Chapter 1

Module 1: Electromagnetism

1.1 Electrostatic field

1.1.1 Coulombs law
Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter. Electrons carry a charge of negative
one ”electron unit”, and protons a charge of positive one ”electron unit. Electric charge
is conserved in a closed system.SI unit for electric charge is the Coulomb which is
6.25 × 1018 electrons adds up to Coulomb.
Coulomb is amount of charge ordinary situations contain a tiny fraction of a Coulomb.
If one Coulomb per second moves past a fixed point in a wire, that y s is carrying a
sicwire
P h
g. through them.Insulators
current of one Ampere. Conductors allow charge to movenfreely
t s i
keep charged particles nearly fixed in place. Coulomb’sn ELaw describes
forethe force between
P o i n s b e
two charged point-like particles and p
Im . by relation:ook
given
d Text B
Rea q1 × q2
F =k× (1.1)
r2
 
where ’k’ is Coulomb’s constant 1
4πo = 8.99 × 109 N.m2 .C −2 , q1 is charge on first
particles (Coulombs), q2 is charge on first particles (Coulombs), r is distance between
particles (meters).
If the result is positive, the force is repulsive. If the result is negative, the force is
attractive. The electric forces from several particles add together as vectors. Coulombs
law states how strong is the force between charged particles. It provides means to
calculate the strength of the force between two point charges. Force between two charges
act on the line joining them. If more than two charges are present in area, one must
add the forces individually in X-directions or Y-directions.
Magnitude of the force can be calculated by this equation, and the direction should be
obvious from the signs of the interacting charges. Although the law is formulated for
point charges, it works equally well for spherically symmetric charge distributions. In
the case of a sphere of charge, calculations are done assuming all the charge is at the
centre of the sphere.
Coulombs force is different from Electric field which describes forces on charge particles.
Applications of Coulombs force or electric field is area of xerography, laser printers and
ink jet printers.

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Figure 1.1: Columb law

Question If one electron is held in place at the end of a pointy rod. Another is placed
at distance 0.5 m away and released. What happens to electron and how fast it moves
y sics
away? compare the acceleration of electron with acceleration due to gravity?
E n g. Ph
n fore
Answer:
Po i nts i s b e
2
m p. 9 oo2k −2 −1.6 × 10−19 C
I B
Text
F = 8.99 × 10 N.m .C ×
d 0.5m2
R ea

Question Two charges 1C and -4C exists in air. What is the direction of force?

Answer: Since the charges are unlike, the force will be attractive. Thus the force
directs from 1C to -4C.

Question The electrostatic force between two charges is a central force. Why?

Answer: The electrostatic force between two charges acts along the line joining two
charges. So, it is a central force.

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Question Compare the nature of electrostatic and gravitational forces.

Answer: Gravitational force acts between two massive bodies. But electrostatic force
comes into action between two charged bodies. Similarities are 1. Both these forces
are central forces.
2. Obey the inverse square law
3. Both of them are long range forces
4. Both forces are conservative in nature.
Disimilarities
1. Electrostatic force may be both attractive and repulsive in nature. Gravitational
force can only be attractive in nature.
2. The electric force between two charges depends on the material medium between
them. Gravitational force is not affected by the material medium between massive bod-
ies. 3. Electric forces are very strong (about 1038 times) in comparison to gravitational
forces.

Question Coulomb law is an implication of which law?

Answer: Coulomb law can be formulated from the Gauss law, using the divergence
theorem. Thus it is an implication of Gauss law.

1.1.2 Electric Field

Combination of Coulomb’s law, superposition and the concept of electric field gives the
electric field at a point P due to a system of charges. ysics
g. Ph
F~
Eo=ints
in En e fore
P q k s b
Imp. e x t Boo
T
d around a positive point charge q, since we
Reaasituation.
The electric flux through a spherical surface
already know the electric field in such Recall that when we place the point
charge at the origin of a coordinate system, the electric field at a point P that is at a
distance r from the charge at the origin is given by
1 hqi
E= r̂
4πo r2
where r̂ is s the radial vector from the charge at the origin to the point P. We can use
this electric field to find the flux through the spherical surface of radius r.
Rate of change of vector field is complex and is defined by two types, divergence and
Curl of a vector, which will be discussed in latter section.

1.1.3 Gauss law

Gauss Law, which studies electric charge along with a surface and the topic of electric
flux. Gauss’s law states that ”the net flux of an electric field in a closed surface
is directly proportional to the enclosed electric charge”. Electric flux is defined
as the electric field passing through a given area multiplied by the area of the surface
in a plane perpendicular to the field. Gauss’s law states that the net flux of a given
electric field through a given surface, divided by the enclosed charge should be equal to
a constant.

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Figure 1.2: Electric Field for different type of charges and for different systems

hyassics
Gauss law through an integral equation is .given
g P
n t s in IEn e fQore
P o i k s b
Imp.
E.dA =
T e x t Boo o
Rea
Where E is electric field d vector, ’Q’ is the enclosed electric charge, o is the electric
permittivity of free space and ’A’ is the outward pointing normal area vector.
Flux is a measure of the strength of a field passing through a surface. Hence, electric
flux ( flux density) is defined as
I
Φ = E.dA

Gauss’s law implies that the net electric flux through any given closed surface is zero
unless the volume bounded by that surface contains a net charge. Gauss’s law, the flux
of the electric field E through any closed surface, also called a Gaussian surface, is equal
to the net charge enclosed Qenc divided by the permittivity of free space o .
Q
Φ=
o
Gauss’s law is a mathematical statement that the total Electric Flux exiting any volume
is equal to the total charge inside. Hence, if the volume in question has no charge within
it, the net flow of Electric Flux out of that region is zero. If there is positive charge
within a volume, then there exists a positive amount of Electric Flux exiting any volume
that surrounds the charge. If there is negative charge within a volume, then there exists
a negative amount of Electric Flux exiting. Gauss’s law for electric fields is most easily
understood by neglecting electric displacement (d).

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Question Gauss law cannot be used to find which of the following quantity

Answer: Permittivity is constant for a particular material(say permittivity of water

is 1). It cannot be determined from Gauss law, whereas the remaining options can be
computed from Gauss law.

Question Divergence theorem is based on ?

Answer: Divergence theorem relates surface integral and volume integral. Div(D)
= ρv, which is Gauss’s law.

Question Gaussian surface for a line charge will be cylindrical. Why?

Answer: A line charge can be visualized as a rod of electric charges. The three
dimensional imaginary enclosed surface of a rod can be a cylinder.

Question Gaussian surface for a point charge will be Sphere. Why?

Answer: A point charge is single dimensional. The three dimensional imaginary en-
closed surface of a point charge will be sphere.

1.1.4 Derivation of Coulombs law from Gauss law

To derive Coulomb’s law from gauss law or o find the intensity i
hyofselectric cs
field due to
n g . P
a point charge +q at any point in space using Gauss’s E law. Gauss
in sections.efWe reconsiderbea isolated
law can applied
i n t s b o
Po
here to derive coulomb’s law which is studied in earlier
ks radially
Imp. isotropic
positive charge in rationally symmetrical
x t B ooand
field equal every where.
Te for all points at a distance ’r’ from the
isdsame
We consider magnitude of electric fieldea
charge.
R
From Gauss law, we have I Z
q
E.da = E da =
o
Since E is constant at all points on the surface, we have
q
EA =
o

Surface area of the sphere is given as A = 4πr2 , so

1 q
E=
4πo r2
Then force would be F = q × E, then it is written as
   
1 q1 × q2
F = ×
4πo r2

Question Why Coulomb’s law explains force between two charges, not Gauss’s law?

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Answer: electric field is perpendicular to the surface and has the same magnitude at
every point on the spherical shell. Gauss’s law does not state that explicitly, though,
but Coulomb’s law explicitly gives us the magnitude and direction of the force between
two charges

1.1.5 Applications of Gauss law

Gauss Law is particularly useful in computing E ~ or D~ where the charge distribution has
some symmetry. Gauss’s law is applied to calculate the electric intensity due to different
charge configurations.
In all such cases,an imaginary closed surface is considered which passes through the
point at which the electric intensity is to be evaluated.This closed surface is known as
Gaussian surface.Its choice is such that the flux through it can be easily evaluated.Next
the charge enclosed by Gaussian surface is calculated and finally the electric intensity
is computed by applying Gauss law.

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read
Figure 1.3: Gauss law applications

~ due to a sym-
1. Gauss law can be used to determine the electric field intensity E
metrical charge distribution.

2. Gauss can also be used to find the charge ’Q’ enclosed in a closed surface.

3. Gauss’s law cannot be used to obtain the solution for a particular problem, if we
cannot show that the symmteric exists, Gauss law is utilized only for an highly
symmetrical charge distriutions.

4. Closed Gaussian surface chosen to apply to apply Gauss’s law should satisy the
following:
The electric field intensity should be either normal or tangential to the surface,
~ S
so that Ed ~ becomes zero or EdS.
~ should remain constant over the portion of the closed
Electric field intensity E
~ ~
surface for which EdS becomes E dS, where E dS.

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An infinite Line of charge

Objective: Find an expression for intensity electric field at distance ’r’ from an infnite
line of charge of linear charge density λ, we choose a cylinder system of radius ’r’ and
length ’l’ as a Gaussian surface.
~ s = 0 as
For the circular caps, the electric flux through circular caps is zero, i.e., E.d~
θ = 90°. E is constant over the cylindrical surface and the flux througuh this cylindrical
surface is
I I
~ s = E ds cos θ
E.d~
I
~ s = E (2πrh)
E.d~

~ s = q and q = λ.h, we have

H
Applying Gauss’s law o E.d~

o .E (2πrh) = λh
λ
E=
2πo r
Thus electric field intensity of a long positively charged wire does not depends on length
of the wire but on the radial distance r of points from the wire.

Thin sheet of charge or Electric field of an infinite sheet of charge

s
ic conducting thin
Objective: Here objective is to find E
g . hyasnon
~ at distance ’r’ infrontPof
infinite sheet of charge of surface charge density σ.in En
P o
Consider a thin infinite plane sheet of. charge ts surface bcharge
inhaving s e foredensity σ.We have
duepto this sheet
to find the electric field intensityIm t atBo ok
Te x ant point which is distance r away
from the sheet.We can draw a rectangularRead gaussian pillbox extending equal distance
above and below the plane as shown below in the figure.
By symmetry we find that E on either side of sheet must be perpendicular to the plane
of the sheet, having same magnitude at all points equidistant from the sheet. No field
lines crosses the side walls of the Gaussian pillbox i.e., component of E normal to walls
of pillbox is zero.
I
Q
E.dA =
o
E points in the direction away from the plane i.e., E points upwards for points above
the plane and downwards for points below the plane. Thus for top and bottom surfaces,

o (EA + EA) = σA
o (2EA) = σA
σ
E=
2o
Here one important thing to note is that magnitude of electric field at any point is
independent of the sheet and does not decrease inversely with the square of the distance.
Thus electric field due to an infinite plane sheet of charge does not falls of at all.

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Spherically symmetric charge distribution/Solid charged sphere

We’ll now apply Gauss’s law to find the field outside uniformly charged solid sphere of
radius R and total charge q. In this case Gaussian surface would be a sphere of radius
r > R concentric with the charged solid sphere shown below in the figure.From Gauss’s
law
I
q
E.dA =
o
where q is the charge enclosed.Charge is distributed uniformly over the surface of the
sphere. Symmetry allows us to extract E out of the integral sign as magnitude of electric
field intensity is same
H for all points at

distance r > R.Since electric field points radially
outwards we have E.ds = E 4πr2 . Again from Gauss’s law we have
I
o (Eds) = q

E 4πr2 = q



o
1 q
E= for r > R
(4πo ) r2

Thus we see that magnitude of field outside the sphere is exactly the same as it would
have been as if all the charge were concentrated at its center. If radius r < R then
equation is written as

P h y sics
Eng=. q0
I
ion
(Eds)
Po i n t s

s b e fore
k
Imp. t Boo = q
2 0
o E 4πr
T e x
Read E=
1 q0
for r < R
(4πo ) r2

Field of a charge conductor

If the charge on the conductor is positive ’E’ is right angles to the surface pointing
outward. If ’E’ were not normal to the surface, it would have a component lying in
the surface, such component would set uo surface currents and such currents and such
currents are not assumed in electrostatics conditions. E must be normal to the surface
and field inside the conductor must be zero. Flux due to cylindrical surface is zero
because between E and normal to the surface is 90°.
Since E is zero everywhere inside the conductor, the only contribution to the flux is
through the plane cap of area A lying outside the conductor. In terms of charge density,
q = σ.A, where ’A’ is the area. Applying Gauss’s law,
I
o (Eds) = q

o (EA) = qA
σ
E=
o

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Question: If spherically symmetric charge distribution is uniform, find the expression

for E outside and inside that charge distribution.

