYS 65466
sF$=F$+".DEF" srem 187
610 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$)sPOKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K))s
NEXT srem 241
620 POKE SA,LEN(F$)sPOKE SX,73sPOKE SY,2sSYS 65469
sRETURN srem 159
630 GOSUB 600 sPOKE SA,0sPOKE SX,FNL(LA)sPOKE SY,FN
H (L A ) srem 1
640 SYS 65493 sIF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 700 srem 90
650 RETURN srem 123
700 P=PEEK(SA)SPRINT " ERRORs"; sIF P=4 THEN PRINT
{SPACE}"FILE NOT FOUND"sEND srem 96
710 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT"sEND
srem 188
720 PRINT STsEND srem 222

When you run this program, it first asks for the name of a
file to load. Enter the name of the first file (you don't have to
type in the .DEF suffix placed on the end of the filename by
the Editor) and wait a few moments.
Next, you'll need to enter the name of the file to be ap­
pended to the end of the file just loaded. After you type in the
name of the second file, it loads, then is added to the end of
the first file. Merge requests the name of another file to ap­
pend. You can combine several if necessary.
When you're through appending files, just press RETURN
instead of entering another filename. The program asks for
one last filename— the one used to name the composite file.
After that's typed in, the merged definitions are saved to tape
or disk as a new file.
You can even use Merge as a quick and easy way to copy
a definition file from disk to disk or tape to tape. Just run

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Merge, load the file to be moved, append nothing, and save

the file out to the new disk or tape.
Merge can also be used to copy a definition file from tape
to disk or from disk to tape. To copy from tape to disk, assign
the value 1 to the variable DN in line 110, and insert the
statement DN = 8 at the beginning of line 510. A file can then
be transferred by loading the file, appending nothing, and
then saving the file to disk. To copy from disk to tape, just
switch the order of the numbers so that D N = 8 appears in line
110 and DN = 1 in line 510.
To keep things straight, refer to the short table below for
the modifications you need to make to Merge for this kind of
file copy/transfer process.
Copy Direction Line 110 Line 510
Tape to Disk DN = 1 DN=8
Disk to Tape DN=8 DN=1

The Extract Utility

Instead of merging several files together into one, Program 16-
2, "Extract," does just the opposite. It pulls a sequence of defi­
nitions from a definition file. The extracted definitions are then
saved as a new file. A major use of this utility is to break a
definition file into two parts.
Make sure to change the DN = 8 in line 110 to DN = 1 if
you're using tape.

Program 16-2. Extract

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(147):PRINT " DEFINITION EXTRACTION

{SPACE}UTILITY" :rem 53
105 PRINT " BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN":PRINT srem 69
110 DN=8:SA=780:SX=781:SY=782:SP=783 :rem 133
120 DEF FNH(N)=INT(N/256):DEF FNL(N)=N-256*FNH(N ):
LA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50)+1000 :rem 146
300 F$="“:INPUT " LOAD FILENAME"jF$:IF F$="" OR LE
N(F$)>12 GOTO 300 :rem 238
310 GOSUB 600:POKE SA,0:POKE SX,FNL(L A ):POKE SY,FN
H(LA) :rem 252
320 SYS 65493sIF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 700 :rem 85
330 NS=PEEK(LA)SPRINT " LOADED DEFINITIONS 0 TO" N
SSPRINT srem 162
400 FD=-lsINPUT " NUMBER OF FIRST DEFINITION"?FDsI
F FD<0 OR FD>NS GOTO 400 srem 241

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Chapter 16

410 FA=LA+1:IF FD THEN FOR K=1 TO FD:FA=FA+PEEK(FA

)+l:NEXT srem 19
420 PRINT srem 35
450 LD=-1:INPUT " NUMBER OF LAST{2 SPACES}DEFINITI
ON";L D :IF LD<FD OR LD>NS GOTO 450 srem 25
460 EA=FAsFOR K=0 TO LD-FDsEA=EA+PEEK(E A )+1sNEXTsP
RINT srem 237
500 F$=""sINPUT " SAVE FILENAME";F$sIF F$="“ OR LE
N (F $ )>12 GOTO 500 srem 1
510 FA=FA-1sPOKE FA,LD-FDsGOSUB 600 srem 242
520 POKE SA,251sPOKE 251,FNL(FA)sPOKE 252,FNH(FA)
srem 229
530 POKE SX,FNL(EA)sPOKE SY,FNH(EA) srem 73
540 SYS 65496 sIFPEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 700 srem 92
550 PRINT " SAVED" EA-FA "BYTES"sEND srem 244
600 PRINTsPOKE SA,1sPOKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,0sSYS 65466
sF$=F$+".DEF" srem 187
610 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$)sPOKE 584+K,A S C (M I D $ (F $ ,K ))s
NEXT srem 241
620 POKE SA,LEN(F$)sPOKE SX,7 3 sPOKE SY,2sSYS 65469
sRETURN srem 159
700 P=PEEK(SA)SPRINT " E R R O R s " I F P=4 THEN PRINT
{SPACE}"FILE NOT FOUND"sEND srem 96
710 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT"sEND
srem 188
720 PRINT STsEND srem 222

Once you run Extract, you're asked for the name of the
file which contains the definitions to be extracted. Enter the
filename and wait for the file to load.
The next two prompts ask for the numbers of the first and
last definitions in the sequence that you want to pull out of
this file. Type in the appropriate numbers.
Finally, the program requests a filename to use in saving
the extracted definitions. After you enter the filename, the pro­
gram saves the specified range of definitions as a new file. The
original file has not been changed, however. The definitions
you extracted are still there.
To completely break up a definition file, then, you have
to perform two extractions. If the original file contains defi­
nitions 0-5, for instance, and you want two three-definition
files, first extract definitions 0-2, save those to a new filename,
then extract definitions 3-5, saving them out under a different
name. Then, if you want, you can scratch the original file from
disk or overwrite it on tape.
 Chapter 16

Sprite-to-Sprite Collisions
In games it's often necessary to know when a sprite has col­
lided with another sprite or some other screen data. There's an
easy way, using a PEEK and the AND operator, to tell if a
sprite has been involved in a collision.
Location 53278 is a hardware location in the VIC-II chip.
The eight bits in this location, one for each sprite, are nor­
mally clear (0). When two sprites overlap, a collision is said to
occur, and the bits in location 53278 which correspond to the
colliding sprites are set to 1. The bits remain set even after the
sprites stop overlapping. To determine if a particular sprite has
been involved in a collision, all a BASIC program has to do is
PEEK location 53278 and examine the appropriate bit.
The general procedure is to PEEK the location, assign the
value to a variable, and then use the variable with the AND
operator and sprite numbers to check individual bits. Some­
thing like this:
P=PEEK(53278):IF P AND N THEN sp rite was involved in
collision
The value for N, the bit value, is determined from the table
below. (This is the same table used for freezing and unfreez­
ing sprites.)
Sprite Number
0 1
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
5 32
6 64
7 128
For example, the numbers which correspond to sprites 2
and 3 are 4 and 8, respectively.
100 P=PEEK(53278)
110 IF P AND 4 THEN sp rite 2 co llid ed
120 IF P AND 8 THEN sp rite 3 co llid ed
Actual program statements would be placed after each
THEN. In the example below, execution jumps to line 300 if
sprite 5 is involved in a collision.
100 P=PEEK(53278):IF P AND 32 THEN 300

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The bits in location 53278 are cleared after the location is

PEEKed so that new collisions can be detected. So far, the
PEEKed value has been assigned to a variable so that it can be
checked for multiple collisions. If you're going to be watching
only one sprite to see when it collides, however, you can
eliminate the variable assignment.
100 IF PEEK(53278) AND 32 THEN 300
If you don't care which sprite is involved in a collision,
and only need to detect when any sprite collision occurs, the
AND operation can also be eliminated. This is the method
used in Program 12-5, "D EM O #2."
100 IF PEEK(53278) THEN 300
It's important to understand that location 53278 tells you
only which sprites were involved in collisions. It does not tell
you which sprite collided with which. For example, if location
53278 reports that sprites 1, 2, 3, and 4 have all been involved
in collisions since the last time the location was PEEKed, sev­
eral combinations of collisions are possible. Perhaps sprite 1
collided with sprite 2, and sprite 3 collided with sprite 4.
Maybe it was sprites 1 and 3 and sprites 2 and 4. Or maybe
sprites 1 and 4 collided, and sprites 2 and 3 collided. Another
possibility is that all four sprites collided with each other.
The only way to determine which sprites hit is to com­
pare their positions. A method for doing this is discussed a bit
later.

Sprite-to-Screen-Data Collisions
Location 53278 only reports sprite-to-sprite collisions, in
which one sprite hits one or more other sprites. To check if a
sprite has overlapped any screen data, such as characters or
bitmapped graphics, use the same technique with location 53279.
P=PEEK(53279):IF P AND N THEN sp rite hit screen data
To check, for example, if sprite 6 hit a character-drawn barrier,
use a line like the following.
P= PEEK(53279):IF P AND 64 THEN 500
As with priority, the multicolor bit pair 01 is a special
exception. No collision is detected when a sprite overlaps any­
thing displayed by the bit pair 01 in character or bitmapped
graphics mode.

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POKEing and PEEKing

You were earlier promised that you would be able to animate
sprites with the Control System without having to use a single
POKE statement. That promise has been kept. But you can still
use POKE statements if you want to. For instance, location
53287 holds the color for sprite 0. To change this color you
can use either of the following two statements:
SYS CO,0,color number
or
POKE 53287,color number
Both statements do the same thing. Other sprite
characteristics, such as size and position, can also be set by
POKE statements. In most cases, however, the SYS calls in the
Sprite Control System are more convenient to use.
On the other hand, it can be very useful to PEEK hard­
ware locations which control sprites. This lets you determine
things like current color or position. The following statements,
for example, return the current coordinates of a sprite.
X= PEEK(53248+2*SN)+256*SGN(PEEK(53264)AND2t SN) - 24
Y = PEEK(53249+ 2*SN) - 50

Reading Definitions from DATA

As mentioned earlier, definitions can be stored as data in a
program so that you have one less file to load whenever you
run a program using sprites. The procedure is very simple.
First, use the Data feature in the Sprite Editor to convert
the definitions to DATA statements. Then use Program E -l,
"Merge Utility," found in Appendix E to merge the DATA
statements with your program.
The last step is to replace the call to the definition loading
subroutine at 58500 (line 58500 is part of "SCS.BAS," the
BASIC file you must include as part of your own program
when you want to use the Sprite Control System) with a call
to the subroutine at 58400. This subroutine reads the defi­
nitions into memory instead of loading them from tape or
disk.
Before you call the subroutine at 58500, you have to spec­
ify a filename and a loading address. But with the subroutine
at 58400, only the loading address has to be set. In your own
program, the line would probably look like:

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Chapter 16

LA= 16384:GOSUB 58400:REM READ DEFINITIONS

The data for the bunny shape definition is already included in
Program 12-3, “D E M O #!." To see how the subroutine at
58400 works, just modify line 140 in Program 12-3 to:
140 LA=16384;GOSUB 58400:REM READ DEFINITIONS

Run the program and you'll see the same end result. No­
tice, however, that if you're using tape, you have to load only
one additional file, “SCS.OBJ," not two as you did before.
Reading definitions from DATA is especially efficient when
you have to use tape.
When using this method, be careful if the program con­
tains DATA statements for other purposes.
One drawback to using this method is that DATA state­
ments make a program grow quickly. For large definition files,
then, this method is impractical.

