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Knowledge
Representation &
1
Reasoning
By:
Irum Naz Sodhar
Lecturer IT, SBBU-SBA Main Campus

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Design of this Course 2

• Will this course require programming?

• We will work with several off-the-shelf representation and
reasoning tools
• We will not be writing any new tools from scratch
• The focus will be on applying representation techniques to real
world knowledge and using existing tools to reason with that
knowledge
• – Minor programming may be needed for some assignments

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Outlines 3

• What is Knowledge Representation?

• Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR, KRR)
• Knowledge representation in AI Objects
• Events
• Performance
• Facts
• Meta-Knowledge
• Knowledge-base

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What is Knowledge 4

•?
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What is Reasoning ..? 5

• The reasoning is the mental process of deriving logical conclusion

and making predictions from available knowledge, facts, and
beliefs.
• Or we can say, "Reasoning is a way to infer facts from existing data."
• It is a general process of thinking rationally, to find valid conclusions.
• In artificial intelligence, the reasoning is essential so that the
machine can also think rationally as a human brain, and can
perform like a human.

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Types of Reasoning 6

• In artificial intelligence, reasoning can be divided into the

following categories:
• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
• Abductive reasoning
• Common Sense Reasoning
• Monotonic Reasoning
• Non-monotonic Reasoning

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1. Deductive reasoning
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• Deductive reasoning is deducing new information from logically related known information.
• It is the form of valid reasoning, which means the argument's conclusion must be true when
the premises are true.
• It is type of propositional logic in AI, and it requires various rules and facts.
• It is sometimes referred to as top-down reasoning, and contradictory to inductive reasoning.
• In deductive reasoning, the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion.
• Deductive reasoning mostly starts from the general premises to the specific conclusion, which
can be explained as below example.
• Example:
• Premise-1: All the human eats veggies
• Premise-2: Suresh is human.
• Conclusion: Suresh eats veggies.

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2. Inductive Reasoning:
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• Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning to arrive at a conclusion using limited

sets of facts by the process of generalization. It starts with the series of specific
facts or data and reaches to a general statement or conclusion.
• Inductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic, which is also known as
cause-effect reasoning or bottom-up reasoning.
• In inductive reasoning, we use historical data or various premises to generate a
generic rule, for which premises support the conclusion.
• In inductive reasoning, premises provide probable supports to the conclusion, so
the truth of premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion.
• Example:
• Premise: All of the pigeons we have seen in the zoo are white.
• Conclusion: Therefore, we can expect all the pigeons to be white.

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3. Abductive reasoning:
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• Abductive reasoning is a form of logical reasoning which starts

with single or multiple observations then seeks to find the most
likely explanation or conclusion for the observation.
• Abductive reasoning is an extension of deductive reasoning, but in
abductive reasoning, the premises do not guarantee the
conclusion.
• Example:
• Implication: Cricket ground is wet if it is raining
• Axiom: Cricket ground is wet.
• Conclusion It is raining.

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4. Common Sense Reasoning

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• Common sense reasoning is an informal form of reasoning, which

can be gained through experiences.
• Common Sense reasoning simulates the human ability to make
presumptions about events which occurs on every day.
• It relies on good judgment rather than exact logic and operates
on heuristic knowledge and heuristic rules.
• Example:
• One person can be at one place at a time.
• If I put my hand in a fire, then it will burn.
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5. Monotonic Reasoning:
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• In monotonic reasoning, once the conclusion is taken, then it will remain the same even if we
add some other information to existing information in our knowledge base.
• In monotonic reasoning, adding knowledge does not decrease the set of prepositions that can be derived.
• To solve monotonic problems, we can derive the valid conclusion from the available facts only,
and it will not be affected by new facts.
• Monotonic reasoning is not useful for the real-time systems, as in real time, facts get
changed, so we cannot use monotonic reasoning.
• Monotonic reasoning is used in conventional reasoning systems, and a logic-based system is
monotonic.
• Any theorem proving is an example of monotonic reasoning.
• Example:
• Earth revolves around the Sun.
• It is a true fact, and it cannot be changed even if we add another sentence in knowledge base
like, "The moon revolves around the earth" Or "Earth is not round," etc.

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Advantages & Disadvantages 12

• Advantages of Monotonic Reasoning:

• In monotonic reasoning, each old proof will always remain valid.
• If we deduce some facts from available facts, then it will remain valid for
always.
• Disadvantages of Monotonic Reasoning:
• We cannot represent the real world scenarios using Monotonic reasoning.
• Hypothesis knowledge cannot be expressed with monotonic reasoning,
which means facts should be true.
• Since we can only derive conclusions from the old proofs, so new knowledge
from the real world cannot be added.