Solution: Uniform spherical symmetric charge distribution means charge density σ

which is constant for all points within the sphere of radius ’R’ and would be zero for all
points outside the sphere. For points inside such sphere of charge,

4
πr3 h r i3
q 0 = q 43 3 = q
3 πR
R
1 q0
E=
(4πo ) r2
h r i3
1 R
E=
(4πo ) r2
1 qr
E=
(4πo ) R3

1.1.6 Displacement vector in dielectrics

Electrostatic field in the dielectric material is modified due to polarization and is not
the same as in vacuum. Hence the Gauss law
σ
OE =
o P h y sics
n Eng.
which is applicable in vacuum is reconsidered
P o i t s i
n for dielectric
s b e foreElectrostatic field
media.
point of view indicates a polarized p.
Imdielectric body
x oobek considered as a distribution
t Bcan
T e
Read
of volume and surface polarization charges in a vacuum. Extending Gauss law to the
case of fields with dielectrics is to simply add the polarization charge to the free charge
enclosed by S. Hence Gauss law becomes
I
qf ree + qpolarization in S
E.dS =
o
Polarization charge in S is represented and result of this manipulation is
I
(o E + P ) dS = qf reeinS

Here, the flux of the sum of the vector o E and P through any closed surface ’S’ is equal
to the total free charge enclosed by S. Gauss law is more convienient as the only charges
can influence directly are free charges. To simplify, we define the electric displacement
vector ,’D’ as
D = o E + P

Gauss law takes final form as

I
D.dS = qfree in S (C)

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Figure 1.4: Relationship between D, E and P

The above equation is generalized gauss law. If the dielectric is linear, electric displace-
ment vector in linear dielectrics can be expressed in terms of the electric field strength
’E’
D = o E + o χe E
D = o (1 + χe ) E
D = o r E where r = 1 + χe
D = E
P h y si s o r
where c=

i n ng. susceptibility
where r is relative permittivity, χ isEelectric
e
and  is permittivity. χe is
t s o r
always greater than zero and
.
nr

Poimuch
> unity.
o
Mst
k s bef Examples distilled
frequent values of r ranges between 2 and
Im p
10 but some dielectric have
t Bo
greater values. water has r h 80 .
d Te x
1.1.7 Gauss law Reaof electrostatics in dielectric medium
Let us apply the gauss law for parallel plate capacitor. Let ’q’ be charge on the plates
with proper sign and ’A’ be the area on each plate with ’Eo ’ be the electric field without
dielectric.Gauss law gives
I
q
E.dA =
o
q
Eo =
o A
Now place the dielectric between the plates and then the net charge enclosed by Gaussian
surface q − q 0 . Therefore with dielectric the Gauss law is
I
o E.d~ S ~ = q − q0

q q0
Eo = −
o Ao o A
Eo
Using the equation, E = K where ’E’ is field inside the dielectric. Substituting the
value of Eo , we have
q
E=
o KA

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where ’K’ is called dielectric constant or relative permittivity, which is property of any
material and given by ratio as K = CC0 . Using the equation and substituting for E, we
have
q q q0
= −
o KA  o Ao o A
 
1
q0 = q 1−
K
(1.2)

If there is no dielectric between the plates then K=1 and q=q’, which means three will
e no induced charge. The value of K  1 and hence q’, an induced charge is always less
than q, which is free charge. further symplifing, we have
q
q − q0 =
K
Rewriting the Gauss law with dielectric as given in equations as

I
o ~ S
E.d ~ = q − q0
I
~ S ~ q
o E.d =
K
I
=⇒ o K. ~ S
E.d ~ = q

ysics
Question: g. Ph
Write down the electric field (inside and outside) for pn Junction diode?
n t s in En efore
Po i b
Solution Hint : Prove that
Imp. x t B ooks
Te
Read N+ Qxn
Eoutside =
2
N+ Qxn  xn 
Einside = x−
 2
where N+ is number of positive charges per unit volume in n region, xn is thickness of
charge layers.

1.1.8 Divergence of electric fields

Divergence of a vector field J at a point, is the net outward flux of J per unit volume
as the volume about the point tends to zero. It is the flux emanating per unit volume
as the volume shrinks to a point and this concept is valid to a point. Best example can
be visulaized as water flowing in pipe and water flowing from end of the pipe. A vector
whose divergence is zero is called soleodial and a system can have negative(convergence)
or positive divergence.
It can be understood on the basis of current density vector ’J’ enclosed in a volume 0 v 0
with closed surface ’s’, the amount of current emanating from it is given as
I
I = J.ds
s

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By considering volume shrinks to infinitesimal value 4v, we obtain infinitesimal amount

of current flowing out of the surface 4s bounded by 4v.If the volume shrinks, then
current emanating from that point may tend to zero.
If volume occupied by the point is zero, then ratio of current emanating
H from the point to
the volume occupied by the point may be non-zerp, even though s J.ds may tend to zero
H J.ds H J.ds
in the limit 4v → 0. The quantity 4s can approach non-zero. Here 4s is
4v 4v
the amount of current, or the flux of a quantity whose density vector is represented by
J per unit volume emanating from the infinitesimal volume 4v. Value that is quantity
approaches as 4v tends to zero, this quantity showing nature of divergence. of vector J,
for present case. Divergence of J is a dot product of the vector operator 4 and vector
J and is given as

I
J.ds
4.J = lim
4v→0 4s 4v
where
J~ = jx 1x + jy 1y + jz 1z
∂ ∂ ∂
O = 1x + 1y + 1z
∂x ∂y ∂z

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

Figure 1.5: Difference between Divergence and Curl

Air leaving a punctured wire where divergence is positive as closed surface exhibits net
outflow. Also divergence measures sources and drains of flow. If O.F > 0 then it is
source, if OF < 0 then it is sink. If OF = 0 then it indicates that no net flow of the flux
and system behaves neither source or sink.

1.1.9 Curl of electric fields

Any rate of change of vector field is also called a Curl, which means rotations. Let
~
E(x, ~ is denoted as curlA
y, z) be a vector function, then the curl of A ~ and is defined by

 
~ = ∂ ∂ ∂ ~
O×E î + ĵ + ẑ ×E
∂x ∂y ∂z

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~ = Ex î + Ey ĵ + Ez ẑ where Ex ,Ey and Ez are functions of x, y and z. then

let E
 
~ ∂ ∂ ∂
O×E = î + ĵ + ẑ × Ex î + Ey ĵ + Ez ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
 î ĵ ẑ 

 ∂ ∂ ∂
~

O×E =  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 Ex Ey Ez 

Curl of a constant vector is zero. If the curl of vector field is zero (O × E = 0) then the
field is called the irrotational or conservative field. If the curl of a vector field exists,
(O × E 6= 0), then the field is called the rotational field. It means the curl of vector field
is a vector field.
Whirlpool in ponds, lakes or rivers and tornadoes are best example for curl of electric
field. Curl of a vector must have some axis of rotation, may be horizontal, vertical or
at any angle, so it is vector quantity is determined by right hand screw rule.

1.1.10 Electric potential

The work per unit of charge required to move a charge from a reference point to a
specified point, measured in joules per coulomb or volts. The static electric field is the
negative of the gradient of the electric potential.
Electric potential energy is the energy that is needed to move a charge against an electric

P h y s cs but also more

field. You need more energy to move a charge further in the electric ifield,
energy to move it through a stronger electric field. g.
Imagine that you have a huge negatively charged t s i n Enwith a little
plate,
fo repositively charged
P o i nThere’s an electric
s b e
.
particle stuck to it through the electric force. k
oo(while field around the plate
Impobjects x t B
that’s pulling all positively charged
a d Te
toward it pushing other negatively
charged objects away). R e

Figure 1.6: Color Contor for Potential

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You take the positive particle, and start to pull it off the plate, against the pull of the
electric field. It’s hard work, because the electric force is pulling them together. If
you let the positive particle go, it would snap back to the negative plate, pulled by the
electric force. The energy that you used to move the particle away from the plate is
stored in the particle as electrical potential energy. It is the potential that the particle
has to move when it’s let go.
Electric charges have fields around them and thus a charge has to do work if it intends
to change its position. This work is the electric energy or the electric potential energy
of the charge.We know that central forces are conservative in nature. This implies, the
work done on any particle moving under its influence does not depend on the path taken
by the particle but depends on initial and final positions of the particle. For conservative
forces, work done on particle undergoing displacement can be expressed in terms of the
potential energy function.
Suppose we have two points A and B in an electric field, moving a test charge qo from
A to B ad work done by the agent moving the charge is Wab , then electric potential
difference is defined by

Wab
Va − Vb =
qo

If work done Wab may be positive, negative or zero and so the potential at B will be
higher, lower or the same.
Generally point A is considered to be at infinite distances and potential there Va is taken
y s i c
as
g. Ph
t s i n En Wa bfore
p. Poin o
V =s be
o k qo
I m e x t B
T
Read
Thus we defie the electric potential at a point as the work done in moving the test
~ can be expressed either in
charge from infinity to a point. Electric field intensity E
Newton/Coulomb or volt/meter.

1.1.11 Relation between potential and force

To understand the relation between the potential difference and the electric field, take
two points A and B in the electric field with a very small distance (dr) between them.
There exists some potential difference between these two points and If a charge q’ is
placed at point B and move it to A, some amount of work will have to be done. So the
displacement of charge will be in the direction opposite to the direction of electric field.
So, the angle between force on charge and the displacement of charge is 180°.
Due to work done on charge, charge will experience some amount of force. Since the
distance between the points A and B tends to zero, the force experienced by the charge
will be same at both the points. At Point B, force on charge is qE and at point ’A’,
force on charge is ’qE’. With changing force, it is not possible to get a unit value of work
at every point. Since the force is same at A and B so, work done on charge ’q’ is force
× displacement. Potential difference between two points A and B will be

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Wab
Va − Vb =
q
Wab
Vab =
q
F orce × displacement. × cos θ
Vab =
q
F orce × displacement. × cos 180°
Vab =
q
F × dr.(−1)
Vab =
q
−qE.dr
Vab =
q
Vab = −E.dr
dV
E=−
dr

This equation gives the relation between E and dV. Negative sign shows that potential
difference decreases in the direction of electric field.

1.1.12 Laplace and Poisson’s equations

Poisson’s and Laplace equations are result of combining Gauss h yswith
law
s
ic the gradient of
g . P
electric field. Gauss law in differential form is En n
P o i nσts i s b e fore
k
Imp. OE~ = e xt Boo
T
Read
o

~ is related to a scalar potential function

where σ is the volume density of charge. But E
V by
~ = −OV
E

Substituting in above equation we have

σ
O.OV =
o
σ
O2 V = which is Poisson equation
o
where
2 2
d .. d .. d2 ..
O2 V = 2 + 2 + 2
dx dy dz

The above gives the value of potential ’V’ and if there is no charge or in other workds
there is no kind of charge distribution, i.e., the region of field is free from charge σ = 0,
then equation is reduced to

O2 V = 0 which is Laplace equation

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1.2 Magnetostatic field

Magnetic field is said to be a space around a magnetic or a current carrying conductor
~ is
and basic magnetic field vector is called as magnetic induction. Lines of induction B
~
tangent to a line of induction at any point givens the directio of B at that point. The
lines of induction are drawn so that the number of lines per unit cross sectional area
is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field vector B~ where the the liens are
close together B is strong and where they are far apart, B is weak.

1.2.1 Biot–Savart law

Biot-Savart law gives this relation between current and magnetic field. It relates the
magnetic field to the magnitude, direction, length, and proximity of the electric current.
A small current carrying conductor of length dl, carrying a current I is an elementary
source of magnetic field. The force on another similar conductor can be expressed
conveniently in terms of magnetic field dB due to the first. The dependence of magnetic
field dB on the current I, on size and orientation of the length element dl and on distance
r was first guessed by Biot and Savart.
Biot-Savart’s law gives the magnetic field produced due to a current carrying segment.
This segment is taken as a vector quantity known as the current element.
Consider a wire carrying a current I in a specific direction as shown in the figure. Take a
small element of the wire of length dl. The direction of this element is along that of the
current so that it forms a vector I dl. If we want to know the magnetic field produced
at a point due to this small element, then we can use the Biot-Savart’s Law. Suppose
cross section of wire in A and σ is the charge density of charge in wire, moving with
y s
sicsecond
P h
velocity ’v’ then charge crossing any cross sectio per is σvA which is equal to I.
Multiplying ’dl’ on both the sides n ng.
weEhave
Po i nts i s b e fore
k
Imp. t Booσ = A.dl
q
T e x
Solving Read
σAvdl = Idl
qv = Idl

The magnitude of the magnetic field dB at a distance r from a current carrying element
dl is found to be proportional to I and to the length dl. And is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance ’r’. The direction of the Magnetic Field is perpendicular
to the line element dl as well as radius r.
Vector notation is given as

Idl r̂
dB ∝
1 r2
µo (~r × dl)
dB = ×I ×
4π r3
µo (sin θ × dl)
dB = ×I ×
4π r3
where µo is the permeability of free space and is equal to 4π × 10−7 TmA−1 . The above
equations are known as vector forms of Biot Savart law. Direction of dB ~ is normal

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

~ is
to the lie from the current element I.dl to the observation point ’P’. Direction of B
determined by the ruls of vector product and given by right hand screw rule.
(~r × dl)
I
~ µo I
B=
4π r3
The above equation is known as integral form of Biot Savart law. .

1.2.2 Divergence and curl of magnetic fields

Magnetic flux is related to the magnetic flux density and is given for closed surface as

I
φ= B.dS

There are no isolated charges or independent south or north pole. Hence, for magnet
inside a closed surface, the number of magnetic flux lines entering and leaving must be
equal and these lines must exist in closed loop. hence , net magnetic flux is always zero.
I
φ = B.dS = 0

It is also known as Gauss law for steady magnetic field and is also intergral form of
Maxwell fourth equation for static fields. Using Gauss divergence theorem,
I Z
B.dS = O.B.dv
V
P h y sics
Under the closed loop or surface, g.
t s i n En foIre
P o i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo B.dS = 0
a d T
Re Z
O.B.dv = 0
V

Divergence of Magnetic flux density is always zero =⇒ O.B = 0

Ampere’s law thats that Line intergral of magnetic induction (B) around any
closed path is equal to µo times the net current (I) across the area bounded
by the path I
B.dl = µo I
C
H
Hwriting the
R Ampere circuital law is H.dl = I and according to Stokes theorem we have
H.dl = S (O R × H) dS where ’S’ is the surface bounded by the closed path C.
Now writing S J.dS = I where ’I’ is conduction current passing through the surface ’S’
where ’J’ is known as the conduction current density. Substituting we have
Z Z
(O × H) dS = J.dS
S S
O×H = J
O×B = µo J ∵ [B = µo H]
O × B = µo J

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

~ we arrive at the divergence and curl

Using the Biot Savart law for a volume current J,
~
of B,

~
O.B = 0
O×B~ = µo J~

1.2.3 Ampere’s laws in integral and differential form

Oersted discovered the existence of the magnetic field due to current flowing in a con-
ductor. Ampere quantitatively derived a relationship between current ’i’ and magnetic
field ’B’. Relationship is called Ampere’s law. It states that line integral of magnetic
field ’B’ along a closed curve is equal to µo times the net current ’i’ through
the area bounded by the curve
I
B.dl = µo i

where µo is permeability of free space.