Protecting Free Memory

No matter which technique is used to load definitions, they
end up stored in free memory. This presents no problem un­
less your program uses string variables. Free memory is used
when strings are assigned. If your program assigns string vari­
ables, you should periodically call the free memory function to
reorganize free memory.
K=FRE(0)

Relocating Screen Memory

You'll remember that the number of the lowest definition
block available can be determined by the expression
INT((PEEK(49) + 256*PEEK(50))/64) + 16. If the value of this
expression is greater than 255, you have a small problem. It
means there are no definition blocks available. This can hap­
pen when your BASIC program is larger than 8K.
There is a way to get around this problem. It's a bit in­
volved, but by following the instructions below, you shouldn't
have any trouble.
What you'll do is use a different bank of memory for defi­
nition blocks. The Commodore 64's memory is divided into
four sections, called banks. Each bank consists of 16K bytes,
which is enough for 256 definition blocks. The default bank
when you turn the computer on is bank 0. When there is no
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room in this bank for definition blocks, you can switch to

bank 1, 2, or 3 instead.
Bank Memory Locations
0 0-16383
1 16384-32767
2 32768-49151
3 49152-65535
The only difficulty with using another bank is that screen
memory must be located in the same bank used for definition
blocks. If you switch to bank 2, for example, you must move
the screen memory from bank 0 to bank 2.
Bank 2. This bank is a good choice because the RAM un­
der the BASIC ROM can be used to hold sprite definitions.
This gives you 128 definition blocks, numbered from 128 to
255. Another advantage of bank 2 is that the VIC-II chip sees
an image of the character set in this bank, so you don't have
to define your own character set.
However, when you use bank 2, you'll run into some
problems finding a place for screen memory. No matter where
it's put, the top of free memory is going to have to be low­
ered. To preserve as much free memory as possible, start the
screen memory at location 35840.
To relocate screen memory, use the following statement.
SYS RL,a d d ress o f screen m em o ry /256
If you want to relocate the screen memory to start at
35840, for example, you'd use:
SYS RL,35840/256
or
SYS RL,140
Do this after the call to the subroutine at 58000, but
before the Sprite Control System is installed by SYS IN.
To lower the top of free memory, POKE location 56 with
the same number used above, and then use a CLR to reset the
memory pointers. In the previous example, with the screen
memory set to start at 35840, you should enter:
POKE 56,140:CLR
Place this at the beginning of your program, before any
variables are assigned.
Since you're no longer using bank 0, you don't have to
set the LOAD address to start at the beginning of the next
453
Chapter 16

bank. Instead of using the statement LA = 16384 to set the

LOAD address, use this:
LA= PEEK(49)+ 256*PEEK(50)+1000
The screen memory should not be placed at 35840 if
some other utilities have been installed at the top of free
memory earlier. To check if the top of free memory has al­
ready been lowered, examine the value in location 56 before
you change it.
PRINT PEEK(56)
Normally, this will give you the value 160, which is fine.
If you get a number less than 144, however, you should not
start the screen at 35840. Instead, subtract 4 from this value,
AND the value with the number 252, and use the result in the
SYS RL and POKE 56 statements. For instance, if you PEEK
location 56 and receive 141 as an answer, these statements
should be used to relocate screen memory and lower the top
of free memory.
SYS RL,141—4AND252:POKE 56,141-4AND252:CLR
Don't use bank 2 if the value in location 56 is less than 132.
Bank 3. If you use bank 3, the memory under the Kernal
ROM can be used to hold definitions. This gives you blocks
128-254. You must not use block 255 in bank 3. Doing so will
make the computer crash.
Another area of memory in bank 3 that can be used to
store definitions is the RAM under the I/O chips and color
memory. This RAM cannot be easily POKEd from BASIC, so
it's rarely used. The SYS DF routine, however, banks this
RAM in when it defines a block. The result is that in bank 3,
blocks 64 through 127 are also available.
Screen memory can be placed at either location 51200 or
location 52224. Neither of these is in free memory, so the top
of free memory does not have to be lowered. This is a major
advantage of using bank 3— no free memory is used.
The only disadvantage to using bank 3 is that the VIC-II
chip does not see an image of the character ROM, so you have
to supply your own. The best place to put the character set is
in the RAM under the I/O chips, starting at location 53248. If
you do this, blocks 64 through 95 will no longer be available.
Bank 1. This offers a full 16K of RAM in the middle of
free memory. Even after subtracting IK for screen memory

454
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and 2K for a character set, you should still have plenty of

room for definition blocks. If you use this bank, put the screen
memory at location 29696, and a character set at 30720. Since
you're using the middle of free memory, the top of memory
does not have to be lowered.
Definition blocks up to block 207 are available. To find
the number of the lowest available block, use this statement
after the definition file has been loaded:
PRINT INT((LA - 16384)/64) + 16
If this number is negative, all the blocks from 0 to 207
can be used. If the number is greater than 207, don't use
bank 1.
Reset screen memory. At the end of your program, you'll
want to reset screen memory back to bank 0. This can be done
by the following SYS call.
SYS RS
Do this after the Sprite Control System has been removed.
You'll also need to use SYS RS if you have relocated the
screen memory and pressed RUN/STOP-RESTORE to remove
the Control System.
If you've changed the top of memory, you may also want
to reset it. POKE location 56 with the value that it contained
before you changed it, and then perform a CLR.
Here's a summary of the steps to take to relocate the
screen memory. Bank 2 is usually the best choice, because it
supports 128 definition blocks (blocks 128-255) and no
character set has to be defined.
To use bank 2:
• Remember the contents of location 56.
• POKE 56,140:CLR to lower the top of free memory.
• Load the SCS.OBJ and definition files.
• Use SYS RL,140 to relocate screen memory
• Use SYS IN to install the Sprite Control System, and then
proceed as usual.
• After SYS RE, use SYS RS to reset the screen.
• Restore the original contents of location 56.
When you select bank 3, blocks 64-254 can be used. The
only drawback is that no character set is supplied. If one is
needed, it should be put at location 53248, in which case only
blocks 96-254 can be used for definitions.

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Chapter 16

To use bank 3:
• Define a character set at location 53248 if one is needed.
• Follow the standard procedure to use the Sprite Control Sys­
tem, but insert the statement SYS RL,200 before SYS IN to
relocate screen memory.
• At the end of the program (after SYS RE), use SYS RS to re­
set the screen.
Bank 1 supports the most blocks, from INT((LA—16384)/
64) + 1 6 to 207, but like bank 3, it does not contain a character
set.
To use bank 1:
• Define a character set at location 30720 if one is necessary.
• Follow the standard procedure, but perform a SYS RL,116
before SYS IN.
• Use SYS RS after SYS RE at the end of the program.
Whenever any of these three banks is used, the LOAD ad­
dress is no longer set as L A = 16384, but is calculated by the
formula:
LA= PEEK(49)+ 256*PEEK(50) +1000
If the screen has been relocated to one bank and you
want to place it back in bank 0, just use SYS RL,4. Be sure
that the Sprite Control System is not installed when you do
this.

Relocating the Sprite Control System

The machine language routines for the Sprite Control System
are stored in memory from locations 49664 to 51199. The
Control System also uses locations 2 and 251-254, and mem­
ory in the tape buffer. You cannot use the Sprite Control Sys­
tem with another utility that uses any of this memory.
Both the Bitmapped Graphics and Sidplayer utilities use
some of this memory. In order to use the Control System with
one or more of these other utilities, then, you have to have a
way to relocate the Sprite Control System. It's possible.
Those portions of the Control System which conflict with
the other utilities can be moved to free memory. This lets you
use the Sprite Control System with the bitmapped graphics
extensions or Sidplayer. You can even use all three utilities at
the same time. (More on that in a bit.)
To relocate the Sprite Control System to free memory, as­

456
 Chapter 16

sign the LOAD address and call the subroutine at 58100, in­
stead of calling the subroutine at 58000. The subroutine at
58100 loads the SCS.OBJ file, moves it to free memory starting
at LA, and advances LA to point to the first byte of free mem­
ory after the SCS.OBJ file. The line in your BASIC program
might look like this:
130 LA=16384:GOSUB 58100

When you load the definitions, just set the filename and
call the subroutine at 58500. Do not reassign LA. The LOAD
address should be set only once.
140 F$="BUNNY":GOSUB 58500

Using the Control System with the Bitmapped Graphics

Extensions
When using the Sprite Control System with the bitmapped
graphics extensions to BASIC, the procedure to relocate the
Control System is complicated by the fact that the bitmap is
placed in bank 3. Thus, besides relocating the Control System,
you must also relocate screen memory.
Begin with the bitmapped graphics extensions to BASIC
already installed. Then you can start placing the Control Sys­
tem in memory. First, assign LA:
LA= PEEK(49)+ 256*PEEK(50)+1000
This is used instead of LA = 1 6 3 8 4 because screen memory
will be relocated.
Next, call the subroutine at 58100.
GOSUB 58100
Now, specify the filename of the definition file and call
the subroutine at 58500 to load the definitions.
f$ = file n a m e :G O S \ JB 58500
The Bitmapped Graphics utility requires that screen mem­
ory start at location 50176, and since 50176/256 is 196, use
the following to relocate screen memory.
SYS RL,196
You're now ready to use the graphics statements and Con­
trol System SYS calls. There are, however, a few restrictions.
The first is that whenever you use the statement GRAPHICS,

457
Chapter 16

you must immediately follow it with this POKE statement:

POKE 53265,PEEK(53265)AND127
Location 53265 controls various features of the VIC-II
graphics chip, including bitmap mode. The GRAPHICS state­
ment changes this location when it turns on the mode. The
only problem is that the location also controls raster scan
interrupts. Bit 7 of location 53265 must be kept clear if the ras­
ter scan interrupt used by the Sprite Control System is to work
reliably. The above statement insures that bit 7 is clear.
A second restriction is that you must not use the TEXT
statement. Doing so while the Sprite Control System is in­
stalled can cause the computer to crash.
The final restriction is that the RAM under the Kernal is
used to store the bitmap, so the corresponding definition
blocks are not available. You may use only blocks 64-127 and
blocks 253 and 254.
Since no character set is used in bitmapped graphics, you
don't have to worry about defining one.
If you want to draw bitmapped graphics shapes with the
SHAPE statement, merge the lines in the "SHP.BAS” file with
your program, and load the shape file before you load the
sprite definitions.
The following program lines summarize the steps you
should take to use the Bitmapped Graphics and Sprite Control
System utilities together.
200 LA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50)+1000:GOSUB 58100:REM
{SPACE}LOAD AND RELOCATE SCS.OBJ
210 F$=“FILENAME":GOSUB 58500:REM LOAD DEFINITIONS
220 SYS RL,196:REM RELOCATE SCREEN MEMORY
230 GRAPHICS 0:POKE 53265,PEEK(53265)AND127:REM CA
N USE ANY MODE
240 SYS IN:REM INSTALL SPRITE CONTROL SYSTEM
250 ...