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6. Non-monotonic Reasoning
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• In Non-monotonic reasoning, some conclusions may be invalidated if we add

some more information to our knowledge base.
• Logic will be said as non-monotonic if some conclusions can be invalidated by
adding more knowledge into our knowledge base.
• Non-monotonic reasoning deals with incomplete and uncertain models.
• "Human perceptions for various things in daily life, "is a general example of non-
monotonic reasoning.
• Example: Let suppose the knowledge base contains the following knowledge:
• Birds can fly
• Penguins cannot fly
• Pitty is a bird
• So from the above sentences, we can conclude that Pitty can fly.

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Advantages & Disadvantages 14

• Advantages of Non-monotonic reasoning:

• For real-world systems such as Robot navigation, we can use non-
monotonic reasoning.
• In Non-monotonic reasoning, we can choose probabilistic facts or
can make assumptions.
• Disadvantages of Non-monotonic Reasoning:
• In non-monotonic reasoning, the old facts may be invalidated by
adding new sentences.
• It cannot be used for theorem proving.
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Introduction 15

• What is Knowledge Representation?

• Knowledge Representation in AI describes the representation of knowledge.
• It is a study of how the beliefs, intentions, and judgments of an intelligent
agent can be expressed suitably for automated reasoning.
• Purposes of Knowledge Representation includes modeling intelligent behavior for an
agent.
• Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR, KRR) represents information from
the real world for a computer to understand and then utilize this knowledge to
solve complex real-life problems: Like
• Communicating with human beings in natural language
• Knowledge representation in AI is not just about storing data in a database, it allows
a machine to learn from that knowledge and behave intelligently like a human
being.
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Introduction: Types of Knowledge 16

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Introduction: Types of Knowledge (Cont…) 17

• Declarative Knowledge – Includes concepts, facts, and objects

and expressed in a declarative sentence.
• Structural Knowledge – It is a basic problem-solving knowledge
that describes the relationship between concepts and objects.
• Procedural Knowledge – This is responsible for knowing how to do
something and includes rules, strategies, procedures, etc.
• Meta Knowledge – Meta Knowledge defines knowledge about other
types of Knowledge.
• Heuristic Knowledge – This represents some expert knowledge in
the field or subject.
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The different kinds of knowledge that need to be

represented in AI include: 18

• Objects
• Events
• Performance
• Facts
• Meta-Knowledge Task For Lecture

• Knowledge-base

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Cycle of Knowledge Representation in AI

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• Artificial Intelligent Systems usually consist of various components

to display their intelligent behavior. Some of these components
include:
• Perception
• Learning
• Knowledge Representation & Reasoning
• Planning
• Execution
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Here is an example to show the different

components of the system and how it works 20

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Diagram interaction (Explaination) 21

• Shows AI system with the real world and the components involved in showing
intelligence.
• The Perception component retrieves data or information from the
environment.
• With the help of this component, you can retrieve data from the environment,
find out the source of noises and check if the AI was damaged by anything.
• Also, it defines how to respond when any sense has been detected.
• Then, there is the Learning Component that learns from the captured data by
the perception component.
• The goal is to build computers that can be taught instead of programming them. Learning
focuses on the process of self-improvement. In order to learn new things, the system
requires knowledge acquisition, inference, acquisition of heuristics, faster searches, etc.

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• The main component in the cycle is Knowledge Representation and

Reasoning which shows the human-like intelligence in the machines.
• Knowledge representation is all about understanding intelligence.
• Instead of trying to understand or build brains from the bottom up, its goal is to
understand and build intelligent behavior from the top-down and focus on what an agent
needs to know in order to behave intelligently.
• Also, it defines how automated reasoning procedures can make this knowledge available
as needed.

• The Planning and Execution components depend on the analysis of knowledge

representation and reasoning. Here, planning includes giving an initial state,
finding their preconditions and effects, and a sequence of actions to achieve a
state in which a particular goal holds. Now once the planning is completed, the
final stage is the execution of the entire process.

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Relationship between knowledge and

intelligence. 23

• What is the Relation between Knowledge & Intelligence?

• In the real world, knowledge plays a vital role in intelligence as
well as creating artificial intelligence. It demonstrates the
intelligent behavior in AI agents or systems. It is possible for an
agent or system to act accurately on some input only when it has
the knowledge or experience about the input.