Consider a long straight conductor carrying current ’i’ and let conductor be perpendic-
ular to the page directed outward. considering the point ’o’ at the centre, we consider
a circular path of radius ’R’, then the magnetic induction ’B’ at point of the circular
path will be
µo i
B=
2πR
Direction of ’B’ will be tangent of circular path. It should be remembered that magnitude
of ’B’ should be same at all points and is parallel h y icsthe circuit element ’dl’. The line
sto
g. P
integral of magnetic field is given along
t s i n Enthe circular
f o repath is given by
Po i n sb e
Imp. ook
I I
x t B
B.dl = B.dl. cos (θ = 0) °
a d TeI
R e Z
B.dl = B. dl
I
dl = B. (2πR)
I
µo i
B.dl = (2πR)
2πR
I
B.dl = µo i

H
Thus the line integral B.dl is µo times the current ’i’ through the area bounded by the
circle. The direction of evaluation of the line integral and the direction of the surface
element vector dl must be consistent with the right hand rule.

Integral form The value of current ’i’ in terms of current density is given as
Z
i= j.dA
S

Putting the value of ’i’ in Ampere relation, we have

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

I Z
B.dl = µo j.dA
S
The equation is called integral form of Ampere’s law.

Differential form of Ampere law using the integral form of ampere law
I Z
B.dl = µo j.dA
S

Using divergence theorem, I Z

B.dl = O B.dA

Comparing the equations, we have

Z Z
O B.dA = µo j.dA
S

O × B = µo j

Applications Ampere law is always true but is only a useful tool to evaluate the mag-
~ outside the line integral.
netic field if the symmetry of the system enables you to pull B
Ampere ’s law can handle Infinite straight lines, Infinite planes, Infinite solenoids and
Toroids

ic s
1.2.4 Physform
Faraday’s laws in integral and differential
Eng.
o i n s in
Conider that magnetic field is produced by a tstationary
b e forore current carrying
magnetic
P s
k is encloses a surface ’S’
Imp.flux density owhich
coil.Suppose there is a closed circuit ’C’ of any shape
in the field. Let ’B’ be the magnetic T e x t inBothe
d be B.dS. now neighbourhood
Reawill
Mangetic flux through a small area ’dS’
of the circuit.
the Flux though entire circuit
is Z
φB = D.dS
S
When a magnetic flux is changed, an electric field is induced around the circuit. The
line integral of the electric field givens the induced e.m.f. in the closed circuit. Thus,
I
e = E.dl

where ’E’ is the electric field at an element ’dl’ of the circuit. Substituting the values of
’e’ and ’φB ’, we have
I Z
d
Integral form of Faraday’s Law: E.dl = − B.dS
dt S

According to above equation, line integral of the electric field around any closed circuit is
equal to the negative rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit. Using Stoke’s
theorem, we have, I Z
E.dl = (O × E) .dS
S

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Solving

Z Z
d
(O × E) .dS = − B.dS
dt S
ZS Z
∂B
(O × E) .dS = − dS
S S ∂t

∂B
Differential form of Faraday’s Law: (O × E) = −
∂t

1.2.5 Displacement current

It is known that varying magnetic field give rise to electric field and vice versa is true.
Examples of this symmetry of nature is used to understand the radio waves, gamma
rays and visible light or other forms of electromagnetic waves. The Ampere law states
that I
B.dl = µo I
C

and the above equation is incomplete. To understand, we consider the capacitor and
its charging process. Let ic be current carryig from one plate to another as a result ’Q’
increases inturn electric field (E) between the plates. Here, ic indicates the conduction
current to distinguish it from other current sources. When current left from one plate,
current enclosed through it is equal to Ienclosed or ic . For other surface at the same time,
bulging occurs and current equal to zero, which is contradictory.
It is known that as capacitr charges, electric field
h y icselectric flux through the surface
sand
P
increases.Instantaneous charge is given
i n Enasg.q = Cv rwhere
e ’C’ is the capacitance and 0 v 0
is the potential difference. t s
n parallel plate
oiFor o
ef 0 0 we have, C = odA where ’A’ is
bcapacitor,
p . P o k s
the area and ’d’Im Bo difference v between the plates is given as
is the spacing. Potential
ext field
v = Ed where ’E’ is the d T
electric magnitude between the plates. If the region is
Rea, then we can express the charge as
filled with permittivity

A
q = Cv = (Ed) = (EA) = φE
d
Where φE = EA is the electric flux through the surface. As the capacitor charges, the
rate of change of charge (q) s the conduction current, we have

dq
ic =
dt
dφE
ic = .
dt
Rewriting the displacement current as iD for region between the plates as

dφE
iD =  Displacement current
dt
Ampere law is then re-written as
I
~
B.dl = µo (ic + id ) Generalized Ampere law

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Figure 1.7: Dispalcement current

P h y sics
Generalized Ampere law is obeyed no matter whichin Engis. used and
surface
re vary from curved
i n t s D s b e f o
to flat surface. For Flat surface, iD =
p . Po 0 and ic =
o
I
o
, for curved surface
k i and using φ = EA ic = 0.
Displacement current density I mcan be
ext D A
defined asB j = D
E in it
d T
we have
Rea dE
jD = 
dt

1.2.6 Continuity equation

When the flow of charge is distributed throughout a three dimensional region, we de-
scribe it by the volume current density ’J’ defined as follows. Consider a tube of in-
finitesimal cross section ’da’ running parallel to the flow. If the current in this tube is
dI, the volume current density is
dI
J=
da
’J’ is the current per unit area perpendicular to flow. If the mobile volume density is ’ρ0
and velocity is ’v’ then

J = ρv
The current crossing a surface ’S’ can be written as
Z Z
I= J.da = ~
J.n.da
S S

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Total current per unit time leaving a volume ’V’ is

I Z
~
J.n.da = (O.J) d3 r
V

Because charge is conserved and whatever flows out through the surface must come at
the expense of the remaining inside
Z Z Z
d ∂ρ 3
(O.J) d3 r = − ρd3 r = − d r
V dt V V ∂t

Minus sign reflects the fact that an outward flow decreases the charge left in V. Since
this applies to any volume, we conclude that

∂ρ
O.J = −
∂t
∂ρ
O.J + =0
∂t

The above equation is mathematical statement of local charge conservation and it is

known as continuity equation, which plays important role in electrodynamics.
In magnetostatics, steady currents which are characterized by no change in the net
∂ρ
charge density anywhere in space. Consequently in magnetostatics = 0 and therefore
∂t
(O.J) = 0
P h ysics
nEng.
Po i s i
We note that a moving point tcharge
n s b e fore a steady current and therefore
does not constitute
k
Im . t Boo
cannot be describedpby law of magnetostatics.
T e x
1.2.7 Maxwell’sRead equations
Maxwell’s Equations are a set of 4 complicated equations that describe the world of
electromagnetics. These equations describe how electric and magnetic fields propagate,
interact, and how they are influenced by objects.
Four Maxwell equations for static electromagnetic field. They are listed seperated the
below as both in integral and differential form:

Gauss law in Electrostatics

I
q
E.dS = Integral form
o
q
O.E = Differential form
o

I
D.dS = ρ Integral form
O.D = ρ Differential form

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Electric field is conservative field

I
φB
E.dl = − Integral form
dt
∂B
O ×E = − Differential form
∂t

Ampere’s Law in magnetostatics

I  
∂E
B.dl = µo j + o Integral form
∂t
 
∂E
O×B = µo j + o Differential form
∂t
dD
O×H = J+ Differential form
dt

Gauss’s law in magnetostatics

I
B.dS = 0 Integral form
O.B = 0 Differential form

Maxwell was one of the first to determine the speed of propagation of electromagnetic
(EM) waves was the same as the speed of light - and hence to conclude
P h y sics that EM waves
g.
n En and Electromagnetics.
and visible light were really the same thing.
i
Maxwell’s Equations are critical in understanding
Po n t s i
Antennas
s b e fore They
p . o o k
Im
are formidable to look at - so complicated that most electrical engineers and physicists
ext Bin complex math (which is likely so
don’t even really know what they mean. d T
Shrouded
”intellectual” people can feel superiorReinadiscussing them), true understanding of these
equations is hard to come by.
Maxwell’s Equations are laws - just like the law of gravity. These equations are rules the
universe uses to govern the behavior of electric and magnetic fields. A flow of electric
current will produce a magnetic field. If the current flow varies with time (as in any wave
or periodic signal), the magnetic field will also give rise to an electric field. Maxwell’s
Equations shows that separated charge (positive and negative) gives rise to an electric
field - and if this is varying in time as well will give rise to a propagating electric field,
further giving rise to a propgating magnetic field.

1.3 Multiple Choice Question

1. Electric field intensity due to a point charge falls inversly proportional to the
(a) distance (b) square of the distance
(c) square root of the distance (d) none
[B]

2. Creation of positively charged particle without the simultanous creation of nega-

tively charged particle has never been observed.

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

(a) True (b) False

(c) (d)
[A]

3. Force of attraction or replusion between the charges follows

(a) square law (b) inverse square law
(c) both (d) none of the above
[B]

4. When the distance beween the two equal charges is decreases to half and their
magnitude of charges decreased to half, the force between them is...
(a) remains unchanged (b) reduced to half
(c) becomes double (d) increase four times
[A]

5. Two charges, q1 and q2 are placed close to each other and third charge q3 is
brought closer to them. What is the force exterted by q1 on q2 ?
(a) Increases (b) Decreases
(c) Same (d) Zero
[C]

6. Conventional direction of electric field is ...

s
(a) Positive to negative (b) Negative to positive
hysic
(c) No specific positive ng. P cannot be determined
(d) Direction
in E
Po i n t s
s b e fore [A]
p.
Imorginates ok
t Boand
7. Electric filed
d T e x
from..... terminates at...
Reanegative
(a) Positive and charge (b) Negative and positive charge
(c) Positive charge (d) Negative charge
[A]

8. Electric field inside a perfectly conducting media is

(a) ∞ (b) 0
(c) 120π (d) Depends on the value
[B]

9. Dimentions of potential are same as that of ...

(a) Work (b) Electric field per unit charge
(c) Work per unit charge (d) Force per unit charge
[C]

10. For a dipole electric field varies as

(a) r−2 (b) r−3
(c) r−1 (d) r−4
[C]

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

11. Electric field lines and equipotential lines are

(a) orthogonal only when electric field is uniform (b) always orthogonal
(c) orthogonal only when potenital does not change (d) None
[B]

12. Dimentions of potential are same as that of

(a) Work (b) Electric field per unit charge
(c) Work per unit charge (d) Force per unit charge
[C]

13. When a test charge is brought in from infinity along the perpendicular bisector of
the dipole, the work done is
(a) Positive (b) Zero
(c) Negative (d) None
[B]

14. A field that spreads outwards in all directions is ...

(a) Linear (b) Radial
(c) Weak (d) Strong
[B]

15. Material becomes ............ when one material is rubbed against another
(a) Electrically nuetral (b) Electrical charged
P h y sics
(c) Negatively charged (d) Positive charged g.
t s i n En fore [B]
Po i n s b e
. k
16. Gauss law is applicable Imp
T e x t Boo
(a) Point charge (b) Sheet Read
Charge
(c) Line charge (d) Point, Sheet and line charge
[D]

17. ”Total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed by
that surface divided by permittivity”
(a) Gauss Law (b) Lenz Law
(c) Coloumb’s law (d) Faraday’s Law
[A]

18. As charge increases, what happens to flux density

(a) Increases (b) Decreases
(c) Remain Constant (d) Zero
[A]

19. Strength of the electric field is...... proportional to the force applied
(a) Directly (b) Not related
(c) Inversly (d) None
[A]

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

20. Force applied to a conductor is 25 N. If the charge in the conductor is 4 C. What

is the electric field intensity?
(a) 10.25 V/m (b) 6.25 V/m
(c) 2.25 V/m (d) 20.25 V/m
[B]

21. If the charge in conductor is 36 C and the area of cross section is 4m2 . Calculate
the electric flux density.
(a) 64 C/m2 (b) 32 C/m2
(c) 9 C/m2 (d) 2 C/m2
[C]

22. Electric flux density is a function of

(a) Volume (b) Charge
(c) Current (d) Voltage
[B]

23. In order to obtain a high value for capacitance, the permittivity of the dielectric
medium should be
(a) Low (b) High
(c) Zero (d) Unity
[B]

P h y sics
24. What is relative permittivity? g.
t
(a) Equal to the absoulte s i n En
permittivity fore (b) Ratio of actual permittivity to abs
Po i n s b e
. k
of p
(c) RatioIm
T e x t Boo to actual permittivity
absolute permittivity (d) Equal to the actual permittivity
Read [B]

25. What happends to relative permittivity when actual permittivity decreases?

(a) Increases (b) Decreases
(c) Remains the same (d) Become zero
[B]

26. What happens to absolute permittivity when relative permittivity increases?

(a) Increases (b) Decreases
(c) Remains the same (d) Become zero
[C]

27. What happens to the capacitance of a multi plate capacitor when the area of cross
section of the plate decreases ?
(a) Increases (b) Decreases
(c) Remains the same (d) Become zero
[B]

28. Find the Maxwell law derived from Ampere law.

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

(a) Div(I) (b) Div(H)

(c) Curl (H) (d) Curl(B)
[C]

29. Ampere law states that,

(a) Divergence of H is same as the flux (b) Curl of D is same as the current
(c) Divergence of E is zero (d) Curl of H is same as the current density
[D]

30. Identify which of the following is the unit of magnetic flux density?
(a) Weber (b) Weber/m
(c) Tesla (d) Weber−1
[C]

31. Law of conservation of charge is true for non-relativistic as wll as relativistic mo-
tion. SO, the total electric charge of an isolated system is
(a) Relativistically variant (b) Relativistically invariant
(c) Not conserved (d) None
[B]

32. Law which governs the force between electric charges was stated by...
(a) Faraday (b) Coulomb
(c) Newton (d) Kirchoff
P h ysics
Eng.
[B]
s i n r e
33.
. .. oint
Coulomb’s law is defined between P
o k s befo
Im p Bo bodies, whose dimensions are small compared to their seperat
(a) Two large charged bodies
ext charged
(b) Two
d T
Rea(d) None
(c) Two moving charged bodies
[B]

34. Law that governs the force between electric charges is called..
(a) Ampere’s law (b) Coulomb’s law
(c) Faraday’s law (d) Ohm’s law
[B]

35. Energy density of an electric field of intensity E is ...

(a) Directly proportional to E (b) Inversly proportional to E
(c) Directly proportional to the square of E (d) Inversly proportional to the square of E
[C]

36. Electric field intesity on the surface of a charged conductor is

(a) Zero (b) Directed normally to the surface
(c) Directed tangentially to the surface (d) Directed along 45 °to the surface
[B]

37. Electric field can deflect

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

(a) X-rays (b) Neutrons

(c) Semi vector ans semi scalar quantities (d) Dimentionless quantities
[B]

38. If the radius of the Gaussian surface enclosing a charge is halved, how does the
electric flux through the Gaussian surface change?
(a) Remains constant (b) Increase twice
(c) Decreases by half factor (d) None
[A]

39. A point charge ’q’ is placed at geometrical centre of one of the face of a cube
(a) q/o (b) q/2o
(c) 2q/o (d) 0
[B]

40. An electric dipole is in unstable equilibrium in the uniform electric field. The angle
between its dipole moment and eletric field is
(a) 90° (b) 120°
(c) 0° (d) 180°
[D]
√
3C
41. A particle of mass ’m’ and charge ’q’ is at rest. If it is moved with velocity 2
where ’c’ is speed of light in vaccum then its charge will become remain
(a) 2q
√
(b) 3q P h ysics
.g
(c) q/2 (d) q t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
[D]
d T
42. Reacharge
A particles having q1 exerts ’F’ electrostatic force on charge q1/4 is placed
midway the line joiing the two charges q1 and q2, then electrostatic force on q2
due to q1 will become/remain
(a) 2F (b) F/2
(c) F (d) 0
[C]

43. If a soap bubble is given some charges, then it radius

(a) Increases (b) Decrease
(c) Remain uncharged (d) May increases or decreases depends upon the given charged is positi
[A]

44. The law governing the forces between electric charges is known as
(a) Ampere law (b) Ohm law
(c) Faraday law (d) Coulomb law
[D]

45. Three charges 4q, q and q are in straight line in the position of 0, l/2 and l
respectively. The resultant force on q will be zero if q=....