"FILENAME” in line 210 should be changed to match the

definition file's name you're calling.
If you're also using bitmapped graphics shapes (the
SHAPE statement), insert the following line:
205 F$="FILENAME":GOSUB 56500:REM LOAD SHAPES

End the program in the normal way.

458
 Chapter 16

560 ...
570 SYS RE:REM REMOVE SPRITE CONTROL SYSTEM
580 SYS RSsREM RESET SCREEN
590 END

Using the Sprite Control System with Sidplayer

It's much easier to use the Sprite Control System with the
Sidplayer. You should have no problems as long as you follow
this process.
Your program must contain the Sidplayer subroutine lines
starting at 57000, as well as the lines beginning at 58000 used
by the Sprite Control System. The lines from 57000 can be
found in Program 11-1, “SID.BAS."
Your BASIC program should begin by assigning the
LOAD address.
LA = 16384
Load and relocate the "SID.OBJ" file with:
GOSUB 57100
Next, load the "SCS.O BJ" file. It's not necessary to re­
locate the file this time.
GOSUB 58000
Now load the song and sprite definition files.
F$=//7c«awe:GOSUB 57500:REM LOAD SONG
F$ —filenam e:G O S\JB 58500:REM LOAD DEFINITIONS
The last step is to use the SYS HK call to install Sidplayer
before you use the SYS IN call to install the Sprite Control
System. This order is important.
SYS HK:SYS IN
Proceed as normal from this point. At the end of the pro­
gram, the utilities must be removed in the reverse order.
SYS RE:SYS DP
There are a few important notes about using these two
utilities together. The first is that both utilities are interrupt-
driven. Both utilities take an amount of processing time away
from BASIC, so your programs may run noticeably slower.
Using the utilities in tandem increases the chance of a
crash-causing error. If the music or sprite motion ever stops
suddenly for no apparent reason, it means that music and mo­
tion processing took more than one frame. If this is ever a

459
Chapter 16

problem, try using fewer special options between notes in the

music, or reduce the number of moving sprites.
Finally, when the two utilities are used together and your
computer is operating on 50 Hz power (in Europe, for ex­
ample), the tempo of the music will be slightly decreased.

Using All Three Utilities Together

If you want, you can use the Bitmapped Graphics, Sidplayer,
and Sprite Control System utilities simultaneously. To do so,
start with the bitmapped graphics extensions already installed.
Assign the LOAD address, load and relocate the SID.OBJ file,
load and relocate the SCS.OBJ file, and then load the shape,
song, and definition files. Make sure that you use SYS HK and
SYS RL,196 before SYS IN, and be sure to clear bit 7 of loca­
tion 53265 whenever you use the GRAPHICS statement. At
the end of the program, use SYS RE, SYS RS, and SYS DP, in
that order.
The following demonstration is not intended to be a typi­
cal application of the three utilities, but it does show you how
to get all three going at the same time.

Program 1 6 -3 . Three at Once

For error-free program entry,be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader/' Appendix D.
Remember to install the bitmapped graphics extensions to BASIC before entering this
program.

100 PRINT " { C L R H d OWN} ALL ABOUT THE COMMODORE 64s

VOLUME TWO" srem 86
110 PRINT TAB(10) "GRAND DEMONSTRATION"sPRINT
srem 6
120 DN=8sSA=780sSX=781sSY=782sSP=783 srem 134
200 LA=PEEK(49)+256*PEEK(50)+1000 srem 248
210 GOSUB 57100 sREM LOAD AND RELOCATE SID.OBJ
srem 89
220 GOSUB 58100sREM LOAD AND RELOCATE SCS.OBJ
srem 100
230 F$="COMMODORE"sGOSUB 57500sREM LOAD SONG
srem 85
240 F$ = "BUNNYMsGOSUB 58500 sREM LOAD DEFINITION
srem 240
300 GRAPHICS 6 sPOKE 53265,PEEK(53265)AND127sREM TU
RN ON BITMAPPED GRAPHICS srem 135
310 SYS HKsREM INSTALL SIDPLAYER srem 8
320 SYS RL,196sREM RELOCATE SCREEN MEMORY srem 4
330 SYS INsREM INSTALL SPRITE CONTROL SYSTEM
srem 62

460
 Chapter 16

340 SYS DF,254,0:REM DEFINE BLOCK 254 WITH DEFINIT

ION 0 :rem 103
350 SYS FR,255:REM FREEZE ALL SPRITES :rem 217
360 FOR SN=0 TO 7sREM LOOP WITH SPRITE NUMBER
srem 156
370 SYS CO,SN,1:REM SET COLOR TO WHITE srem 2
380 SYS P O ,SN,50+SN*25,20+SN*22 sREM SET POSITION
srem 91
390 SYS DI,SN,3 sREM SET DIRECTION srem 255
400 SYS MO,SN,2,2sREM SET SPEED srem 51
410 SYS B O ,SN,1s REM TURN ON BOUNCE srem 15
420 SYS BL,SN,254sREM ASSIGN BLOCK 254 TO SPRITE (
AND ENABLE) srem 229
430 NEXT SN srem 119
440 POKE SX,LOsPOKE SY,HisSYS PLsPOKE SS,7sREM STA
RT SONG PLAYING srem 73
450 SYS UN,255sREM START SPRITES MOVING srem 169
460 SETPEN 1,RND(0)*14+2 sDRAW RND(0)*40,RND(0)*25
{SPACEjTO RND(0)*40,RND(0)*25 srem 76
470 IF PEEK(SS)AND7 GOTO 460sREM DRAW LINES UNTIL
{SPACE}SONG ENDS srem 215
480 SYS REsREM REMOVE SPRITE CONTROL SYSTEM
srem 251
490 SYS RS sREM RESET SCREEN srem 162
500 SYS DPsREM REMOVE SIDPLAYER srem 193
510 PRINTsPRINT " WOWl WHAT A SHOW1" srem 35
520 END srem 110
57000 POKE SA,1 sPOKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,lsSYS 65466sF$=
"SID.OBJ"sGOSUB 59000 srem 106
57010 POKE SA,0 sSYS 65493sIF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 591
00 srem 126
57020 SS=49152 sHK=49435 sPL=49458 sDP=49629 sRETURN
srem 77
57100 GOSUB 57000 sPOKE SX,LA-256*INT(LA/256) sPOKE
{SPACE}SY,INT(LA/256)sSYS 51042 srem 218
57110 LA=LA+1398sRETURN srem 111
57500 POKE SA,1 sPOKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,0sSYS 65466sF$=
F$+".MUS"sGOSUB 59000 srem 61
57510 HI=INT(LA/256)sLO=LA-256*HI srem 137
57520 POKE SA,0 sPOKE SX,LOsPOKE SY,HIsSYS 65493sIF
PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 59100 srem 49
57530 LA=PEEK(SX)+256*PEEK(SY)sRETURN srem 29
58000 POKE SA,1sPOKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,lsSYS 65466sF$=
"SCS.OBJ"sGOSUB 59000 srem 116
58010 POKE SA,0 sSYS 65493sIF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 591
00 srem 127
58020 IN=49664sRE=49667 sRL=49670 sRS=49673 sDF=49676
sBL=49679sCO=49682sWI=49685 srem 172
58030 HE=49688 sPO=49691s DI=49694 sWR=49697 sBO=49700
sMO=49703sLB=49706sRB=49709 srem 148

461
Chapter 16

58040 TB=49712:BB=49715:FR=49718:UN=49721sPR=49724
:MU=49727:EN=49730:JS=49733 :rem 149
58050 AU=49736:CH=49739sRETURN :rem 14
58100 GOSUB 58000:SYS 51123,LA:LA=LA+1191:RETURN
:rem 11
58400 POKE 49749,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE 49750,INT
(LA/256) srem 182
58410 READ J :POKE 49751,JsFOR K=0 TO J :READ JsPOKE
LA,J:LA=LA+1 srem 16
58420 IF J THEN FOR LA=LA TO LA+J-1s READ IsPOKE LA
,IsNEXT LA srem 92
58430 NEXT KsRETURN srem 168
58500 POKE SA,1 sPOKE SX,DNsPOKE SY,0sSYS 65466sF$=
F$+".DEF"sGOSUB 59000 srem 24
58510 POKE SA,0 sPOKE SX,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE SY
,INT/LA/256) srem 78
58520 SYS 65493sIF PEEK(SP)AND1 GOTO 59100 srem 44
58530 LA=LA+1sPOKE 49749,LA-256*INT(LA/256)sPOKE 4
9750,INT(LA/256) srem 167
58540 POKE 49751,PEEK(LA-l)sLA=PEEK(SX)+256*PEEK(S
Y)sRETURN srem 31
59000 FOR K=1 TO LEN(F$)sPOKE 584+K,ASC(MID$(F$,K)
)sNEXT srem 88
59010 POKE SA,LEN(F$)sPOKE SX,73sPOKE SY,2sSYS 654
6 9 sRETURN srem 6
59100 P=PEEK(SA)SPRINT " ERRORS ";sIF P=4 THEN PRI
NT "FILE NOT FOUND"sEND srem 200
59110 IF P=5 THEN PRINT "DEVICE NOT PRESENT"sEND
srem 36
59120 PRINT ST SEND srem 70

When this program runs, it loads the files SID.OBJ,

SCS.OBJ, COMMODORE.MUS, and BUNNY.DEF, in that or­
der. If you're using disk, all of these files must be on the same
disk. If you are using tape, the files should be stored on the
same tape in that order.

Final Comments
The Sprite Control System makes it possible to animate sprites
in ways that are otherwise not possible in BASIC. If applica­
tions don't seem readily apparent, it's probably because you're
not used to having such capabilities available.
The two biggest areas of potential use are probably educa­
tional programs and games. An effective use of animation can
greatly enhance educational software, and action games and
adventures are made more feasible by the Sprite Control
System.
462
 Chapter 16

With the bitmapped graphics extensions to BASIC,

Sidplayer, and the Sprite Control System, you now have a
complete sound and graphics package. In fact, you have a
whole new computer. Have fun in discovering your new Com­
modore 64!