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Understating the relationships Knowledge and

intelligence. 24

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Continue… 25

• In this example, there is one decision-maker whose actions are

justified by sensing the environment and using knowledge. But, if
we remove the knowledge part here, it will not be able to display
any intelligent behavior.
• Now that you know the relationship between knowledge and
intelligence, let’s move on to the techniques of Knowledge
Representation in AI.
•

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Techniques of Knowledge Representation in AI

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Four Techniques of KR

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Logical Representation
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• Logical representation is a language with some definite
rules which deal with propositions and has no ambiguity in
representation.
• It represents a conclusion based on various conditions and lays
down some important communication rules.
• Also, it consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which
supports the sound inference.
• Each sentence can be translated into logics using syntax and
semantics.

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Advantages and Disadvantages 28

• Advantages:
• Logical representation helps to perform logical reasoning.
• This representation is the basis for the programming languages.
• Disadvantages:
• Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work
with.
• This technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be very
efficient.

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Semantic Network Representation

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• Semantic networks work as an alternative of predicate logic for

knowledge representation.
• In Semantic networks, you can represent your knowledge in the form of
graphical networks.
• This network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which
describe the relationship between those objects.
• Also, it categorizes the object in different forms and links those objects.
• This representation consist of two types of relations:
• IS-A relation (Inheritance)
• Kind-of-relation

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Advantages and Disadvantages 31

• Advantages:
• Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.
• Also, it conveys meaning in a transparent manner.
• These networks are simple and easy to understand.
• Disadvantages:
• Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime.
• Also, these are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent quantifiers.
• These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.

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Frame Representation
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• A frame is a record like structure that consists of a collection of

attributes and values to describe an entity in the world.
• These are the AI data structure that divides knowledge into
substructures by representing stereotypes situations.
• Basically, it consists of a collection of slots and slot values of any
type and size.
• Slots have names and values which are called facets.

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Advantages and Disadvantages 33

• Advantages:
• It makes the programming easier by grouping the related data.
• Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.
• It is very easy to add slots for new attributes and relations.
• Also, it is easy to include default data and search for missing values.
• Disadvantages:
• In frame system inference, the mechanism cannot be easily processed.
• The inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame
representation.
• It has a very generalized approach.
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Production Rules
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• In production rules, agent checks for the condition and if the condition
exists then production rule fires and corresponding action is carried out.
• The condition part of the rule determines which rule may be applied to
a problem.
• Whereas, the action part carries out the associated problem-solving
steps. This complete process is called a recognize-act cycle.
• The production rules system consists of three main parts:
• The set of production rules
• Working Memory
• The recognize-act-cycle
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Advantages and Disadvantages 35

• Advantages:
• The production rules are expressed in natural language.
• The production rules are highly modular and can be easily removed or
modified.
• Disadvantages:
• It does not exhibit any learning capabilities and does not store the result of
the problem for future uses.
• During the execution of the program, many rules may be active. Thus, rule-
based production systems are inefficient.

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Knowledge Representation Requirements

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• A good knowledge representation system must have properties such as:

• Representational Accuracy:
• It should represent all kinds of required knowledge.
• Inferential Adequacy:
• It should be able to manipulate the representational structures to produce new
knowledge corresponding to the existing structure.
• Inferential Efficiency:
• The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into the most
productive directions by storing appropriate guides.
• Acquisitional efficiency:
• The ability to acquire new knowledge easily using automatic methods.
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Approaches to Knowledge Representation in AI

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• There are different approaches to knowledge representation such

as:
1. Simple Relational Knowledge
• It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method.
• Here, all the facts about a set of the object are set out systematically in
columns.
• Also, this approach of knowledge representation is famous
in database systems where the relationship between different entities is
represented.
• Thus, there is little opportunity for inference.

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Example 38

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2. Inheritable Knowledge 39

• In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored

into a hierarchy of classes and should be arranged in a
generalized form or a hierarchal manner.
• Also, this approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a
relation between instance and class, and it is called instance
relation.
• In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed
nodes.

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Example 40

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3. Inferential Knowledge
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• The inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form

of formal logic. Thus, it can be used to derive more facts. Also, it guarantees
correctness.
• Example:
• Statement 1: John is a cricketer.
• Statement 2: All cricketers are athletes.
• Then it can be represented as;
• Cricketer(John)
∀x = Cricketer (x) ———-> Athelete (x)s
• These were some of the approaches to knowledge representation in AI along
with examples.
• With this, we have come to the end of our article.

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I hope you understood what is Knowledge Representation in AI and its different

types. 42

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Task for this Week 43

• - Explain

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