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

(a) -q (b) -2q

(c) -q/2 (d) 4q
[A]

46. Two charges each of 1 coulomb are at distance 1 km aparts, the force between
them is
(a) 9000 (b) 900
(c) 90 (d) 9
[A]

47. The force between two charges 0.06 m apart us 5N. if each charge is moved towards
the other by 0.01 m , then the force between them will become
(a) 7.2 N (b) 11.25 N
(c) 22.50 N (d) 45 N
[B]

48. Two charges are equal to 2 µC are 0.5 m apart. If both of them exists inside
vaccum, then the force between them is
(a) 0.144 N (b) 1.44 N
(c) 14.4 N (d) 144 N
[A]

49. Five balls numbered 1 to 5 are suspended using seperated threads. Pairs (1,2,

P h ysics (2,3) and (4,5)

(2,4) and (4,1) show electrostatic force of attraction, while pair
show repulsion. Therefore one ball must be g.
(a) Positively charged (b) Negatively t s i n En fore
n
. Poi
p o o ks be
ImNone B
Text
(c) Neutral (d)
Re a d [C]

50. The Surface considered for Gauss law is ........Surface

(a) Closed (b) Spherical
(c) Gaussian (d) Plane
[C]

51. A charged ’q’ is placed at the centre of the line joining two equal charges ’Q’. The
system of the three charges will be equilibrium, if ’q’ is equal to
(a) -q/2 (b) -Q/4
(c) Q/4 (d) Q/2
[B]

52. A charge ’q’ is placed at the centre of the open end of the cylindrical vessel. The
flux of the electric field through the surface of the vesssal is
(a) 0 (b) q/o
(c) q/2o (d) 2q/o
[C]

53. Gauss law can be used to compute which of the following?

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

(a) Permittivity (b) Permeability

(c) radius of Gaussian Surface (d) Electric potential
[C]
54. For Gauss law, point charges in closed surface must be distributed
(a) Arbitarily (b) Sequential
(c) Rational (d) In-line
[A]
55. Gaussian Surface for a line charge will be
(a) Sphere (b) Cylindrical
(c) Cube (d) Cubiod
[B]
56. Total electric flux coming out of a unit positive charge put in air is
(a) o (b) o−1
−1
(c) (4πo ) (d) (4πo )
[B]
57. According to Gauss’s theorem, electric field of an infinitely long straight wire is
proportional to
(a) r (b) r12
1 1
(c) r3 (d)
sics
r

. P h y [D]
g
En is placed
58. A cylinder of radius (R) and
n t s inlength(L) e ore inofa the
fsurface uniform field (E) parallel to
P o i s b
the cylindrical axis.
p. The total
2o
ok
flux for the cylindrical is given by
(a) 2πRI2mE Te(b)x t
πRB /E
2
(c) π R − r R2e
ad /E (d) 0
[D]
59. A charge ’q’ is placed at the centre of cube of side(I). What is the electric flux
passing through each face of the cube?
(a) 6qo (b) 3qo
q q
(c) o (d) 9o
[A]
60. A charge ’q’ is placed at the centre of cube of side(I). What is the electric flux
passing through two opposite faces of the cube?
(a) 6qo (b) 3qo
q q
(c) o (d) 9o
[B]
61. What is purpose of Gauss law?
(a) Enclosed charge (b) Flux passing through the closed surface
(c) Both Option A & B (d) None
[D]

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

62. Force per unit charge is known as electric....

(a) Flux (b) Field
(c) Potential (d) Current
[A]
63. Electric field lines provides information about
(a) Field strength (b) Direction
(c) Nature of charge (d) All of the above
[D]
64. Two equal charges are suspended by a distance ’d’. A third charge placed on a
perpendicular bisector at x distance will experience maximum columb force when
x=d×...
(a) 0.707 (b) 0.5
(c) 0.353 (d) 0.288
[C]
65. A point charge of 20 stat. coulomb is place 2 cm in front of an Earthened metallic
plate of large size. The force of attraction on the point charge is
(a) 100 (b) 200
(c) 400 (d) 800
[A]
66. The total flux through the faces of the cube with side of length
y s if a charge ’q’
sq ic’a’
g. P
is placed at placed at corner A of the cube is ....... times h
of
in En
o
(a) 0.125 (b) 0.25
Po i n t s
s b e fore
k
(c) 0.5 (d) 1 Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read [A]

1.4 Problems
Problem Based on Gauss law

Problem 1.1 If a point charge ’q’ is placed at the centre of a cube, what is the flux
lined with cube and each face of the cube?

Solution 1.1 According to Gauss law, the flux linked with a closed body is 1o times
the charge enclosed. here, charge ’q’ is enclosed with the cube and hence flux linked is
1
φ= ×q
o
Cube is a symmetrical body with six faces. So the flux linked with each face is
1 1
φ= ×q×
o 6

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Problem 1.2 A point charge q = 3.0 × 10−7 C is placed at the centre of the spherical
cacity of radius 4 cm in metal piece. Find electric intensities at a= 1.5 cm and b at
infinity?

Solution 1.2 Electric intensity at point ’a’ can be obtained by considering a Gaussian
surface as spherical of radius 1.5 cm. Surface enclosed a charge ’q’ is
2 q
E × 4π (0.015) =
o
1 q
E = .
4πo 0.0152

3.0 × 10−7
E = 9 × 109 ×
0.0152
E =

We know that the charge resides on the outer surface of a conductor, hence electric
intensity at point ’b’ will be zero.
Problem Based on Electric potential

Problem 1.3 What is the electric potential at the surface of nucleus of gold? (radius
of nucleus= 6.6 × 10−15 m and Atomic number is 79)

Solution 1.3 Charge in the nucleus is 79 times y

’e’, s is equal to 79×1.6×10−19 C.
sicwhich
P h
n Eng.
Consider nucleus to be spherically symmetrical, the potential on the surface,
Po i nts i s b e fore
k
Imp.
1 q
T e x t BVoo= 4πo . r =
Read

Problem 1.4 A spherical oil drop, radius of 10−6 m has on it at a certain time a
total charge of 20 electrons. Calculate the energy that would be required to place an
additional electron on the drop. Charge of electron is 1.6 × 10−19 C.

Solution 1.4 Charge on the oil drop = charge of 20 electrons = 20×1.6 × 10−19 C
Potential on the oil drop is

32 × 10−19
=
4πo × r
32 × 10−19
= = .........
4πo × 10−6

Now energy required is equal to work done in bringing an electron from a point of
potential to zero potential is ........... ...................×1.6 × 10−19 C=......................

Problem 1.5 Can a metal sphere of radius 1 cm, can hold the charge of one coulomb?

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Solution 1.5 Answer is NO. Potential of a metal shere of radius is given as

1 q 1 1
V = . = . −2 = 9 × 1011 volt
4πo r 4πo 10
Potential is much greater than required to ionise the air and hence charge leaks to
surrounding mediums.

Problem 1.6 Can two equipotential surface intersect?

Problem 1.7 What is the relation between the equipotential surface and electric lines
of force?

P h y sics
g.
1.5 Questions
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
. k
Impflux? t Boo
1. What do you mean by electric
T e x
Read
2. Deduce Coulomb’s law from Gauss law?

3. State and prove Gauss law in differential form.

4. What are the types of electrostatics problems in which Gauss theorem is useful?
is the theorem useful in case of a dipole?

5. Define electric potential. Obtain an expression for the electric potential due to a
line charge of infinite length?

6. Explain the term electric field intensity and potential. Obtain an expression for
the potential due to an electric dipole. Dervice a relation of field and potential?

7. State and deduce Gauss law as applied to a dielectric medium?

8. State and explain Biot Savart’s law and give its applications?

9. State Faraday law of electromagnetic induction. Derive the differential and integral
form of Faraday’s law?

10. Write down the Maxwell’s equation in differential form?

11. Derive and Explain what is meant by displacement current?

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

12. Compare and contrast Newton law of gravitation and Coulomb law of electrostat-
ics?
13. What is the limitations of Gauss law?
14. For a static electric field, show that O × E = 0.

15. Using Gauss’s law, obtain Poisson’s and Laplace equations.

16. Write a note on Conservative field and dielectric materials.
17. Define electric displacement and explain the significance of electric displacement
vector.

18. What is an equipotential surface ? Mention impportant properties of equipotential

surfaces.
19. Discuss how electrostatic force is a conservative force?
20. Deduce the Gauss law in the differential form i.e., O.E = ρ/o

21. What do you mean by line integral of electric field?

22. State Coulomb’s law in electrostatics. What do you mean by flux of an electric
field?
23. State Gauss law and use it to determine the intersity near a long charged conduc-
tor?
sics
Phyover a closed path is zero.
g. field
24. Shpw that the line integral of electric
En
n t s in e ore
fprinciple?
25.
. P o i
Does electric potential obey b
superposition
k s Explain?
I m p t B o o
26. Starting from Maxwell’s
a d Texelectromagnetic equations in free space, in absence of
R e
charges and currents, obtain the wave equation for electric field?
27. Write the Maxwell’s electromagnetic equation in differential form in a medium, in
the presence of charges and currents. Identify and state the law of electromag-
netism with which these equations are associated.

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Chapter 2

Overview of Optical fiber

Communication

2.1 Introduction
The field of fibre optics communications has exploded over the past two decades. Fibre
is an integral part of modern day communication infrastucture and can be found along
roads, in buildings, hospitals and machinary.
The fibre itself is a strand of silica based glass, it’s dimensions similar to those of a
human hair, surrounded by a transparent cladding. Light can be transmitted along the
fibre over great distances at very high data rates providingPan h ysicsmedium for the
ideal
g.
transport of information. n En
fore
Po i nts i s b e
k
Imp.
2.1.1 Historical development e x t Boo
T
Read
A challenge in using an optical fiber for a communications channel is to have a flexible,
low-loss medium that transfers a light signal over long distances without significant
attenuation and distortion.

1. Glass is an obvious material for such applications. The earliest known glass was
made around 2500 B.C., and glass already was drawn into fibers during the time
of the Roman Empire. However, such glasses have very high losses and are not
suitable for communication applications.

2. In 1840, Daniel Collodon and Jaques Babinet, both physicists, managed to prove
that light can be directed along jet of water in the fountain displays.

3. In 1854, John Tyndall, also a physicist, took it one step further. He proved that
light could travel through a curved stream of water; therefore a light signal could
be tilted.

4. In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell created the optical telephone system, called pho-
tophone.

5. In 1888, the Viennese doctors Roth and Reuss, used curved rods to illuminate
body cavities.

35
 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

6. In 1895, in an early attempt at television, Henry Saint-Rene designed a system of

bent glass rods for guiding light images.

7. In the year 1910 Hondros and Debye carried out a theoretical study and in 1920
Schriever reported an experimental work.

8. In the 1920s, John Logie Baird patented the idea of using arrays of transparent
stems to transmit images for television. However, in the 1930s, Heinrich Lamm
was the first person to transmit an image through a batch of optical fibers.

9. One of the first known attempts of using optical fibers for communication purposes
was a demonstration in 1930 by Heinrich Lamm of image transmission through a
short bundle of optical fibers for potential medical imaging.

10. In 1951, Hogler Moeller applied for a Danish patent on fiber optic imaging in which
he proposed cladding glass or plastic fibers with a low index, transparent material
but was refused because of the Braid’s patent.

11. Also in 1954, the ”maser” was developed by Charles Townes and his colleagues
at Columbia University. Maser stands for ”microwave amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation.”

12. The laser was introduced in 1958 as a efficient source of light. The concept was
introduced by Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow to show that masers could
be made to operate in optical and infrared regions. Basically, light is reflected
back and forth in an energized medium to generate amplified light as opposed to
excited molecules of gas amplified to generate
h y cs waves, as is the case with the
siradio
maser. ng. P
n t s in E e re
foat
13. P
In the early 1960, o i
when Charles s
Kao bwas the Standard Telecommunication
Laboratories
p.England, he
Imin x t B ook the idea of using a clad glass fiber for an
pursued
Te
Read
optical waveguide.

14. In 1961, Elias Snitzer published a theoretical description of single-mode fibers, with
a core so small that it could carry light with only one waveguide mode. He was able
to demonstrate that a laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)
directed through a thin glass fiber can be sufficient for medical applications. For
communication applications, the light loss became too great.

15. In 1964, Standard Communication Laboratories in England proved that light loss
of existing glass fiber could be diminished by removing impurities.