Sprite C ontrol System C om m and Index

Sprite Editor
Editing Commands
Change color 411
Copy 413-14
Data 415-17
Delete 411
Edit 412-13
Erase 411
Flip 410
Height 411-12
Insert 411
Invert 410
Key effect 412
Load 415
Multicolor 412
Quit 417
Save 414
Scrolling 411
Width 411-12

Sprite Control System

SYS Calls
AU (autoshape) 435
BB (bottom boundary) 428-29
BL (assign block) 422-23
BO (bounce) 426-27
CH (chase) 440-41
CO (color) 423
DF (define block) 422
DI (direction) 425-26
EN (enable/disable) 443
FR (freeze) 441-43
HE (height) 423
IN (install) 421

463
Chapter 16

JS (joystick) 438-40
LB (left boundary) 428-29
MO (speed and motion) 427-28
MU (multicolor) 437
PO (position) 423-25
PR (set priority) 437-38
RB (right boundary) 428-29
RE (remove) 429
RL (relocate screen memory) 453-54
RS (reset screen memory) 455
TB (top boundary) 428-29
UN (unfreeze) 442-43
WI (width) 423
WR (wraparound) 426-27

464
 Appendix A

A Beginner’s Guide to
Typing In Programs

W hat Is a Program?
A computer cannot perform any task by itself. Like a car with­
out gas, a computer has potential, but without a program, it
isn't going anywhere. Many of the programs published in this
book are written in a computer language called BASIC. BASIC
is easy to learn and is built into all Commodore 64s.

BASIC Programs
Computers can be picky. Unlike the English language, which
is full of ambiguities, BASIC usually has only one right way of
stating something. Every letter, character, or number is signifi­
cant. A common mistake is substituting the letter O for the nu­
meral 0, a lowercase l for the numeral 1, or an uppercase B for
the numeral 8. Also, you must enter all punctuation, such as
colons and commas, just as it appears in the book. Spacing
can be important. To be safe, type in the listings exactly as
they appear.

Braces and Special Characters

The exception to this typing rule is when you see the braces,
such as {DOWN}. Anything within a set of braces is a special
character or characters that cannot easily be listed on a printer.
When you come across such a special statement, refer to
"How to Type In Programs" (Appendix B).

About DATA Statements

Some programs contain a section or sections of DATA state­
ments. These lines provide information needed by the pro­
gram. Some DATA statements contain actual programs (in
machine language), while others may contain graphics codes.
These lines are especially sensitive to errors.
If a single number in any one DATA statement is
mistyped, your machine could lock up, or crash. The keyboard
and RUN/STOP key may seem dead, and the screen may go
blank. But don't panic. No damage has been done. To regain
control, turn off your computer and then turn it back on. This

467
Appendix A

will erase whatever program was in memory, so always save a

copy of your program before you run it. If your computer
crashes, you can load the program and look for your mistake.
Sometimes a mistyped DATA statement will cause an er­
ror message when the program is run. The error message may
refer to the program line that READs the data. However, the
error is still in the DATA statements.

Get to Know Your Machine

You should familiarize yourself with your computer before
attempting to type in a program. Learn the statements you use
to store and retrieve programs from tape or disk. You'll want
to save a copy of your program so that you won't have to type
it in every time you want to use it. Learn to use your ma­
chine's editing functions. How do you change a line if you
made a mistake? You can always retype the line, but you
should at least know how to backspace. Do you know how to
enter reverse-video, lowercase, and control characters? It's all
explained in your manual.
In order to insure accurate entry of each program line, we
have included a checksum program. Please read “The Auto­
matic Proofreader" (Appendix D) before typing in any of the
programs in this book.

A Quick Review
1. Type in the program, a line at a time, in order. Press RE­
TURN at the end of each line. Use backspace or the back-
arrow to correct mistakes.
2. Check the line you've typed against the line in the book.
You can check the entire program again if you get an error
when you run the program.

468
 Appendix B

How to Type In Programs

Some of the programs in this book contain special control

characters (cursor controls, color keys, reverse-video, etc.). To
make it easy to know exactly what to type when entering one
of these programs into your computer, we have established
the following listing conventions.
Generally, Commodore 64 program listings will con­
tain words within braces which spell out any special char­
acters: {DOWN} would mean to press the cursor-down key;
{5 SPACES} would mean to press the space bar five times.
To indicate that a key should be shifted (hold down the
SHIFT key while pressing the other key), the key would be
underlined in our listings. For example, S would mean to
type the S key while holding the SHIFT key. This would ap­
pear on your screen as a heart symbol. If you find an under­
lined key enclosed in braces (for example, {10 N}), you should
type the key as many times as indicated. In that case, you
would enter ten shifted N's.
If a key is enclosed in special brackets, [< >], you should
hold down the Commodore key while pressing the key inside the
special brackets. (The Commodore key is the key in the lower-
left corner of the keyboard.) Again, if the key is preceded by a
number, you should press the key as many times as necessary.
Rarely, you'll see a solitary letter of the alphabet enclosed
in braces. These characters can be entered by holding down the
CTRL key while typing the letter in the braces. For example,
{A} would indicate that you should press CTRL-A.

Quote Mode
You know that you can move the cursor around the screen with
the CRSR keys. Sometimes a programmer will want to move
the cursor under program control. That's why you see all the
{LEFT}'s, {HOME}'s, and {BLU}'s in our programs. The only
way the computer can tell the difference between direct and
programmed cursor control is the quote mode.
Once you press the quote (the double quote, SHIFT-2), you
are in the quote mode. If you type something and then try to
change it by moving the cursor left, you'll only get a bunch of
reverse-video lines. These are the symbols for cursor left. The

469
Appendix B

only editing key that isn't programmable is the INST/DEL key;

you can still use INST/DEL to back up and edit the line. Once
you type another quote, you are out of quote mode.
You also go into quote mode when you INSerT spaces into
a line. In any case, the easiest way to get out of quote mode is
to just press RETURN. You'll then be out of quote mode and
you can cursor up to the mistyped line and fix it.
In order to insure accurate entry of each program line, we
have included a checksum program. Please read “The Auto­
matic Proofreader" (Appendix D) before typing in any of the
programs in this book.
Refer to the following table when entering cursor and color
control keys:
W h e n You W h e n You
R ead: P re s s : See: R ead: P re s s :

■ SK ER iigii ::n>nEisBin
{C L R }

{H O M E }
i
SH IFT
E
I [ C L R /H O M E
J L ...... ... J
I C L R /H O M E £ 3
£

£
1

^
1
1
COM M ODORE

COM M ODORE
[ 1

2
i ...... ......j

{U P } [ s h if t ]
□[ I C R SR 1 I £ 3 ^ COM M ODORE 3

{D O W N } J Ej f C R SR ] £ 4 1 COM M ODORE 4

{L E F T }
■
[ SH IFT ! [*«— C R SR — ►] £
sl CO M M O DO RE . 5

{R I G H T } < a — C R SR —► £
sl COM M ODORE 6

{R V S} CTRL
E 9

■
B

£
7l CO M M O DO RE 7
00

{O F F } CTRL 0 CO M M O DO RE 8

{B L K } CTRL
■ 1 t FI } fl

{W H T }
i
CTRL
m 2 { F2 } SH IFT fl

{R E D } CTRL
e |i 3 { F3 } f3

{C Y N }
l01111]L4 ] m { F4 } SH IFT f3

{P U R } [ j CTRL i 5 { F5 } f5

{G R N } [ j CTRL □ 6 ! F6 } SH IFT f5

{B L U } f ’' B
CTRL 7 i F7 } f7

{Y E L } [ CTRL m 8 { F8 } SH IFT f7

470
 Appendix C

Using the Machine

Language Editor: M LX
Charles Brannon

Remember the last time you typed in the BASIC loader for a
long machine language program? You typed in hundreds of
numbers and commas. Even then, you couldn't be sure if you
typed it in right. So you went back, proofread, tried to run
the program, crashed, went back again, proofread, corrected a
few typing errors, ran again, crashed again, rechecked your
typing . . .
Frustrating, wasn't it?
Now, "M LX" comes to the rescue. MLX makes it easy to
enter all those long machine language programs with a mini­
mum of fuss. It lets you enter the numbers from a special list
that looks similar to DATA statements, and it checks your typ­
ing on a line-by-line basis. It won't let you enter illegal
characters when you should be typing numbers. It won't let
you enter numbers greater than 255. It will prevent you from
entering the numbers on the wrong line. In short, MLX will
make proofreading obsolete.

Tape or Disk Copies

In addition, MLX will generate a ready-to-use tape or disk
copy of your machine language program. You can then use
the LOAD command to read the program into the computer,
just like you would with a BASIC program. Specifically, you
enter:
LOAD "program name",1,1 (for tape)
LOAD "program name",8,1 (for disk)
To start the program, you need to enter a SYS command
that tranfers control from BASIC to your machine language
program. The starting SYS will always be given in the article
which presents the machine language program in MLX format.

Using M LX
Type in and save MLX (you'll want to use it in the future).
When you're ready to type in the machine language program,

471
Appendix C

run MLX. MLX will ask you for two numbers: the starting ad­
dress and the ending address. Then you'll get a prompt show­
ing the specified starting address; that tells you to type in the
corresponding first line of the program.
Subsequent prompts will ask you to type in subsequent
lines from the MLX listing. Each line is six numbers plus a
checksum. If you enter any of the six numbers wrong, or enter
the checksum wrong, the 64 will sound a buzzer and prompt
you to reenter the entire line. If you enter the line correctly, a
pleasant bell tone will sound and you may go on to enter the
next line.

A Special Editor
You are not using the normal 64 BASIC editor with MLX. For
example, it will accept only numbers as input. If you make a
typing error, press the INST/DEL key; the entire number is
deleted. You can press it as many times as necessary, back to
the start of the line. If you enter three-digit numbers as listed,
the computer automatically prints the comma and goes on to
accept the next number. If you enter less than three digits, you
can press either the space bar or RETURN key to advance to
the next number. The checksum automatically appears in
reverse video for emphasis.
To make it even easier to enter these numbers, MLX re­
defines part of the keyboard as a numeric keypad (lines
581-584). The keypad can be used only to enter the data; you
must use the regular number keys to enter the starting and
ending addresses.

When testing it, I've found MLX to be an extremely easy

way to enter long listings. With the audio cues provided, you
don't even have to look at the screen if you're a touch-typist.

472
 Appendix C

Done at Last!
When you get through typing, assuming you type your ma­
chine language program all in one session, you can then save
the completed and bug-free program to tape or disk. Follow
the instructions displayed on the screen. If you get any error
messages while saving, you probably have a bad disk, a full
disk, or a typo in MLX. Sorry, MLX can't check itself!

Command Control
What if you don't want to enter the whole program in one sit­
ting? MLX lets you enter as much as you want, save the com­
pleted portion, and then reload your work from tape or disk
when you want to continue. MLX recognizes these commands:
SHIFT-S: Save
SHIFT-L: Load
SHIFT-N: New Address
SHIFT-D: Display
Hold down SHIFT while you press the appropriate key.
You will jump out of the line you've been typing, so I recom­
mend you do it at a prompt. Use the Save command to store
what you've been working on. It will write the tape or disk
file as if you've finished. Remember what address you stop
on. Then, the next time you run MLX, answer all the prompts
as you did before and insert the disk or tape containing the
stored file. When you get the entry prompt, press SHIFT-L to
reload the file into memory. You'll then use the New Address
command (SHIFT-N) to resume typing.

New Address and Display

After you press SHIFT-N, enter the address where you pre­
viously stopped. The prompt will change and you can con­
tinue typing. Always enter a New Address that matches up
with one of the line numbers in the special listing, or else the
checksums won't match up. You can use the Display com­
mand to display a section of your typing. After you press
SHIFT-D, enter two addresses within the line number range of
the listing. You can stop the display by pressing any key.

Tricky Stuff
You can use the Save and Load commands to make copies of
the complete machine language program. Use the Load

473
Appendix C

command to reload the tape or disk, then insert a new tape or

disk and use the Save command to create a new copy.
One quirk about tapes made with the MLX Save com­
mand: When you load them, the message "FOUND program"
may appear twice. The tape will load just fine, however.
Programmers will find MLX to be an interesting program
which protects the user from most typing mistakes. Some
screen formatting techniques are also used. Most interesting is
the use of ROM Kernal routines for loading and saving blocks
of memory. To use these routines, just POKE the starting ad­
dress (low byte/high byte) into memory locations 251 and
252, and POKE the ending address into locations 254 and 255.
Any error code for the Save or Load can be found in location
253 (an error would be a code less than ten).
I hope you will find MLX to be a true labor-saving pro­
gram. Since it has been tested by entering actual programs,
you can count on it as an aid for generating bug-free machine
language. Be sure to save MLX; it will be used for future
applications in other COMPUTE! books.
(Note: If you have a copy of MLX from another COMPUTE!
publication and you're using tape, change line 763 of your copy so
that it matches line 763 as listed below. Tape users who have a
copy of MLX which does not have a line 763 must use this ver­
sion of MLX.)

T h e Machine Language Editor: M L X

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader/' Appendix D.

10 REM LINES CHANGED FROM MLX VERSION 2.00 ARE 750

,765,770 AND 860 :rem 50
20 REM LINE CHANGED FROM MLX VERSION 2.01 IS 300
:rem 147
30 REM LINE CHANGED FROM MLX VERSION 2.02 IS 763
:rem 162
100 PRINT"{CLR}g63";CHR$(142);CHR$(8);:POKE53281,1
:POKE53280,1 srem 67
101 POKE 788,52:REM DISABLE RUN/STOP :rem 119
200 PRINT"{2 DOWN}{PUR}{BLKl MACHINE LANGUAGE EDIT
OR VERSION 2.03{5 DOWN}" :rem 239
210 PRINT"|5l{2 U P }STARTING ADDRESS?{8 SPACES}
{9 LEFT}"; :rem 143
215 INPUTS:F=1-F:C$=CHR$(31+119*F) :rem 166
220 IFS< 2560R(S>40960ANDS<49152)ORS> 53247THENGOSUB
3000:GOTO210 :rem 235
225 PRINT:PRINT:PRINT :rem 180
474
 Appendix C

230 PRINT"£53{2 UP}ENDING A DDRESS?{8 SPACES}

{9 LEFT}";sINPUTE:F=l-F:C$=CHR$(31+119*F)
:rem 20
240 IFE<2560R(E> 40960ANDE<49152)ORE> 53247THENGOSUB
3000 :GOTO230 srent 183
250 IFE<STHENPRINTC$;"{R V S }ENDING < START
{2 SPACES}":GOSUB1000:GOTO 230 :rem 176
260 PRINT:P RINT:PRINT :rem 179
300 PRINT"{C L R }";C H R $ (14):AD=S :rem 56
310 A = 1 :PRINTRIGHT?("0000"+MID$(STR?(A D ),2),5)?":"
; :rem 33
315 F0RJ=AT06 :rem 33
320 GOSUB570:IFN=-1THENJ=J+N:GOTO320 :rem 228
390 IFN=-211THEN 710 srem 62
400 IFN=-204THEN 790 :rem 64
410 IFN=-206THENPRINT:INPUT"{DOWN}ENTER NEW ADDRES
S" ;ZZ :rem 44
415 IFN=-206THENIFZZ <SORZZ>ETHENPRINT"{RVS}OUT OF
{SPACE}RANGE"sGOSUB1000:GOTO410 :rem 225
417 IFN=-206THENAD=ZZ:PRINT:GOTO310 srem 238
420 IF N o - 1 9 6 THEN 480 :rem 133
430 PRINT:INPUT"DISPLAY2FROM";F;PRINT,"TO"? 2INPUTT
srem 234
440 IFF<SORF >EORT <SORT>ETHENPRINT"AT LEAST " 7 S 7 "
{LEFT}, NOT MORE THAN"?E 2 GOTO430 2 rem 159
450 FORI=FTOTSTEP6:PRINT 2 PRINTRIGHT?("0000"+MID?(S
TR$(I),2),5)7m:"7 2 rem 30
451 FORK=0TO5 2N=PEEK(I+K) 2 PRINTRIGHT $("00"+MID?(ST
R?(N),2),3) 7 srem 6 6
460 GETA$ 2 IFA?>""THENPRINT;PRINT 2GOTO310 :rem 25
470 NEXTK 2 PRINTCHR?(20 ) 7 2NEXT1 2 PRINT 2 PRINT 2GOTO310
2 rem 50
480 IFN<0 THEN PRINT 2 GOTO310 2 rem 168
490 A(J)=N 2NEXTJ 2 rem 199
500 CKSUM=AD-1NT(AD/256)*256 2FORI=lT06 2 CKSUM=(CKSU
M+A(I ))AND255 sNEXT 2 rem 200
510 PRINTCHR?(18)7 2 GOSUB570;PRINTCHR$(146)7 2 rem 94
511 IFN=-1THENA=6 2G0T0315 :rem 254
515 PRINTCHR?(20)2 IFN=CKSUMTHEN530 2 rem 122
520 PRINT 2 PRINT"LINE ENTERED WRONG 2 RE-ENTER" 2 PRI
NT2GOSUB10002GOTO310 :rem 176
530 GOSUB2000 srem 218
540 F0RI=1T06 2 POKEAD+I-1,A(I) 2NEXT 2 POKE54272,0 2 POK
E54273,0 2 rem 227
550 AD=AD+6 2IF AD<E THEN 310 srem 212
560 GOTO 710 2 rem 108
570 N=02Z=0 2 rem 88
580 PRINT"££3"? srem 81
581 GETA?2IFA?=""THEN581 2 rem 95

475
Appendix C

582 AV=-(A$="M")-2*(A$=",")-3*(A$=".")-4*(A$="J")-
5*(A$="K")-6*(A$ = "L") :rem 41
583 AV=AV-7*(A$="U")-8*(A$="I")-9*(A$="0"):IFA$="H
"THENA$="0" :rem 134
584 IFAV>0THENA$=CHR$(48+AV) :rem 134
585 PRINTCHR$(20);:A=ASC(A $ ):IFA=130RA=440RA=32THE
N670 :rem 229
590 IFA>128THENN=-AsRETURN srem 137
600 IFA< >20 THEN 630 srem 10
610 GOSUB690:IFI=1ANDT=44THENN=-1:PRINT"{OFF}
{LEFT} {LEFT}";:GOTO690 :rem 62
620 GOTO570 :rem 109
630 IFA<480RA> 57THEN580 :rem 105
640 PRINTA$;:N=N*10+A-48 :rem 106
650 IFN>255 THEN A=20:GOSUB1000:GOTO600 srem 229
660 Z=Z+1:IFZ<3THEN580 srem 71
670 IFZ=0THENGOSUB1000:GOTO570 srem 114
680 PRINT",";sRETURN srem 240
690 S%=PEEK(209)+256*PEEK(210)+PEEK(211) srem 149
691 F0RI=lT03sT=PEEK(S%-I) srem 67
695 IFT<>44ANDT<> 58THENPOKES%-1,32 sNEXT srem 205
700 P R I N T L E F T $ ( " { 3 L E F T } " , 1 - 1 ) ; sRETURN srem 7
710 P R I N T " { C L R } { R V S } * * * SAVE * * * { 3 DOWN}" s r e m 2 3 6
715 P R I N T " { 2 DOWN}(PRESS { RVS} RETURN{ O F F } ALONE TO
CANCEL SAVE) { DOWN} " srem 1 0 6
720 F$=""sINPUT"{D OW N} FILENAME"; F $ sIF F $= ""T H E N P R I
NTs P R I NT ; G O T O 3 1 0 sr e m 71
730 PRINT S PR I NT " { 2 D O W N } { R V S } T { O F F } A P E OR { R V S } D
{OFFjlSKs (T/D)" srem 228
740 GETA$ sIFA$ <>"T"ANDA$ <>"D"THEN7 40 srem 36
750 DV=1-7*(A$="D")sIFDV=8THENF$="0s"+F$sOPEN15,8,
15,"S"+F$ sCLOSE15 srem 212
760 T$=F$ sZK=PEEK(53)+256*PEEK(54)-LEN(T $ )sPOKE782
,ZK/256 srem 3
762 POKE781,ZK-PEEK(782)* 256 sPOKE780,LEN(T $ )sSYS65
469 srem 109
763 POKE780,1 sPOKE781 ,’DV s POKE782,0 sSYS65466 srem 68
765 K=Ss POKE254,K/2 56 sPOKE253,K-PEEK(2 54)* 2 56 sPOKE
780,253 srem 17
766 K=E+1s POKE782,K/2 56 sPOKE781,K-PEEK(782)*256 sSY
S65496 srem 235
770 IF(PEEK(783)AND1)OR(191ANDST)THEN780 srem 111
775 PRINT"{DOWN}DONE.{DOWN}"SGOTO310 srem 113
780 PRINT"{DOWN}ERROR ON SAVE.{2 SPACES}TRY AGAIN.
"sIFDV=lTHEN720 srem 171
781 OPEN15,8,15s INPUT#15,El$,E2$ sPRINTE1$;E2$ sCLOS
E15 SGOTO720 srem 103
790 PRINT"{CLR}{RVS}*** LOAD ***{2 DOWN}" srem 212