16. Kao and Hockham proposed the transmission of information via dielectric waveg-
uides or optical fiber cables fabricated from glass almost simultaneously in 1966.

17. In 1970, Corning Glass Works made single mode fibers with attenuation less than
20dB/ km.
In the 1970s, the optical telegraph was invented. A series of lights were placed
on towers, in order to transmit messages from a place to another.
In 1970, the goal of making single mode fibers with attenuation less then 20dB/km
was reached by scientists at Corning Glass Works. This was achieved through dop-
ing silica glass with titanium. Also in 1970, Morton Panish and Izuo Hayashi of Bell

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Laboratories, along with a group from the Ioffe Physical Institute in Leningrad,
demonstrated a semiconductor diode laser capable of emitting continuous waves
at room temperature.

18. In 1973, Bell Laboratories developed a modified vapor deposition process that can
be mass-produced into a low-loss optical fiber. This process remains, to this day,
the standard for fiber optic cabling manufacturing.

19. In 1977, the first live telephone traffic through fiber optics happens in Long Beach,
California.

20. In the early 1980s, telephone companies started to use fiber optics to rebuild their
communication infrastructure.

21. In 1986, Emmanuel Desurvire invented the erbium-doped amplifier which reduced
the cost of long-distance fiber systems.

22. In 1988, the first transatlantic telephone cable went into operation.

23. In 1991, Desurvire and Payne demonstrate amplifiers were built into the fiber
optic cable itself. Also in 1991, the photonic crystal fiber was developed. This
fiber guides light by means of diffraction from a periodic structure rather then
total internal reflection which allows power to be carried more efficiently then
with conventional fibers therefore improving performance.

24. first all-optic fiber cable, TPC-5, that uses optical amplifiers was laid across the
Pacific Ocean in 1996. The following year the Fiber OptichLinky s
sicAround the Globe
g . P
(FLAG) became the longest single-cable network
t s i n Enin the world
o r e
and provided the
n
infrastructure for the next generation iof
Po
Internet bef
applications
I mp. x t B ooks
In the earlier stage optical fibers exhibited d Tehigh attenuation (almost 1000 dB/km)which
very
ea attenuation of around 5 to 10dB/km. Nev-
was incomparable with coaxial cablesRhaving
ertheless, within ten years optical fiber losses were reduced to below 5dB/km and suitable
low loss jointing techniques were perfected as well. Parallely with the development of
the optical fibers other essential optical components like semiconductor optical sources
(i.e. injection LASERs and LEDs) and detectors (i.e. photodiodes and phototransis-
tors) were also going through rigorous research process. Primarily the semiconductor
LASERs exhibited very short lifetime of at most a few hours but by 1973 and 1977
lifetimes greater than 1000 hr and 7000 hr respectively were obtained through advanced
device structure.
first generation optical fiber links operated at around 850 nm range. Existing GaAs
based optical sources, silicon photo detectors, and multimode fibers were used in these
links and quiet understandably they suffered from intermodal dispersion and fiber losses.
With the advent of optical sources and photo detectors capable of operating at 1300
nm, a shift in transmission wavelength from 850nm to 1300nm was possible which in-
turn resulted in a substantial increase in the repeaterless transmission distance for long
haul telephone trunks. Systems operating at 1550nm provided lowest attenuation and
these links routinely carry traffic at around 2.5Gb/s over 90 km repeaterless distance.
The introduction of optical amplifiers like Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFA) and
Praseodymium-doped fiber amplifiers (PDFA) had a major thrust to fiber transmission
capacity. The use of Wavelength Division Multiplexing along with EDFA proved to be

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

a real boost in fiber capacity. Hence developments in fiber technology have been car-
ried out rapidly over recent years. Glass material for even longer wavelength operation
in the mid-infrared (2000 to 5000nm) and far-infrared (8000 to 12000nm) regions have
been developed. Furthermore, the implementation of active optoelectronic devices and
associated fiber components (i.e. splices, connectors, couplers etc.) has also accelerated
ahead with such speed that optical fiber communication technology would seem to have
reached a stage of maturity within its developmental path.

2.2 General system:

Optical fibers are necessary for large data communication and amount of data is mea-
sured interms of bandwidth. Optical communication employs a beam of modulated
monochromatic light to carry information from transmitter to receiver. The light spec-
trum spans a tremendous range in the electromagnetic spectrum, extending from the
region of 10 terahertz (104 gigahertz) to 1 million terahertz (109 gigahertz). This fre-
quency range essentially covers the spectrum from far infrared (0.3-mm wavelength)
through all visible light to near ultraviolet (0.0003-micrometre wavelength). Propa-
gating at such high frequencies, optical wavelengths are naturally suited for high-rate
broadband telecommunication.

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

Figure 2.1: Fiber optics cable

Practical exploitation of optical media for high-speed telecommunication over large dis-
tances requires a strong light beam that is nearly monochromatic, its power narrowly
concentrated around a desired optical wavelength. By inventing laser, it was possible to
overcome. Two kinds of optical channels exist: the unguided free-space channel, where
light freely propagates through the atmosphere, and the guided optical fibre channel,
where light propagates through an optical waveguide.

free-space channel Loss mechanisms in a free-space optical channel are virtually

identical to those in a line-of-sight microwave radio channel. Signals are degraded by
beam divergence, atmospheric absorption, and atmospheric scattering. Beam divergence
can be minimized by collimating (making parallel) the transmitted light into a coherent
narrow beam by using a laser light source for a transmitter. Atmospheric absorption
losses can be minimized by choosing transmission wavelengths that lie in one of the low-
loss ”windows” in the infrared, visible, or ultraviolet region. The atmosphere imposes
high absorption losses as the optical wavelength approaches the resonant wavelengths of

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gaseous constituents such as oxygen O2 , water vapour, carbon dioxide and ozone . On
a clear day the attenuation of visible light may be one decibel per kilometre or less, but
significant scattering losses can be caused by any variability in atmospheric conditions,
such as haze, fog, rain, or airborne dust.
The high sensitivity of optical signals to atmospheric conditions has hindered develop-
ment of free-space optical links for outdoor environments.A simple and familiar example
of an indoor free-space optical transmitter is the handheld infrared remote control for
television and high-fidelity audio systems. Free-space optical systems also are quite
common in measurement and remote sensing applications, such as optical range-finding
and velocity determination, industrial quality control, and laser altimetry radar (known
as LIDAR).

Optical free Channels: In contrast to wire transmission, in which an electric current

flows through a copper conductor, in optical fibre transmission an electromagnetic (op-
tical) field propagates through a fibre made of a nonconducting dielectric. Because of
its high bandwidth, low attenuation, interference immunity, low cost, and light weight,
optical fibre is becoming the medium of choice for fixed, high-speed digital telecommu-
nications links. Optical fibre cables are supplanting copper wire cables in both long-
distance applications, such as the feeder and trunk portions of telephone and cable
television loops, and short-distance applications, such as local area networks (LANs) for
computers and home distribution of telephone, television, and data services. An optical

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

Figure 2.2: Fiber optics cable

fibre communications link consists of the following elements: an electro-optical trans-

mitter, which converts analog or digital information into a modulated beam of light; a
light-carrying fibre, which spans the transmission path; and an optoelectronic receiver,
which converts detected light into an electric current. For long-distance links (greater
than 30 km, or 20 miles), regenerative repeaters are usually required to offset the atten-
uation of signal power. In the past, hybrid optical-electronic repeaters commonly were
employed; these featured an optoelectronic receiver, electronic signal processing, and
an electro-optical transmitter for regenerating the signal. Today, erbium-doped optical
amplifiers are employed as efficient all-optical repeaters.

Electro-optical transmitters The efficiency of an electro-optical transmitter is de-

termined by many factors, but the most important are the following: spectral line width,

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

which is the width of the carrier spectrum and is zero for an ideal monochromatic light
source; insertion loss, which is the amount of transmitted energy that does not couple
into the fibre; transmitter lifetime; and maximum operating bit rate.

Figure 2.3: Fiber optics cable

P h ysics
n Eng.
Two kinds of electro-optical
Po i t s i fore used in optical fibre links-the
ntransmitters sarebecommonly
light-emitting diode .
Imp(LED) x t ook
and theBsemiconductor laser. The LED is a broad-line width
light source that is usedad T e
for medium-speed, short-span links in which dispersion of the
Re is not a major problem. The LED is lower in cost and has a
light beam over distance
longer lifetime than the semiconductor laser. However, the semiconductor laser couples
its light output to the optical fibre much more efficiently than the LED, making it
more suitable for longer spans, and it also has a faster ’rise’ time, allowing higher data
transmission rates.
Laser diodes are available that operate at wavelengths in the proximity of 0.85, 1.3, and
1.5 micrometres and have spectral line widths of less than 0.003 micrometre. They are
capable of transmitting at over 10 gigabits per second. LEDs capable of operating over
a broader range of carrier wavelengths exist, but they generally have higher insertion
losses and line widths exceeding 0.035 micrometre.

Optoelectronic receivers two most common kinds of optoelectronic receivers for op-
tical links are the positive-intrinsic-negative (PIN) photodiode and the avalanche pho-
todiode (APD). These optical receivers extract the baseband signal from a modulated
optical carrier signal by converting incident optical power into electric current. The
PIN photodiode has low gain but very fast response; the APD has high gain but slower
response.

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2.3 Fabrication of Optical Fibre

Optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide or medium in which information (voice, data or
video) is transmitted through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light. The basic
structure of an optical fiber is shown in figure.

Figure 2.4: Fiber optics cable

A fiber consists of a solid glass cylinder called the core. This is surrounded by a dielectric
cladding, which has a different material property from that of the core in order to achieve
light guiding in the fiber. Surrounding these two layers is a polymer buffer coating that
protects the fiber from mechanical and environmental effects.
The first step in making a fiber is to form a clear glass rod or tube called a preform.
Currently a preform is made by one of several vapor-phase oxidation y s
sicprocesses. In each
g . P h
of these processes, highly pure vapors of metal halides E
t s i n n on thefsurface
react with oxygen
o r e
to form a white
Po nof a tube) be
powder of SiO2 particles. The particles are ithen collected of a bulk glass
p . o k s
(such as the outside of a rod or Imthe inside Bo
extmelting)
and are sintered (transformed
to a homogeneous glass mass by heating d T
without to form a clear glass rod or
tube. Modified chemical vapor depositionRea (MCVD) process in which SiO2 particles are
deposited and the tube is rotated and a torch travels back and forth along the tube to
sinter the particles. A stream of heated materials (also known as soot) passes through
the centre. Soot is used to form the inner part (core) of the fibre and it sticks to the wall
of the tube. A torch follows along the outside of the tube and slightly behind the flow
of soot and sinters the soot to the tube. Several passes may be run depending on the
indended results. After several layers of soot deposited, torch moves along the tube at
a slower rate and causes the tube to melt and collapse so it forms a solid rod, as shown
in fig.2.5.
Other process for making a preform involves involves depositing soot on the outside of
a solid glass rod (bait rod). Soot is deposited layer by layer, starting with the core
materials and moving on to the cladding material. Once the necessarry soot is deposited,
the bait rod is removed from the center. Hole left by the bait rod is eliminated in the
drawing step. After the perform is made, it is drawn out to form the fibre. As shown,
the perform into a mechanism that is shaped somewhat like a funnel. At the neck of the
funnel, heat is applied to the perform and the molten end is pulled through the neck
producing the fiber. Size of the fibre is monitored as it is pulled through the neck and
adjustment are made to the temperature of the preform and the speed of the drawing
so that the size of the fibre is constant.
Depending on how long a fiber is desired, the preform might be a meter long and several

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Figure 2.5: Fiber optics cable preparation: Making a Perform

centimeters in diameter. The preform has two distinct regions that correspond to the
core and cladding of the eventual fiber. Process softens the end of the preform to the
point where it can be drawn into a long, very thin filament which becomes the optical
fiber. P h y sics
g.
It consists of a transparent core with
t s i n Ea nrefractivefoindex
re n1 surrounded by a transparent
i n e
m p . o
cladding of a slightly lessPrefractive index
B o o ks2forbexample are a core refractive index
n . The refractive index of cladding is less than
I
1%, lower than that of core.
xt cladding supports the waveguide structure, protects
Typical values of 1.47
and a cladding index e d TeThe
ofa1.46.
R
the core from absorbing surface contaminants and when adequately thick, substantially
reduces the radiation loss to the surrounding air. Glass core fibers tend to have low loss
in comparison with plastic core fibers. Additionally, most of the fibers are encapsulated
in an elastic, abrasion-resistant plastic material which mechanically isolates the fibers
from small geometrical irregularities and distortions. A set of guided electromagnetic
waves, also called the modes of the waveguide, can describe the propagation of light along
the waveguide. Only a certain number of modes are capable of propagating through the
waveguide.

2.3.1 Advantages, disadvantages

Properties of optical fibers gave them a number of inherent cost and operational advan-
tages.

1. Long transmission distance: Optical fibers have lower transmission losses com-
pared to copper wires. This means that data can be sent over longer distances,
thereby reducing the number of intermediate repeaters needed for these spans.
This reduction in equipment and components decreases system cost and complex-
ity.

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Figure 2.6: Fiber optics cable preparation

2. Large information capacity: Optical fibers have wider bandwidths than copper
wires, which means that more information can be sent over a single physical line.
This property results in a decrease in the number of physical lines needed for
sending a certain amount of information.

3. Small size and low weight The low weight and the small dimensions of fibers
offer a distinct advantage over heavy, bulky wire cables in crowded s underground
y s i c
city ducts or in ceiling-mounted cable trays. This also
En . Phare advantageous,
gcablesis of importance in air-

n t in
craft, satellites, and ships where small, lightweight
s e f o remust be unreeled
and
i
Po oks b
in tactical military applications where large amounts of cable
and retrieved rapidly. Imp. xt Bo
Te
Read
4. Immunity to electrical interference. An especially important feature of opti-
cal fibers relates to the fact that they consist of dielectric materials, which means
they do not conduct electricity. This makes optical fibers immune to the electro-
magnetic interference effects seen in copper wires, such as inductive pickup from
other adjacent signal-carrying wires or coupling of electrical noise into the line
from any type of nearby equipment.

5. Enhanced safety Optical fibers do not have the problems of ground loops,
sparks, and potentially high voltages inherent in copper lines. However, pre-
cautions with respect to laser light emissions need to be observed to prevent
possible eye damage.

6. Increased signal security: An optical fiber offers a high degree of data secu-
rity, since the optical signal is well confined within the fiber and any signal emis-
sions are absorbed by an opaque coating around the fiber. This is in contrast
to copper wires where electric signals often can be tapped off easily. This makes
fibers attractive in applications where information security is important, such as
in financial, legal, government, and military systems

7. Much lower levels of signal attenuation

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

P h y sics
g. preparation:Drawing process
n n
Figure 2.7: Fiber opticsEcable

P o i n t s i
s b e fore
Im p.
x tB ook
8. Fibre optic e
cabling provides
T a much higher bandwidth allowing more data to be
delivered Read
9. Fibre optic cables are much lighter than the coaxial cables that might otherwise
be used.

10. Fibre optics do not suffer from stray interference pickup that occurs with coaxial
cabling

2.3.2 Applications of optical fiber communication

Light rays travel continuously, bouncing off the optical fiber walls and transmitting end
to end data. Although light signals do degrade over progressing distances, depending
on the purity of the material used, the loss is much less compared to using metal cables.
Any fibre optic data transmission system will comprise a number of different elements.
A Fibre Optic Relay System consists of the following components:

1. Transmitter (light source)

2. Fibre optic cable

3. Optical repeater

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Figure 2.8: Fiber optics communication system

4. Passive devices

5. Amplifiers

6. Receiver (Detector) P h y sics

g.
t s i n En forewill employ some-
o i n for local areas networks
Systems used for lower capacity links, possibly
P b e
k network providers that pro-
Imp. to those
what different techniques and components
e x tB ooby
used
d T
Readistances.
vide extremely high data rates over long

Transmitters
Although the original telecommunications fibre optic systems would have used large
lasers, today a variety of semiconductor devices can be used. The most commonly used
devices are light emitting diodes, LEDs, and semiconductor laser diodes.
The simplest transmitter device is the LED. Its main advantage is that it is cheap,
and this makes it ideal for low cost applications where only short runs are needed.
However they have a number of drawbacks. The first is that they offer a very low
level of efficiency. Only about 1% of the input power enters the optical fibre, and this
means that high power drivers would be needed to provide sufficient light to enable long
distance transmissions to be made. The other disadvantage of LEDs is that they produce
what is termed incoherent light that covers a relatively wide spectrum. Typically the
spectral width is between 30 and 60 nm. This means that any chromatic dispersion in
the fibre will limit the bandwidth of the system.
In view of their performance, LEDs are used mainly in local-area-network applications
where the data rates are typically in the range 10-100 Mb/s and transmission distances
are a few kilometres.
Laser diodes are often directly modulated. This provides a very simple and effective
method of transferring the data onto the optical signal. This is achieved by controlling

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

current applied directly to the device. This in turn varies the light output from the
laser. However for very high data rates or very long distance links, it is more effective to
run the laser at a constant output level (continuous wave). The light is then modulated
using an external device. The advantage of using an external means of modulation is
that it increases the maximum link distance because an effect known as laser chirp is
eliminated. This chirp broadens the spectrum of the light signal and this increases the
chromatic dispersion in the fibre optic cable.

Cable
In essence a fibre optic cable consists of core, around which is another layer referred to
as the cladding. Outside of this there is a protective outer coating.
The fibre optic cables operate because their cladding has a refractive index that is
slightly lower than that of the core. This means that light passing down the core
undergoes total internal reflection when it reaches the core / cladding boundary, and it
is thereby contained within the core of the optical fibre.

Repeaters
There is a maximum distance over which signals may be transmitted over fibre optic
cabling. This is limited not only by the attenuation of the cable, but also the distortion
of the light signal along the cable. In order to overcome these effects and transmit the
signals over longer distances, repeaters and amplifiers are used.
Opto-electric repeaters may be used. These devices convert the optical signal into an
electrical format where it can be processed to ensure that s the signal is not distorted and
then converted back into the optical format. P y
Ithmaysicthen be transmitted along the next
E n g.
state of the fibre optic cable. n
ts ian fore These amplifiers directly amplify
An alternative approachPis o i
tonuse optical
s b e
amplifier.
p. the need k
Imwithout
the optical signal
T e x t Btoooconvert the signal back into an electrical format.
R ada length of fibre optic cable that is doped with a rare earth
The amplifiers consisteof
mineral named Erbium. The treated fibre cable is then illuminated or pumped with
light of a shorter wavelength from another laser and this serves to amplify the signal
that is being carried.
In view of the much reduced cost of fibre optic amplifiers over repeaters, amplifiers are
far more widely used.

Passive devices
passive devices are optical components that require no electronic control for their oper-
ation. Among these are optical connectors for connecting cables, splices for attaching
one bare fiber to another, optical isolators that prevent unwanted light from flowing
in a backward direction, optical filters that select only a narrow spectrum of desired
light, and couplers used to tap off a certain percentage of light, usually for performance
monitoring purposes.

Amplifiers
After an optical signal has traveled a certain distance along a fiber, it becomes weakened
due to power loss along the fiber. At that point the optical signal needs to get a power
boost. Traditionally the optical signal was converted to an electric signal, amplified

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electrically, and then converted back to an optical signal. The invention of an optical
amplifier that boosts the power level completely in the optical domain circumvented
these transmission bottlenecks

Receivers
Light travelling along a fibre optic cable needs to be converted into an electrical signal so
that it can be processed and the data that is carried can be extracted. The component
that is at the heart of the receiver is a photo-detector. This is normally a semiconductor
device and may be a p-n junction, a p-i-n photo-diode or an avalanche photo-diode.
Photo-transistors are not used because they do not have sufficient speed.
Once the optical signal from the fibre optic cable has been applied to the photo-detector
and converted into an electrical format it can be processed to recover the data which
can then be passed to its final destination.

2.4 Ray theory

The electromagnetic waves propagates through total internal reflection (TIR).Outer
sheath protects the cladding or core from any abrasions, contamination and moisture.

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

Figure 2.9: Fiber optics: Total internal reflection

2.4.1 Total internal reflection, Critical angle/Cone

Total internal reflection:When light traveling in an optically dense medium hits a
boundary at a steep angle (larger than the critical angle for the boundary), the light is
completely reflected. This is called total internal reflection. This effect is used in optical
fibers to confine light in the core.Refractive index of core (n1 ) is slighter greater than
refractive index of cladding (n2 ). Light is launched in to core through core-air interface

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and light enter into core greater than critical angle, thus causing total internal reflection.
As angle of incidence and reflection are equal, this rebound is extended through out fibre.
Highlights of TIR are
1. Standing wave type of field inside the core.
2. Decaying type filed in cladding
3. Ray undergoes the phase change at reflecting boundary.
Critical angle is angle of incidence for which angle of refraction is 90 °. Critical angle
is angle at which if light enters into core, it suffers total internal reflection. Critical
angle is calculated from Snel’s law and is given as
 
n2
θc = arcsin (2.1)
n1
If arcangles is less than or equal to 1, then total internal reflection do take place and

ysics
g. Ph angle, Acceptance cone
Figure 2.10: Fiber optics: Acceptance
n t s in En efore
i s b it is arc-angle is greater than 1 then
o be defined.okHowever,
Pcan
Imp. do notexoccur.
by which critical angle
total internal reflection t Bo
Acceptance angle: ad T angle is defined as the maximum angle of incidence at
ReAcceptance
the end face of the optical fibre for which the ray can be propagated in to optical fibre.
It is angle at which light propagates through optical fibre by totoal internal reflection,
then the light must be incident in to the fibre core with in angle θo . Acceptance cone:

Figure 2.11: Fiber optics: Acceptance angle, Acceptance cone

A cone obtained by the rotating a ray at the end face of an optical fibre, around the
fibre axis with acceptance angle is known as acceptance cone.

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2.4.2 Numerical aperature (NA)

Numerical aperature is light gathering capacity of an optical fibre and this is proportional
to sine of angle θo .
n1 sin (90 − θ1 ) = n2 sin (90)
s
n2
sin θ1 = 1 − 22 (2.2)
n1
As
s
n22
no sin θo = n1 1−
n21
p
n21 − n22
sin θo =
no
if n0 = 1
q
θo = sin−1 n21 − n22
q
NA = sin θo = n21 − n22 (2.3)

Condition for light propagation in the fibre

1. sin θi < sin θo

sics
p
2. sin θi < n21 − n22
P h y
g.
3. sin θi < NA
t s i n En fore
P o i n s b e
Fractional Refractive index Imp. k
T e x t Boo
Fractional difference 4 between the R ead indices of the core and cladding is known
refractive
as fractional index change.
n1 − n2
4=
n1
As light gathering ability depends on the core size and numerical aperature,
the main function of fibre optics is to accept as much light as it can and transmit.
Acceptance angle and numerical aperature is expressed as equation above.

n21 − n22 = (n1 + n2 ) (n1 − n2 )

(n1 + n2 ) (n1 − n2 )
n21 − n22 = 2n1
2 n1
(n1 + n2 )
Approx. = n1
2
(n1 − n2 )
= 4
n1
we
q have..... q
n21 − n22 = 2n21 .4
q p
n21 − n22 = n1 . 24 (2.4)

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2.4.3 V-Number
Definition: a normalized frequency parameter, which determines the number of modes
of a step-index fiber. The V number is a dimensionless parameter which is often used in
the context of step-index fibers. It is defined as
rh
2π i
V = ×a× n2core − n2cladding (2.5)
λ
where λ is the wavelength, ’a’ is the radius of the core, NA is numerical aperature. V
number should not be confused with velocity or Abbe number which has similar
denotions.
V number can be interpreted as a kind of normalized optical frequency. (It is proportional
to the optical frequency, but rescaled depending on waveguide properties.) It is relevant
for various essential properties of a fiber a) For values of V< 2.405, fiber supports one
mode of polarization directions, i.e., single mode. b) Multimode fibers can have higher
V numbers and can be calculated using the equation as

V2
M≈ (2.6)
2
V number determines the fraction of the optical power in a certain mode which is
confined to the fiber core. Low V number makes a fiber sensitive to micro-bend losses
and to absorption losses in the cladding. However, a high V number may increase
scattering losses in the core or at the core-cladding interface.

2.4.4 Bandwidth
P h ysics
Eng. transmission
n allowable
Bandwidth is viewed as maxiumum
Po i n t s i
s b e foreproductrate and expressed in terms

is also known asIm

p.
of Hz, MHz or GHz. From practical
t B ok
usable distance,
oproduct.
of frequency and distance

d Te x
bandwidth- distance Bandwidth is given by the relation
R ea
fo
BW = (2.7)
Q
Or it can rewritten as,
1
BW = (2.8)
4T
where 4T is known as time delay. Time delay is given by the relation

L n1 (n1 − n2 )
4T = . (2.9)
c n2
(n1 − n2 ) should be as small as possible.

2.4.5 Cutoff wave length

Cutoff wavelength λc for any mode is defined as the maximum wavelength at which that
mode will propagate. Cutoff wavelength λc of LP11 is an important specification for a
single-mode fiber. The operation wavelength must be greater than the cutoff wavelength
of LP11 to operate the fiber in a single mode regime. λc can be determined analytically
for some specified fiber profiles. For a general fiber profile, a highly accurate numerical

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mode solver should be involved to calculate cutoff wavelength. OptiFiber currently

implements two different approaches for finding the cutoff and respectively two different
values can be calculated for each mode: a) theoritical and b) estimated one.
Therotical cutoff is the wavelength, above which the given mode cannot propagate, even
in short and unperturbed samples of this fiber. This value is calculated using the general
numerical mode-solvers of OptiFiber. It is defined as the wavelength, above which the
Eigenvalue problem formulated for the current fiber design and for the given mode does
not have real solutions.
Estimated cutoff values are obtained by emulating the actual experimental cutoff mea-
surements and employs a macrobending loss formula applicable to any mode in arbitrary-
index profile optical fibers.
Cutoff wavelength of a single mode fiber is the wavelength above which the fiber propa-
gates only the fundamental mode. Below cut-off, the fiber will transmit more than one
mode. An optical fiber that is single-moded at a particular wavelength may have two or
more modes at wavelengths lower than the cutoff wavelength. The effective cutoff wave-
length of a fiber is dependent on the length of fiber and its deployment and the longer
the fiber, the lower the effective cutoff wavelength. Or the smaller the bend radius of a
loop of the fiber is, the lower the effective cutoff wavelength will be. If a fiber is bent
in a loop, the cutoff is lowered. The cutoff wavelength of a fiber is reduced when it is
cabled. Equation is given as
rh
2π i
λc = ×a× n2core − n2cladding (2.10)
Vc

The cutoff wavelength is the minimum wavelength in which a particular

P h y sics fiber still acts
i n ng. (fiber isonly
as a single mode fiber. Above the cutoff wavelength, the fiber
Efiber
will
e
allow the linear

Po i nts higher order

polarized mode (LP01 ) mode to propagate through the
s b e for a single mode fiber
.
at this wavelength). Below the cutoffpwavelength,
Im(fiber x t B ook fiber at this11wavelength).
modes(LP ),(LP21 ) and
(LP02 ) etc will be able to propagate Te
becomes a multimode
Readdeployment of the fiber plays an important
It’s important to note that the physical
role in defining the region of single-mode operation. Typical deployment conditions for
cabled fibers in the field, with varying lengths and bend configurations, will typically
shift the actual cutoff to shorter wavelengths than the measured fiber cutoff wavelength
(λCF ).
The cabled fiber cutoff wavelength (λCC ) is of more interest to the cabler because it’s a
more accurate representation of the cutoff wavelength that can be expected in actual use.
Because cabling the fiber tends to shift the cutoff to shorter wavelengths, a conservative
estimate of cabled cutoff can be made by measuring uncabled fiber in the cable cutoff
configuration(λCCF ).