476
 Appendix C

795 PRINT"{2 DOWN}(PRESS {RVS}RETURN{OFF} ALONE TO

CANCEL LOAD)" :rem 82
800 F$="":INPUT"{2 DOWN} FILENAME";F $ :IFF$=""THENP
RINT:GOTO310 :rem 144
810 PRINT:PRINT"{2 DOWN}{RVS}T{OFF}APE OR {RVS}D
{OFF}ISK: (T/D)" :rem 227
820 GETA$ sIFA$ <>"T"ANDA$ <>"D"THEN820 :rem 34
830 DV=l-7*(A$="D"):IFDV=8THENF$="0:"+F$ srem 157
840 T$=F$:ZK=PEEK(53)+256*PEEK(54)-LEN(T $ )sPOKE782
,ZK/256 srem 2
841 POKE781,ZK-PEEK(782)*256s POKE780,LEN(T $ )sSYS65
469 srem 107
845 POKE780,1sPOKE781,DVs POKE782,1sSYS65466 srem 70
850 POKE780,0:SYS65493 srem 11
860 IF(PEEK(783)AND1)OR(191ANDST)THEN870 srem 111
865 PRINT"{DOWN}DONE."sGOTO310 srem 96
870 PRINT"{DOWN}ERROR ON LOAD.{2 SPACES}TRY AGAIN.
{DOWN}"sIFDV=lTHEN800 srem 172
880 OPEN15,8,15s INPUT#15,El$,E2$s PRINTE1$;E2$:CLOS
E15 sGOTO800 srem 102
1000 REM BUZZER srem 135
1001 POKE54296,15 sPOKE54277,45 sPOKE54278,165
srem 207
1002 P0KE54276,33sPOKE 54273,6sPOKE54272,5 srem 42
1003 FORT=1TO200 sNEXTs POKE54276,32 sPOKE54273,0 sPOK
E54272,0s RETURN srem 202
2000 REM BELL SOUND srem 78
2001 POKE54296,15 sPOKE54277,0:POKE54278,247
srem 152
2002 POKE 54276,17:POKE54273,40 sPOKE54272,0 srem 86
2003 FORT=1TO100 sNEXTs POKE54276,16:RETURN srem 57
3000 PRINTC?;"{RVS}NOT ZERO PAGE OR ROM":GOTO1000
srem 89

477
Appendix D

The Automatic Proofreader

Charles Brannon

“The Automatic Proofreader" will help you type in program

listings without typing mistakes. It is a short error-checking
program that hides itself in memory. When activated, it lets
you know immediately after typing a line from a program list­
ing if you have made a mistake. Please read these instructions
carefully before typing any programs in this book.

Preparing the Proofreader

1. Using the listing below, type in the Proofreader. Be very
careful when entering the DATA statements— don't type an
l instead of a 1, an O instead of a 0, extra commas, etc.
2. Save the Proofreader on tape or disk at least twice before
running it for the first time. This is very important because
the Proofreader erases part of itself when you first type
RUN.
3. After the Proofreader is saved, type RUN. It will check itself
for typing errors in the DATA statements and warn you if
there's a mistake. Correct any errors and save the corrected
version. Keep a copy in a safe place— you'll need it again
and again, every time you enter a program from this book,
COMPUTERS Gazette, or COMPUTE! magazine.
4. When a correct version of the Proofreader is run, it activates
itself. You are now ready to enter a program listing. If you
press RUN/STOP-RESTORE, the Proofreader is disabled.
To reactivate it, just type SYS 886 and press RETURN.

Using the Proofreader

Many listings in this book have a checksum number appended
to the end of each line, for example, :rem 123. Don't enter this
statement when typing in a program. It is just for your infor­
mation. The rem makes the number harmless if someone does
type it in. It will, however, use up memory if you enter it, and
it will confuse the Proofreader, even if you entered the rest of
the line correctly.
When you type in a line from a program listing and press
RETURN, the Proofreader displays a number at the top of
your screen. This checksum number must match the checksum

478
 Appendix D

number in the printed listing. If it doesn't, it means you typed

the line differently from the way it is listed. Immediately re­
check your typing. Remember, don't type the rem statement
with the checksum number; it is published only so that you
can check it against the number which appears on your screen.
The Proofreader is not picky about spaces. It will not no­
tice extra spaces or missing ones. This is for your convenience,
since spacing is generally not important. But occasionally
proper spacing is important, so be extra careful with spaces.
Due to the nature of a checksum, the Proofreader will not
catch all errors. Since 1 4 - 3 + 5 = 3 + 1 + 5 , the Proof­
reader cannot catch errors of transposition. Thus, the Proof­
reader will not notice if you type GOTO 385 where you mean
GOTO 835. In fact, you could type in the line in any order
and the Proofreader wouldn't notice. The Proofreader should
help you catch most typing mistakes, but keep this in mind if
a program that checks out with the Proofreader still seems to
have errors.
There's another thing to watch out for: If you enter the
line by using abbreviations for commands, the checksum will
not match up. But there is a way to make the Proofreader
check it. After entering the line, list it. This eliminates the
abbreviations. Then move the cursor up to the line and press
RETURN. It should now match the checksum. You can check
whole groups of lines this way.

Special Tape SAVE Instructions

When you're through typing in a listing, you must disable the
Proofreader before saving the program on tape. Disable the
Proofreader by pressing RUN/STOP-RESTORE (hold down
the RUN/STOP key and sharply hit the RESTORE key). This
procedure is not necessary for disk SAVEs, but you must disable
the Proofreader this way before a tape SAVE.
Saving to tape erases the Proofreader from memory, so
you'll have to load and run it again if you want to type an­
other listing. Saving to disk does not erase the Proofreader.

Hidden Perils
The Proofreader's home in memory is not a very safe haven.
Since the cassette buffer is wiped out during tape operations,

479
Appendix D

you need to disable the Proofreader with RU N /STO P-

RESTORE before you save your program. This applies only to
tape use. Disk users have nothing to worry about.
Not so for 64 owners with tape drives. What if you type
in a program in several sittings? The next day, you come to
your computer, load and run the Proofreader, then try to load
the partially completed program so you can add to it. But since
the Proofreader is trying to hide in the cassette buffer, it is
wiped out!
What you need is a way to load the Proofreader after
you've loaded the partial program. The problem is, a tape
LOAD to the buffer destroys what it's supposed to load.
If you intend to type in a program in more than one sit­
ting or wish to make a safety SAVE, follow this procedure:
1. Load and run the Proofreader.
2. Disable it by pressing RUN/STOP-RESTORE.
3. Type the following three lines in direct mode (without line
numbers):
A$="PROOFREADER.T":B$="{10 S P A C E S F 0 R X = 1 T 0 4 : A $ = A
$+B$:NEXTX

FORX=886TO1018:A$=A$+CHR$(PEEK{X )):NEXTX

OPEN1,1,1,A $ :CLOSE1

After you enter the last line, you will be asked to press
RECORD and PLAY on your cassette recorder. Put this pro­
gram at the beginning of a new tape.
You now have a new version of the Proofreader. Turn
your computer off and on, then load the program you were
working on. Put the cassette containing the Proofreader into
the tape unit and type:
OPENl:CLOSEl
You can now start the Proofreader by typing SYS 886. To
test this, entering PRINT PEEK (886) should return the num­
ber 173. If it does not, repeat the steps above, making sure
that A$ (“PROOFREADER.T") contains 13 characters and that
B$ contains 10 spaces.
You can now reload the Proofreader into memory when­
ever the LOAD or SAVE command destroys it, restoring your
personal typing helper.

480
 Appendix D

The Automatic Proofreader

100 PRINT"{CLR}PLEASE W A I T F O R I = 8 8 6 T O 1 0 1 8 :READ
A :CK=CK+A:POKEI,A :NEXT
110 IF CK<>17539 THEN PRINT"{DOWN}YOU MADE AN ERRO
R " :PRINT"IN DATA STATEMENTS.":END
120 SYS886sPRINT"{CLR}{2 DOWN}PROOFREADER ACTIVATE
D ." sNEW
886 DATA 173,036,003,201,150,208
892 DATA 001,096,141,151,003,173
898 DATA 037,003,141,152,003,169
904 DATA 150,141,036,003,169,003
910 DATA 141,037,003,169,000,133
916 DATA 254,096,032,087,241,133
922 DATA 251,134,252,132,253,008
928 DATA 201,013,240,017,201,032
934 DATA 240,005,024,101,254,133
940 DATA 254,165,251,166,252,164
946 DATA 253,040,096,169,013,032
952 DATA 210,255,165,214,141,251
958 DATA 003,206,251,003,169,000
964 DATA 133,216,169,019,032,210
970 DATA 255,169,018,032,210,255
976 DATA 169,058,032,210,255,166
982 DATA 254,169,000,133,254,172
988 DATA 151,003,192,087,208,006
994 DATA 032,205,189,076,235,003
1000 DATA 032,205,221,169,032,032
1006 DATA 210,255,032,210,255,173
1012 DATA 251,003,133,214,076,173
1018 DATA 003

481
Appendix E

Program Merge Utility

Craig Chamberlain

Being able to easily merge two or more programs together can

be extremely useful. In Part 3 of this book, for example, there are
a series of programs that must be merged with "SID.BAS." The
directions told you to load SID.BAS before you began entering
each of the programs. When you finished entering the program
lines, SID.BAS would be appended to the end— you could then
save the entire program. But what if you forgot to load SID.BAS
and entered all the lines? Without a merge program you might
have to retype the entire program.
That's why we've included a simple merge utility. It's easy
to use and can merge two or more programs together. Notice
that this is a true merge, not an append. This means that if one
program contains lines numbered 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 10, and a second
contains lines 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, the merged program will have
lines 1 through 11. Since both original programs have a line 3
you must be careful which program is loaded first. The last line
3 entered will be the one which appears in the merged program.
(Please note that this merge program will not work if the bit­
mapped graphics extensions to BASIC are resident in memory.)

Using the Merge

Enter Program E -l, and save it before running. Use "The
Automatic Proofreader," from Appendix D, to insure that it's
entered correctly. When you run Program E -l, the following
options will be displayed on the screen:
FI CLEAR BUFFER
F3 START ADDING TO BUFFER
F5 STOP ADDING TO BUFFER
F7 DUMP BUFFER (MERGE)
Once you see this menu, you're ready to merge. Wait for
the READY, prompt, then load the first file from disk or tape.
Once it's loaded, press f3 and the border of the screen turns
black. List the program, then press the f5 key. Now load the
file you wish to merge with the first. Once that's loaded, press
f7; the two programs are now merged. Save the new program.
It's possible to merge more than two files together simply by

482
 Appendix E

repeating the procedure. You must press f3 before and f5 after

listing each program (except the last program to be merged,
where only f7 is necessary).
(Note: Once you press the f3 key, you should press only
the keys necessary to list the program to the screen. Do not
press the CTRL key to slow down the listing or any other key.
Also, once you press the f7 key to merge the programs, d o not
touch the keyboard while the screen scrolls.)
To see how easy the merge is to use, we've provided
three short programs that when merged together offer a short
demonstration. Individually, they will do nothing— only after
you've merged them will they work. Enter and save programs
E-2, E-3, and E-4. If you're using tape, save each program in
order on the same tape.
To merge the programs, load and run Program E -l. Then
follow these steps:
1. Load Program E-2
2. Press f3
3. List the program
4. Press f5
5. Load Program E-3
6. Press f3
7. List the program
8. Press f5
9. Load Program E-4
10. Press f7
11. Press RUN/STOP-RESTORE
12. Run the program

If the program runs correctly, you can save it just as you

would any other program. You must press RUN/STOP-
RESTORE to disable the merge before running any program.
If you wish to do several merges, simply skip steps 11 and
12 above and save your merged program. Then press fl to clear
the buffer. Now you can begin the process over again.

Program E -l. Merge Utility

For error-free program entry, be sure to use "The Automatic Proofreader," Appendix D.

100 PRINT CHR$(1 4 7 ):PRINT " DANDY PROGRAM MERGING

{SPACElUTILITY"sREM VI. 0 :rem 2 2 3
110 PRINT " BY CRAIG CHAMBERLAIN":PRINT :rem 65
300 PRINT " Fl CLEAR BUFFER"sPRINT " F 3 START ADDI
NG TO BUFFER" srem 1 8

483
Appendix E

310 PRINT " F5 STOP ADDING TO BUFFER”:PRINT " F7 D

UMP BUFFER (MERGE)"sPRINT srem 42
320 PRINT " RUN/STOP RESTORE TO REMOVE UTILITY"sPR
INT :rem 96
330 BP=208:EP=255SPRINT " PLEASE WAIT..."sPRINT
srem 242
500 FOR K=679 TO 707 sREAD PsPOKE K,PsNEXTsFOR K=82
8 TO 998 sREAD PsPOKE K,PsNEXT srem 33
510 POKE 65530,134sPOKE 65531,234sPOKE 252,BPsSYS
{SPACE}679 srem 93
520 FOR K=679 TO 761sREAD PsPOKE K,PsNEXTsPOKE 690
,BP sPOKE 718,BP sPOKE 749,BP srem 148
530 POKE 733,PEEK(806)sPOKE 734,PEEK(807)$POKE 754
,PEEK(788)sPOKE 755,PEEK(789) srem 146
540 POKE 758,BP+1sPOKE 759,EPsPOKE 56334,PEEK(5633
4)AND254 srem 216
550 POKE 655,167 sPOKE 656,2 sPOKE 788,223 .-POKE 789,
2 sPOKE 56334,PEEK(56334)ORl srem 196
560 POKE 252,BP+1sPOKE 254,BP+lsNEW srem 191
800 DATA 165,1,72,41,252,120,133,1,160,0,132,251,1
32,253,185,60,3,145,251 srem 231
801 DATA 200,192,171,208,246,104,133,1,88,96
srem 120
810 DATA 165,203,201,5,240,26,201,6,240,88,201,3,2
40.46.201.4.208.13.169.0. 133 srem 219
811 DATA 251,133,253,173,246,2,133,252,133,254,96,
169.2.205.39.3.240.20.162.2 srem 198
812 DATA 189,37,3,157,220,2,189,243,2,157,37,3,202
,208,241,142,249,2,96,165,251 srem 62
813 DATA 197,253,208,6,165,252,197,254,240,43,238,
248.2.208.21.152.160.0.145 srem 170
814 DATA 253,230,253,208,29,230,254,165,254,205,24
7,2,208,20,169,2,44,169,14 srem 165
815 DATA 141,249,2,173,221,2,141,38,3,173,222,2,14
1.39.3.96.166.198.236.137.2 srem 211
816 DATA 176,47,160,.0,177,251,157,119,2,232,230,25
1.208,2,230,252,165,251,197 srem 213
817 DATA 253,208,20,165,252,197,254,208,14,169,0,1
41.248.2.133.251.173.246.2 srem 166
818 DATA 133,252,208,5,236,137,2,208,213,134,198,9
6 srem 223
820 DATA 8,165,1,72,41,252,120,133,1,32,0,192,104,
133,1,40,173,249,2,141,32,208 srem 10
821 DATA 76,72,235,72,132,2,168,165,1,72,41,252,12
0,133,1,32,77,192,104,133,1 srem 192
822 DATA 88,173,249,2,141,32,208,164,2,104,76,202,
241,173,248,2,240,13,165,1 srem 151
823 DATA 72,41,252,133,1,32,116,192,104,133,1,76,4
9.234.192.2.208.255.0. 14 srem 44

484
 Appendix E

Program E-2. Merge Demo 1

10 REM MERGE DEMO ONE
30 PRINT "{CLRjYOU MUST MERGE THIS PROGRAM WITH ME
RGE{2 SPACES}DEMO TWO FOR IT TO WORK"
50 GOSUB 200:GOTO 70
70 REM THIS LINE WILL BE DELETED BY MERGE DEMO TWO
210 PRINT CHR$(147)
230 PRINT TAB(X ) "THE MERGE WORKSl"

Program E-3. Merge Demo 2

20 REM MERGE DEMO TWO
40 PRINT "{CLRlYOU MUST MERGE THIS PROGRAM WITH ME
RGE{2 s p a c e s }d e m o o n e f o r it t o w o r k "
60 PRINT "THE MERGE WORKED 1"
70 REM REPLACE LINE 70
80 PRINT "£ 7 3":END
200 REM SUBROUTINE
220 FOR X= 1 TO 20
240 PRINT "{YEL}";:IF X/2=INT(X/2) THEN PRINT"
{BLK}"?

Program E-4. Merge Demo 3

10 REM THE MERGE IS COMPLETE
20 REM
30 REM
40 REM
250 NEXT X
260 RETURN

485
Index
ADR envelope. See envelopes, "BUNNY.DEF" 392
nonsustaining instructions for use 392-93
ADSR envelope. See envelopes, "CALLIOPE.M US" 326
sustaining chaining, definition of 82, 84
"ALBUMLEAF.MUS" 316-18 "C H D EM O l" 165-66
animation. See also Sprite Control System "C H D E M 02" 166
principles of 379-80 "CHSETA.SHP" 159-63
use of bitmapped graphics 380-81 CLOSE statement 42, 43-44, 45, 57
use of character graphics 380 syntax of 42, 45
use of sprite graphics 381 CMD statement
"ANTIMUNCH" 154 summary of 49-50
argument variable. See DEF statement syntax of 47
ATN functions 25, 26. See also transcen­ use of 47-48
dental functions coda. See repetition
attack 185-86 command number 39, 44, 59, 61-62
attack rate 282. See also envelopes with an RS-232 device 73, 79
"The Automatic Proofreader" 481 commands, use of in programs 81-83
instructions for use 478-80 summary of 83-84
"BASIC Doodle" 91 "COMMODORE.MUS" 196-200
"BISTRO.M US" 327-28 conditions, numerical values for 3 -6
bitmap, relocation of 170-74 summary of 6-8
bitmapped graphics 97, 106-22 CONT command 81
illustration of coordinate system 107 use of in program mode 81, 83-84.
mixing text and graphics 164-66 See also commands, use of in
multicolor modes 119—22 programs
POKE equivalents for graphics state­ conversion of mathematical formulas
ments 175-77 23-24
SYS equivalents for graphics state­ COS function 25, 26. See also transcen­
ments 175-77 dental functions
Bitmapped Graphics Utility "COURANTE.MUS" 345-46
command 98 "Cross File Merge" 374-75
command index 181 explanation of 374-75
function 98, 168-70 cutoff frequency. See SID chip, filter
line drawing 112-15 controls
multicolor modes 119-22 da capo. See repetition
statements 98, 106-17, 123, 149, dal segno. See repetition
153-54, 164 decay 185-86
bit mask 85, 86, 88. See also WAIT decay rate 282. See also envelopes
statement DEF statement 27-32
"BLU ES" 265-66 purpose of a variable 28-29
"BMG Demonstration" 106 summary of 33-35
"BMGLOADER Disk Version" 99 syntax of 27-28, 33
"BMGLOADER Tape Version" 100 use of function calls 28-32
"BM G.OBJ" 100-05 "D E M O # l" 390-91
explanation of use 98-99 instructions for use 392
instructions for making copies 389 "D EM O #2" 393-95
"BRAID" 152 instructions for use 395
"BRAID.SHP" 152-53 "D EM O #3" 398-400
"BRA SS.M U S" 296-97 dense. See random function
"BROTHERHOOD" 127 DEVICE NOT PRESENT error 43, 45, 70.
buffer 71-73, 79. See also See also file input/output
telecommunications device number 39, 44, 59. See also OPEN
illustration of 72 statement, syntax of

487
 with an RS-232 device 73, 79 FILE OPEN error 42, 45. See also file
"Directory Reader" 65 input/output
disk directory filters 290-91, 342. See also music theory
reading of 64-67, 70 illustrations of 291
use of wild cards 65-67, 70 "Flags" 118-19
disk drive commands 61, 62, 63. See also flats. See pitch
disk files floating-point variables 12, 13, 14, 15
disk files 58-71. See also sequential files frequency 185
program files (PRG) 67, 69, 70-71 "FSONATINA.MUS" 275-79
relative files (REL) 68, 69, 71 fundamental frequency. See filters
replacement of a file 62 GET# statement 64, 70
summary of 68-71 syntax of 64, 70
USR files 67, 69, 70 "GOBBLER.DEF" 396-97
dotted notes. See music theory, duration instructions for use 395
of notes grace notes. See music theory, duration of
double dots. See music theory, duration notes
of notes graphics character set, use with a printer
dynamics. See music theory, volume 48
"Editor" 226-45. See also Sidplayer 'GSONATINA.MUS" 279-81
Editor "GUY.DEF" 400-401
instructions for use 246 instructions for use 401
"EDITOR.OBJ" 247-48 half note. See music theory, duration of
instructions for making copies 389 notes
eighth note. See music theory, duration harmonics. See filters
of notes "HOLST.MUS" 339
envelopes 185-86, 282-83, 333, 338, IF-THEN statement 7
342. See also music theory simplification of 3
illustration of 282, 284 input 37, 38, 69
nonsustaining 283 statements 38
sustaining 283 summary of statements 44-45
"ETAL.MUS" 204-206 INPUT# statement 40-41, 44
EXP function 24-25, 26. See also syntax of 40, 44
transcendental functions I/O devices
syntax of 24 kinds of 37, 38, 51
exponent. See scientific notation identification numbers 39, 42-43, 57
"EXTRACT," Bitmapped Graphics 179 integer variables
explanation of 178-79 computation of 13-14, 15
"Extract," Sidplayer Editor 372-73 in FOR-NEXT loops 13, 15
explanation of 371-73 range of 12, 15
"Extract," Sprite Control System 447-48 summary of 14-15
explanation of 447 syntax of 12-14, 15
instructions for use 448 use of 11-14, 15
"FAMILY.SHP" 127-28 use of with negative numbers 12-13
file creation 38 use of with positive numbers 12
FILE DATA error 43, 44, 58. See also file "JOKE.MUS" 346-47
input/output "K.C.O.MUS" 319
file input/output 37-45, 57 "KOTO.MUS" 297
error messages 42, 43 LIST command. See also commands, use
filename 39 of in programs
FILE NOT OPEN error 43, 45. See also use of in program mode 81, 83
file input/output "Lister" 365-67
file number 39, 44, 59. See also OPEN explanation of 364, 367-69
statement, syntax of LOAD command. See also commands,
range of 48, 50 use of in programs
with an RS-232 device 73, 79 secondary address 81, 82, 84