2.4.6 Measurements
To determine the cutoff wavelength of a single-mode fiber by the transmitted power
method, the transmitted spectral power versus wavelength for the sample fiber is com-
pared to the transmitted spectral power versus wavelength for two meters of a multimode
fiber by applying the equation:
 
Ps (λ)
Am (λ) = 10 log10 dB (2.11)
Pm (λ)

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where Am is attenuation difference, Ps is power from single mode fibre, Pm is power

from multi mode fibre.
A multimode fiber is used as the reference fiber to permit mapping out the spectral
response of the measurement system. To determine the cutoff wavelength, Am is plotted
against wavelength. A straight line is fitted to the long-wavelength back slope of the
plot and dropped 0.1 dB. As depicted in Figure, its subsequent intersection with the
curve denotes the cutoff wavelength. An optimal fit can be used to control errors in the
transition zone.

P h y sics
Figure 2.12: n Fiber g. cutoff wavelength
Enoptics:
P o i n t s i
s b e fore
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
2.5 Read and multimode fibers
Single mode
Optical fibres or optical fibers can also be split into single mode fibre, and multimode
fibre. Mention of both single mode fiber and multi-mode fiber is often seen in the
literature. Step index cable refers to cable in which there is a step change in the refractive
index between the core and the cladding.

2.5.1 Single Mode Fibre (SMF)

It is found that if the diameter of the optical fibre is reduced to a few wavelengths of
light, then the light can only propagate in a straight line and does not bounce from side
to side of the fibre. As the light can only travel in this single mode, this type of cable
is called a single mode fibre. Typically single mode fibre core are around eight to ten
microns in diameter, much smaller than a hair.
Single mode fiber does not suffer from multi-modal dispersion and this means that it
has a much wider bandwidth. The main limitation to the bandwidth is what is termed
chromatic dispersion where different colours, i.e. Wavelengths propagate at different
speeds. Chromatic dispersion of the optical fibre cable occurs within the centre of the
fibre itself. It is found that it is negative for short wavelengths and changes to become
positive at longer wavelengths. As a result there is a wavelength for single mode fiber

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Figure 2.13: Fiber optics: Single and Multimode transmission

where the dispersions is zero. This generally occurs at a wavelength of around 1310 nm
and this is the reason why this wavelength is widely used. For single mode transmission,
minimum value of wavelength (λ) is given as

2πaN A
λ= (2.12)
2.405
For an arbitrary profile the frequency for single mode propagation is
r
α+2
Vc = V∞ . (2.13)
α
ysics
. Ph to be manufactured
Disadvantage of single mode fibre is that it requires high tolerance
and this increases its cost. Against this the factin Enitgoffers
that re fiber
superior performance,
i n t s e f o
undertaken to reduce the costs. Imp
. Po
especially for long runs means that much development
B o o ks b
of single mode has been
Te xt
Read
2.5.2 Multimode Fibre (MMF)
This form of fibre has a greater diameter than single mode fibre, being typically around
50 microns in diameter, and this makes them easier to manufacture than the single mode
fibres.
Multimode optical fiber has a number of advantages. As it has a wider diameter than
single mode fibre it can capture light from the light source and pass it to the receiver
with a high level of efficiency. As a result it can be used with low cost light emitting
diodes. In addition to this the greater diameter means that high precision connectors
are not required. However this form of optical fibre cabling suffers from a higher level
of loss than single mode fibre and in view of this its use is more costly than might
be expected at first sight. It also suffers from multi-mode modal dispersion and this
severely limits the usable bandwidth. As a result it has not been widely used since the
mid 1980s. Single mode fiber cable is the preferred type.

Step index Fibre (MMF)

Step index means there is a sharp difference in the index of refraction between the core
and cladding. Single mode cable is very small in diameter and essentially provides only
a single path for light.

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Figure 2.14: Fiber optics: Step Index and graded index

n(r) = n1 r<a
n(r) = n2 r≥a

y sics
E n g. Ph and this is fundamental mode with
For step index, V <2.405, single mode propagates
tsofinV=2.405 is firstorzero
cut off frequency Vc = 0. Value
f e of the Bessel function Jo (ur).
p. Poin o o ks be
I m B
a d Text
Graded index Fibre
R e (GRIN)

Graded index means that the index of refraction of the core varies over its cross- section,
highest in the centre and lowest at the edges.

h h r iα i 12
n(r) = n1 1 − 24 r<a (2.14)
a
1
n2 = n1 [1 − 24] 2 r≥a (2.15)

where α is called as profile of the fibre. α = ∞ then profiles is step index, α = 1, profile
is triangular and α = 2, profile is parabolic.
As α increases to ∞, graded index fibre will tend towards step index fibre behaviour.
Multiple light paths in a graded index core are controlled so that they converge at
multiple points along the cable. Modal dispersion does not occu but it is not as serve
as that caused by the step index core. Modal dispersion does not occur in single mode
core. Number of modes or mode volume is given by the relation:
  2
α V
Mg = . (2.16)
α+2 2

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2.5.3 Types of rays

Meridional rays
A ray that propagates through the fibre undergoing TIR is called meridional rays. It
passes through the longitudinal axis of the fibre core and has possibility of TM or TE
only. It can be seen from the figure that the ray is confined to the plane by which it
wa launched and never leaves the plane. Meridional rays are further classified into two
rays:

1. Bounded rays: These rays are trapped in the core of the fibre and they travel
along the fibre axis according to Snell laws of reflection and refraction.

2. Un-Bounded rays: These rays are refracted out of the fibre according to Snell laws
of refraction and cannot be trapped in the core of the fiber.

P h y sics
g.
Figure 2.15:
t s i n n
Fiber optics: Skew andEMeridional
f
rays
o re
P o i n s b e
Imp. e x2t
Bo2
ok
T
1

Re d a 1 2
sin θ n − n
N A = no a 2
(2.17)

Skew rays
Ray that describes the helical path along the fibre is called a skew rays. They do not
pass through the axis of the core and propagate through hybrid mode(HE or EH). These
rays produce lossess through radiation leakes.
Skew rays constitute a substantial portio of the tota number of guided rays and tend
to propagate only in the annular region near the outer surface of the core and do not
utilize the entire medium of the core. Skew rays are complimentary to meridional rays
and increase the light gathering capacity in the fibre.

cos θ = cos γ sin φ

p
cos γ sin φ = 1 − sin2 θ (2.18)

In the limiting case total internal reflection is considered and then θ becomes equal to
critical angle θc for the core cladding interface and φ becomes equal to θm .
1
n22 2

cos θc = 1 − 2 (2.19)
n1

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Figure 2.16: Fiber optics: Skew rays

Applying Snell law na sin αm = n1 sin φ1 , we have

na sin αm = n1 sin φm
1
n2 2

n1
na sin αm = n1 1 − 22
cos γ n1
n1 1
na sin αm = n1 [(n1 − n2 ) (n1 + n2 )] 2 (2.20)
cos γ
na = 1
1
[2n (4n)] 2
sin αm =
cos γ hysic
s (2.21)
g. P
i n En modefoas:re
Or it can be simply written astsassymettric
p. Poin o o ks be 2 2

I m NTAe= B
xtno sin θas cos γ = n1 − n2
1
2
(2.22)
R ea d
where θas is the acceptance angle for skew rays and γ angle between angle of incidence
and normal at the point of incidence. Figure shows the helical path through the fiber by
the skew rays and gives a change of direction of an angle 2γ at each reflection where γ
is the angle between the projection of the ray in 2-D and the radius of the fiber core at
the point of reflection. Point of emergence of the skew rays from the fiber in air depends
on the number of reflection they undergo rather than the input condition of the optical
fiber. When the light input to the fiber is not uniform, the skey rays will exhibits a
smoothing effects on the distribution of light transmitted. As a result, the light output
due to the skew rays will be quite uniform.

Key points
1. θas > θa
2. Skew rays will be in large number inside fibre.

2.6 Fiber materials

Optical fibers are composed primarily of silicon dioxide (SiO2 ), though minute amounts
of other chemicals are often added. Highly purified silica powder was used in the now-

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outmoded crucible manufacturing method, while liquid silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4 ) in a

gaseous stream of pure oxygen (02 ) is the principal source of silicon for the vapor deposi-
tion method currently in widespread use. Other chemical compounds such as germanium
tetrachloride (GeCl4 ) and phosphorus oxychloride (POC13 ) can be used to produce
core fibers and outer shells, or claddings, with function-specific optical properties.
Because the purity and chemical composition of the glass used in optical fibers determine
the most important characteristic of a fiber degree of attenuation, research now focuses
on developing glasses with the highest possible purity. Glasses with a high fluoride
content hold the most promise for improving optical fiber performance because they
are transparent to almost the entire range of visible light frequencies. This makes them
especially valuable for multimode optical fibers, which can transmit hundreds of discrete
light wave signals concurrently.
In a fiber optic cable, many individual optical fibers are bound together around a central
steel cable or high-strength plastic carrier for support. This core is then covered with
protective layers of materials such as aluminum, Kevlar, and polyethylene (the cladding).
Optical fibers will come from ongoing research into materials with improved optical
properties. Currently, silica glasses with a high fluoride content hold the most promise
for optical fibers, with attenuation losses even lower than today’s highly efficient fibers.
Experimental fibers, drawn from glass containing 50 to 60 percent zirconium fluoride
(ZrF4 ), now show losses in the range of 0.005 to 0.008 decibels per kilometer, whereas
earlier fibers often had losses of 0.2 decibels per kilometer.
Fibers can be drawn from a preform at the rate of 10 to 20 meters (32.8 to 65.6 feet)
per second, and single-mode fibers from 2 to 25 kilometers (1.2 to 15.5 miles) in length
can be drawn from one preform.
At least one company has reported creating fibers of 160 kilometers
h y cs miles), and the
si(99
frequency with which fiber optics companies are currently P
ng. retoolingeas often as every
i n Elie
Poi b n t s
eighteen months-suggests that still greater innovations efor
ahead.
I m p.
x t B ooks
d Te
2.7 Fiber optic cablesRea
1972 Maurer, Keck, and Schultz had made multimode germania-doped fibers with a
4-dB/km loss and much greater strength than the earlier brittle titania-doped fibers.
A problem with using single-mode fibers in the 1970’s was that no light source existed
which could couple a sufficient amount of optical power into the tiny fiber core (nominally
9 µ m in diameter). Therefore, multimode fibers with larger core diameters ranging from
50 to 100 nm were used first. The main light sources were light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
and laser diodes that emitted at 850 nm. The combination of early sources, multimode
fibers, and operation at 850 nm limited the optical fiber links to rates of about 140 Mbps
over distances of 10 km.
around 1984 the next generation of optical systems started employing single-mode fibers
and operated at 1310 nm where both the fiber attenuation and signal distortion effects
are lower than at 850 nm.
The next evolutionary step was to deploy links at 1550 nm where the attenuation was
only one-half that at 1310 nm. This move started a flurry of activity in developing new
fiber types, different light sources, new types of photodetectors, and a long shopping
list of specialized optical components. This activity arose because transmitting in the
1550 nm region and pushing the data rate to higher and higher speeds brought about a
whole series

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A commonly used yarn is Kevlar, which is a soft but tough yellow synthetic nylon mate-
rial belonging to a generic yarn family known as aramids. Note that aramid yarns also
are used for making bulletproof vests, trampolines, and tennis rackets. Individual fibers
or modules consisting of fiber groupings are wound loosely around the central member.
Optionally, a cable wrapping tape and another strength member then encapsulate these
fiber groupings.
Surrounding all this is a tough polymer jacket that provides crush resistance and handles
any tensile stresses applied to the cable so that the fibers inside are not damaged.
The jacket also protects the fibers inside against abrasion, moisture, oil, solvents, and
other contaminants. The jacket type defines the application characteristics; for example,
heavy-duty cables for direct-burial and aerial use have thicker, tougher jackets than
light-duty cables for indoor use.

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

Figure 2.17: Types of Optical Fiber:Tight-buffered, Loose-tube and Ribbon fiber cable

An important factor for using a cable in a building is the flammability rating. The
following lists some popular jacket materials and their properties:
1. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC):Flame-retardant; good mechanical protection and flex-
ibility. Widely used for indoor cables. Used outdoors with UV light inhibitors
added.
2. Polyethylene (PE): Excellent resistance to UV light, water, abrasion, and scrapes.
Excellent low-temperature flexibility. Since it burns, it is not suitable for indoor
use

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

3. Flame-retardant polyethylene (FRPE): Adding a flame-retardant to PE results in

a durable, highly abrasion-resistant jacketing. Widely used for indoor and outdoor
cables

4. Polyurethane (PU): Excellent resistance to abrasion, resistant to UV light, and

flexible at extremely low temperatures because of its natural pliability. Widely
used for military field communication cables and outdoor deployable cables

5. ETFE (Tefzel): Resistant to high temperatures (150°C), abrasion, and flames.

Stiffer and more expensive than PVC so used only where its properties are required

6. Low-smoke zero-halogen polyolefin: Will not emit toxic fumes, smoke, or acidic
gases in case of a fire. Has mechanical performance comparable to that of a PVC
or FRPE jacket

7. Cross-linked polyolefin: This material is widely used for highly demanding in-
door/outdoor applications due to its high resistance to abrasion, cuts, solvents,
ozone, and stress cracking

One of two basic structures is used to house individual fibers for any type of fiber optic
cable design. The structures are the tight-buffered fiber cable design and the loose-tube
cable configuration. Cables with tight buffered fibers nominally are used indoors whereas
the loose tube structure is intended for long-haul outdoor applications. A ribbon cable is
an extension of the tight-buffered cable. In all cases the fibers themselves consist of the
normally manufactured glass core and cladding which are surrounded by a protective
250 µm diameter coating. cs
hysi
g . P
n in the tight
1. Tight-buffered fiber cable: Simplex one fiber
n t s in Ecable, e re buffered design
foµm
Po i
each fiber is individually encapsulated within its s
own b900 diameter plastic
mp.
buffer structure, hence theIdesignation x
tight t B ook design.
buffered
e
R ead T
2. Tight-buffered fiber cable:In the loose-tube cable configuration, one or more
standard-coated fibers are enclosed in a thermoplastic tube that has an inner
diameter which is much larger than the fiber diameter.The fibers in the tube are
slightly longer than the cable itself. These two conditions isolate the fibers from
the cable and allow them to move freely in the tube. This allows the cable to
stretch under tensile loads without applying stress on the fibers. Invariably the
tube is filled with a gel that acts as a buffer, permits the fibers to move freely
within the tube, and prevents moisture from entering the tube. This type of
configuration thus is known as a gel-filled cable. The purpose of this construction
is to isolate the fiber from external stresses on the surrounding cable structure
caused by factors such as temperature changes. Historically, loose tube gel filled
cable has been used for outdoor long-haul routes, in which the cables are hung on
poles, installed in ducts, or buried directly in the ground.