488
 syntax of 81-82, 84 dynamics 306-307
use of in program mode 81, 82 illustrations of grand staff 207, 210
LOG function. See also transcendental key 213-16, 226
functions key changes 307-308
syntax of 24 measures 219-20, 226
logical lines 19, 21 notation 206-207
machine language portamento 314-15, 342-43
explanation of 88-90 repetition 298-99
summary of 93-94 rests 221-22, 226
"Machine Language Doodle" 91-92 ring modulation 333-37
"The Machine Language Editor: MLX" slurs 223, 226
474-77 summary of 225-26
instructions for use 471-74 synchronization 324-25, 344
mantissa. See scientific notation tempo 220-21, 226
mathematical calculations, using BASIC tempo changes 305-306
limitations of 9 ties 222-23, 226
precision of 8 time signatures 308-309
summary of 11 transposing 322-24, 343-44
"MAZE" 169 trills 314
"MERGE," Bitmapped Graphics 180-81 vibrato 315, 320, 343
explanation of 180 voice 224-25, 226
"Merge," Sidplayer Editor 369-71 volume 223-24, 226
explanation of 369, 371 NEW command 62-63. See also com­
"Merge," Sprite Control System 445-46 mands, use of in programs; disk
explanation of 445 drive commands
instructions for use 446-47 syntax of 62-63, 69
"Merge Demo 1" 485 use of in program mode 81, 83
instructions for use 483 noise waves 273. See also waveforms
"Merge Demo 2 " 485 illustration of 273
instructions for use 483 nonrelocatable LOAD 82, 84
"Merge Demo 3 " 485 NOT INPUT FILE error 43, 45, 56-57,
instructions for use 483 58. See also file input/output
"Merge Utility" 483-84 NOT OUTPUT FILE error 43, 45, 56, 58.
explanation of 482 See also file input/output
instructions for use 482-83 octave. See pitch
mode. See SID chip, filter controls ON-GOTO statement
mode number 107-108. See also bit­ examples of 6, 7
mapped graphics simplified use of 6, 7
modem 71, 73-77, 78 OPEN statement 39, 40-41
baud rate 73 syntax of 39, 44, 48, 50, 51, 57, 59,
command character 75 67, 68, 73
control character 73, 74 use of with a printer 46
duplex 75 with an RS-232 device 73, 79
handshaking 75 output 37, 38, 69
word length 73 statements 38, 41
"Modem" 77 summary of statements 44-45
explanation of 77-78 OVERFLOW error. See scientific notation
"MODERNART" 177-78 parallel communication, definition of 71, 78
"Munchkins" 125 "Parts" 20
"MUNCHKIN.SHP" 126 physical lines 19, 21
music theory 206-25, 271-73, 282-83, "PINBALL" 170
290-91, 305-49 "PIPERS.MUS" 321-22
accidentals 309-11 pi symbol, location of the keyboard 25
detuning 320-21, 343 pitch 185, 208-13, 225, 309-11, 314-15,
duration of notes 217-19, 225, 226, 320, 322-25, 333-38, 342-44. See
311-14 also music theory

489
"PLAYER," disk version 188-89 "SCS.OBJ" 384-88
explanation of 187, 190-91 instructions for making copies 389
"PLAYER," tape version 189-90 secondary address. See command number
explanation of 187, 190-91 seed value. See random function
POS function 19-20, 21. sequential file 58-59, 60, 67, 68, 69. See
print formatting functions 19-21 also disk files; tape files
summary of 21-22 reading of 59-60
printing writing of 59-60
to a printer 45, 46, 48 serial communication, definition of 71, 78
to the screen 45, 46 Shapedit 130-37
PRINT statement 3-4, 7, 45 combining sprites with bitmapped
PRINT# statement 41, 45, 49 graphics 167
syntax of 41, 45 features of 137-46
"PROMENADE.MUS" 340-41 instructions for use 130
pulse waves 272. See also waveforms reference chart 145
illustration of 272 use of to redefine custom characters
quarter note. See music theory, duration 166-67
of notes shape tables 123-29
radians 25, 26 plotting process 150-51
random function (RND) 15-17 using shapes in BASIC programs
kinds of 16 146-48
summary of 17 sharps. See pitch
Register Storage Area 92. See also SYS "SHP.BAS" 124
command "SID.BAS" 351-52
relational operator 3 SID chip 185, 186-87, 344, 348
relative positioning. See Shapedit, fea­ filter controls 290-96
tures of illustration of 186
release 185-86 "SIDDEMO" 360-62
release rate 282. See also envelopes "SID.OBJ" 191-96
relocatable LOAD 82, 84 instructions for making copies 389
RENAME command 62, 69. See also disk Sidplayer Editor
drive commands command index 375
syntax of 62, 69 commands 255-59, 273-75, 283-87,
repetition 298-99, 302-3. See also music 290-94, 299-302, 306-307, 310,
theory 312-13, 315, 320-21, 323, 324-25,
resolution 107-8, 109. See also bitmapped 333, 342-44, 355-56, 362
graphics DROP routine 354
resonance. See SID chip, filter controls error checking features 262-63
rounding function, of a number 26-27 function key summary 260
adding it to BASIC 27 HOOK routine 353-54
RS-232 communication. See also modems illustration of instrument parameters
definition of 71 349
summary of 78-79 joystick editing 267-68
RUN command, use of in program mode keyboard note entry 266-67
81, 83. See also commands, use of in merging with BASIC programs
programs. 351-63
SAVE command, use of in program PLAY routine 353-54
mode 83, 84. See also commands, relocating of 363-64
use of in programs. use of with advanced music theory
sawtooth waves 271. See also waveforms 305-49
illustration of 271 using the program 249-68
scientific notation, explanation of 9 -1 0 ,1 1 SIN function 25, 26. See also transcen­
"SCIPIO.MUS" 356-59 dental functions
SCRATCH command 61-62, 69. See also "SITAR.MUS" 297-98
disk files sixteenth note. See music theory, duration
"SCS.BAS" 382-83 of notes

490
SPC function 20, 21, 22. See also print advanced feature of 56
formatting functions importance of CLOSE statement 57,
sprite collision 4 58
Sprite Control System input 51, 52, 53
autoshape features 434-36 output 51, 53
available definition blocks 433-34 prevention of running off the end of
chase mode 440-41 a file 54-55, 58
command index 463 summary of 57-58
disabling the display of a sprite 443 telecommunications
enabling the display of a sprite 443 definition of 71
explanation of 381-82 demodulation 71, 78
instructions for use 389-90 explanation of 71-77
joystick control of a sprite 438-40 modulation 71, 78
multiple sprites 430 tempo terminology. See music theory,
relocation of screen memory 452-56 tempo
relocation of Sprite Control System "Theme and Variation" 287-89
4 5 6 - 57 timbre. See filters
setting priority of each sprite 437-38 "TOWERS" 148
synchronization of sprite motion "TOWER.SHP" 149
441-43 "TOWER II" 154-55
SYS calls 421-30 "TPI#14.M US" 328-32
use of in BASIC programs 419-43, transcendental functions
445-63 summary of 26
use of multicolor mode 437 use of in mathematical-oriented
use of with Bitmapped Graphics applications 22-25
4 5 7 - 59 triangle waves 271. See also waveforms
use of with Bitmapped Graphics and illustration of 271
Sidplayer Editor 460-62 trigonometry. See transcendental
use of with Sidplayer Editor 459-60 functions
"The Sprite Editor" 403-10. See also triplets. See music theory, duration of
Sprite Control System notes
joystick editing 410 "TULIPS" 128-29
editing commands 410-17 "TULIPS.SHP" 129
explanation of 381-82 "TWIST" 151-52
sprites 380, 381. See also Sprite Control type. See integer variables, use of
System underflow error. See scientific notation
animation of multiple sprites 430 uppercase character set, use with a
designing of 403-18 printer 48
illustration of direction numbers 426 USR function 93, 94
SQR function 22-23, 26. See also VALIDATE command 63, 70. See also
transcendental functions disk drive commands
syntax of 23 WAIT statement 84, 88. See also
square waves 271-72. See also waveforms Sidplayer Editor, merging with
illustration of 272 BASIC programs
string 59. See also disk files summary of 88
with an RS-232 device 73, 79 syntax of 88
STRING TOO LONG error 53, 58. See use of in program mode 84-88
also tape files, input waveform 185, 333, 337-38. See also mu­
sustain 185-86 sic theory
SYS command 88, 92, 93-94 types of 271-73, 337-38
TAB function 20-21, 22. See also print "WEATHER" 155-56
formatting functions "WEATHER.SHP" 157-59
use of to justify text 20-21 whole note. See music theory, duration of
TAN function 25, 26. See also transcen­ notes
dental functions "WSOLDIER.MUS" 201-204
tape files 5 0 -57 "YOY.MUS" 347

491
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A Brand New Computer
The Commodore 64 is a powerful personal computer. Its graphics
and sound capabilities are among the best. But these features haven't
always been the easiest to use. Sometimes they seem so complicated
that you give up before you start.
That all changes as soon as you have All About the Commodore 64,
Volume Two in hand. Its three major utilities can transform your
computer into a machine you won't recognize. Bitmap graphics, syn­
thesized music, and animated sprites are now easy to use—and to in­
sert into your own BASIC programs.
You needn't have read Volume One, though it may help you to bet­
ter understand BASIC. In fact, Part 1, “Advanced BA SIC ," picks
up where Volume One left off. You'll learn about numbers and
mathematics, functions, file input/output, and the powerful W AIT
statement. But the heart of this book is its extraordinary machine
language utilities. W ith the convenience of BASIC, but with the
speed and power of machine language, you'll quickly be enhancing
your own programs with dazzling graphics displays and fascinating
sound and music.
Part of what All About the Commodore 64, Volume Two can do for
your computer includes:
• Give you powerful new graphics commands that allow you to draw
on and fill the bitmap screen.
• Simplify shape creation. “Shapedit," an easy-to-use shape editor,
lets you create even the most complex drawing.
• Turn your 64 into a sophisticated music machine. “Sidplayer" and
an elaborate Editor let you create, or copy from sheet music, the
most detailed scores.
• Play music without slowing a BASIC program down.
• Create sprites with the Editor, save them to disk or tape, even
merge them with BASIC programs.
• Achieve continuous sprite motion, whether controlled by the com­
puter, or by you, that keeps going while BASIC is doing some­
thing else.
Each utility, by itself, can make your computer do impressive things.
The programs are integrated, too, so you can use all three together.
All About the Commodore 64, Volume Two is the book which
shows you how to make the best use of your computer's special fea­
tures. Isn't it about time you got control over the power waiting be­
neath your keyboard?

ISBN 0-942386-45-0
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