3. Ribbon cable: To facilitate the field operation of splicing cables containing a

large number of fibers, cable designers devised the fiber-ribbon structure. arrange-
ment of fibers that are aligned precisely next to each other and then encapsulated
in a plastic buffer or jacket to form a long continuous ribbon. The number of fibers
in a ribbon typically ranges from 4 to 12. These ribbons then can be stacked on
top of one another to form a densely packed arrangement of many fibers

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Figure 2.18: Types of Indoor cables

4. Indoor cables: Indoor cables can be used for interconnecting instruments, for
distributing signals among office users, for connections to printers or servers, and

h cs
for short patch cords in telecommunication equipment
ysi
racks.

i n E ng. P cables
Interconnect cable: Interconnect
e
are designed for light-duty low-
t s
fiber count indoor applications o r
such as fiber-to-the-desk links, patch cords, and
. Poininconduitsoo
point-to-pointpruns k
and bef The cable is flexible, compact, and
strays.
Im B construction.
lightweight Text
with a tight-buffered
Breakout
ead
R or fanout cable: Up to 12 tight-buffered fibers can be stranded
around a central strength member to form what is called a breakout or fanout
cable. Breakout cables are designed specifically for low- to medium-fiber count
applications where it is necessary to protect individual jacketed fibers.
Distribution cable: individual or small groupings of tight buffered fibers
can be stranded around a nonconducting central strength member to form what is
called a distribution cable. This cable can be used for a wide range of intrabuilding
and interbuilding network applications for sending data, voice, and video signals.

Optical Fiber Standards

The International Telecommunications Union (ITU-T) and the Telecommunications In-
dustry Association (TIA/EIA) are the main organizations that have published stan-
dards for both multimode and single-mode optical fibers used in telecommunications.
The recommended bounds on fiber parameters (e.g.,attenuation, cutoff wavelength, and
chromatic dispersion) designated in these standards ensure the users of product capa-
bility and consistency. In addition, the standards allow fiber manufacturers to have a
reasonable degree of flexibility to improve products and develop new ones.
Multimode fibers are used widely in LAN environments, storage area networks, and
central-office connections, where the distance between buildings is typically 2 km or

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less. The two principal multimode fiber types for these applications have either 50-
or 62.5 µ m core diameters, and both have 125 µ m cladding diameters. To meet the
demands for short-reach low-cost transmission of high-speed Ethernet signals, a 50 µ
m multimode fiber is available for 10-Gbps operation at 850 nm over distances up to
300 m. For 62.5 µ m, bandwidth is around 160 to 200 MHz in 26∼33 meter range with
attenuation of 2.5 dB/km. However, For 50 µ m, bandwidth is around 200 to 2000 MHz
in 66∼300 meter range with attenuation of 2.5 dB/km.
ITU-T has recommendation for single mode fiber from 651 to 655 depending on descrip-
tion and application.

1. G.652: This recommendation deals with the single-mode fiber that was installed
widely in telecommunication networks in the 1990s. It has a Ge doped silica core
which has a diameter between 5 and 8 µm. Since early applications used 1310-nm
laser sources, this fiber was optimized to have a zero-dispersion value at 1310 nm.

2. G.652C:Low-water-peak fiber for CWDM applications is created by reducing the

water ion concentration in order to eliminate the attenuation spike in the 1360-
to 1460-nm E-band. The fibers have core diameters ranging from 8.6 to 9.5 µm
and an attenuation of less than 0.4 dB/km. The main use of this fiber is for low-
cost short-reach CWDM (coarse WDM) applications in the E-band. In CWDM
the wavelength channels are sufficiently spaced that minimum wavelength stability
control is needed for the optical sources

3. G.653:Dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF) was developed for use with 1550-nm lasers.
In this fiber type the zero-dispersion point is shifted to 1550 nm where the fiber
attenuation is about one-half that at 1310 nm. Although this
h y cs allows a high-
sifiber
. P
gmaintain
n Enin DWDM
speed data stream of a single-wavelength channel to its fidelity over long
distances, it presents dispersion relatedn t s i
problems e o r e
f applications where
many wavelengths are packedpinto . P o i
one or moreoo s b
ofkthe operational bands. As a
Im
result, this fiber type became obsolete.Text
B
Read
4. G.654: This specification deals with cutoff-wavelength-shifted fiber that is de-
signed for long-distance high-power signal transmission. Since it has a high cutoff
wavelength of 1500 nm, this fiber is restricted to operation at 1550 nm. It typically
is used only in submarine applications.

5. G.655: Nonzero dispersion-shifted fiber (NZDSF) was introduced in the mid-1990s

for WDM applications. Its principal characteristic is that it has a nonzero dis-
persion value over the entire C-band, which is the spectral operating region for
erbium-doped optical fiber amplifiers

6. G.655B:Advanced nonzero dispersion-shifted fiber (A-NZDSF) was introduced in

October 2000 to extend WDM applications into the S-band. Its principal charac-
teristic is that it has a nonzero dispersion value over the entire S-band and the
C-band. This is in contrast to G.655 fibers in which the dispersion varies from
negative values through zero to positive values in the S-band.

Special fibers
Whereas telecommunication fibers, such as those described above, are designed to trans-
mit light over long distances with minimal change in the signal, specialty fibers are used

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to manipulate the light signal. Specialty fibers interact with light and are custom-
designed for specific applications such as optical signal amplification, wavelength selec-
tion, wavelength conversion, and sensing of physical parameters.
A number of both passive and active optical devices use specialty fibers to direct, modify,
or strengthen an optical signal as it travels through the device.Among these optical de-
vices are light transmitters, optical signal modulators, optical receivers, wavelength mul-
tiplexers, couplers, splitters, optical amplifiers, optical switches, wavelength add/drop
modules, and light attenuators. A summary of some specialty fibers and their applica-
tions is given below:

1. Erbium-doped fiber: Gain medium for optical fiber amplifiers. Er-doped fiber
ranging from 10 to 30 m is used as a gain medium for amplifying optical signals
in the C-band (1530 to 1560 nm). Higher erbium concentrations allow the use
of shorter fiber lengths, smaller claddings are useful for compact packages, and a
higher numerical aperture allows for the fiber to be coiled tighter in small packages.

2. Photosensitive fibers: Fabrication of fiber Bragg gratings. A photosensitive fiber is

designed so that its refractive index changes when it is exposed to ultraviolet light.
This sensitivity may be provided by doping the fiber material with germanium and
boron ions. Applications of fiber Bragg gratings include light-coupling mechanisms
for pump lasers used in optical amplifiers, wavelength add/drop modules, optical
filters, and chromatic dispersion compensation modules.

3. Bend-insensitive fibers: Tightly looped connections in device packages. A bend-

insensitive fiber has a moderately higher numerical aperture (NA) than that in
a standard single-mode telecommunication fiber.
P h ysics The numerical aperture can be
i ng. Increasing
varied to adjust the mode field diameter.
n Econfin- e
the NA reduces the sensitivity
t s
of the fiber to bending loss by ingfo r
optical power more tightly within the
p . Poin singleomode
core than in conventional o ks b e
fibers. Bend-insensitive fibers are available
m B
I in a rangeexoft core diameters to provide optimum performance at
commercially
dT
Reawavelengths,
specific operating such as 820, 1310, or 1550 nm. These fibers are
offered with either an 80 µm or a 125 µm cladding diameter as standard products.
The 80 µm reduced cladding fiber results in a much smaller volume compared
with a 125 µm cladding diameter when a fiber length is coiled up within a device
package.

4. High-loss attenuating fiber: Termination of open optical fiber ends. These fibers
have a uniform attenuation in the 1250 to 1620 nm band. This makes an attenu-
ating fiber useful for WDM applications to lower the power level at the input of
receivers or at the output of an EDFA.

5. Polarization-preserving fibers: Pump lasers, polarization-sensitive devices, sensors.

In contrast to standard optical fibers in which the state of polarization fluctuates
as a light signal propagates through the fiber,polarization-preserving fibers have a
special core design that maintains the polarization. Applications of these fibers in-
clude light signal modulators fabricated from lithium niobate, optical amplifiers for
polarization multiplexing,light-coupling fibers for pump lasers, and polarization-
mode dispersion compensators.

6. High-index fibers: Fused couplers, short wavelength sources, DWDM devices:These

fiber types have a higher core refractive index, which results in a larger numerical

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aperture. Consequently, since a higher NA enables optical power to be coupled

more efficiently into a core, a short (nominally 1-m) length of such a fiber may
be attached directly to an optical source. Such a fiber section is referred to as a
pigtail or a flylead.

7. Holey (photonic crystal) fibers : Switches; dispersion compensation. A holey or

photonic crystal fiber typically consists of a silica material which contains numer-
ous air-filled microscopic holes. The tubular holes run along the entire length of
the fiber parallel to the fiber axis. The size, position, and number of holes provide
the fiber with specific waveguide properties. This technology is under develop-
ment. Potential applications of holey fibers in telecommunications include dis-
persion compensation, wavelength conversion, optical switching, and high-power
optical amplification.

2.8 Applications

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

Figure 2.19: Types of Outdoor cables

1. Indoor cable applications

Plenum cables.
Riser cables.
General-purpose cables.

2. Outdoor Cables
Aerial cable
Armored cables.

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Underwater cables.
Military

Medical: Used as light guides, imaging tools and also as lasers for surgeries.In medicine,
optical fibers enable physicians to look and work inside the body through tiny incisions
without having to perform surgery. They are used for endoscopesinstruments for view-
ing the interior of hollow organs in the body. Most endoscopes have two sets of fibers:
an outer ring of incoherent fibers that supplies the light, and an inner coherent bundle
that transmits the image. Endoscopes may be designed to look into specific areas. For
example, physicians use an arthroscope to examine knees, shoulders, and other joints.
In some models, a third set of fibers transmits a laser beam that is used to stop bleeding
or to burn away diseased tissue. Body temperatures can be measured using optical fiber.
They can also be used for insertion into blood vessels to give a quick, accurate analysis
of blood chemistry.
Fiber optic cables are found in hospitals and doctor’s offices around the world. They
form the backbone of advanced imaging techniques used in digital diagnostics since they
can efficiently transport large quantities of sensitive data. Since fiber optical cables are
inert, they introduce no risk of infection. Their flexibility make fiber optic cables the
natural choice for endoscopes used in minimally invasive surgical procedures. The rise
of endoscopy has replaced invasive exploratory surgery in diagnosing difficult medical
conditions.

Defence: Used as hydrophones for seismic waves and SONAR , as wiring in aircraft,
cs
submarines and other vehicles and also for field networking
hysi
g . P
isin
En e
Telecommunications: Fiber
o i n t s b e ortransmitting
laid and used ffor and receiving purposes.
. P
Fiber optical cablesphave made excellent s
ook fiber is used by many telecommunications
mediums for telecommunication networks due
Imand x t B
to their flexibility
companies to transmit
d Te signals, Internet communication, and cable television
durability.
Reatelephone
Optics

signals. Fiber is laid and used for transmitting and receiving purposes. Unlike electrical
cables, signals transmitted using fiber optics experience relatively little loss of intensity,
allowing them to transport information far distances with few repeaters. Fiber optic
cables can carry a large number of different signals simultaneously through a technique
called wavelength division multiplexing. This increases their efficiency and makes them
ideal for transporting large quantities of independent signals.Their effectiveness if further
helped by their immunity to electrical interference.

Fibre optic laser Fiber optic cables make convenient lasers since they are small
and flexible. Cables used in lasing require the addition of rare earth elements like
erbium. The fiber must be optically pumped using a separate laser, which is coupled
into the optical cable. The fiber optic laser has many advantages that outweigh these
limitations. The high intensity light can be transmitted substantial distances without
much loss of power. The flexibility and durability of the fiber optic cable allow the laser
to be brought into hazardous environments where conventional lasers would be unable
to operate. The invention of the laser made it possible to build optical communication
systems with significant advantages:
1. Very high concentration of optical power and very little spread of that power with
distance (low beam divergence).

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2. Ability to carry huge amounts of information (high information bandwidth).

3. Small antennas required (compared to radio-frequency communication systems).
4. Narrow spectral linewidth, allowing the rejection of light except at the laser wave-
length.
5. Coherence, allowing use of techniques such as frequency modulation and superhetero-
dyne detection, which have been extremely useful in electronic communication.

Networking: Used to connect users and servers in a variety of network settings and
help increase the speed and accuracy of data transmission

Industrial: Used for imaging in hard to reach areas, as wiring where EMI is an issue,
as sensory devices to make temperature, pressure and other measurements, and as wiring
in automobiles and in industrial settings

Broadcasting: Broadcast/cable companies are using fiber optic cables for wiring
CATV, HDTV, internet, video on-demand and other applications

Sensor: Fiber optic cables sensors are used to measure a variety of physical properties
such as mechanical strain, temperature, and pressure. Their small size allows them to
be used in locations that are difficult to reach. Some fiber optic sensors measure these
properties directly by using modulated light. Other sensors employ fiber optics as car-
riers to bring light from hostile environments to sensitive sensors located in more secure
positions. One example is the fiber optic gyroscope, which can detect mechanical
rotation without any moving parts.
P h y sitocsa remote sensor,
.
A fiber-optic sensor system consists of a fiber-optic cable connected
nglight
or amplifier.The sensor emits, receives, and converts
t s i nEthe re into an electrical
energy
folight
P o i n that transports
s b e
Bookback to the sensor.
signal. The cable is the mechanical component the into and out of
Imp. or etoo
areas that are either too space constrained x t hostile
T
Read
Fiber optic cables are used for lighting and imaging and as sensors to measure and
monitor a vast array of variables.

Temperature sensor based on Fiber optics Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an
optical fiber cable, normally a multimode one, to transmit modulated light from either
a non-fiber optical sensor, or an electronic sensor connected to an optical transmitter.
A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach places which are otherwise
inaccessible. An example is the measurement of temperature inside aircraft jet engines
by using a fiber to transmit radiation into a radiation pyrometer located outside the
engine. Extrinsic sensors can also be used in the same way to measure the internal
temperature of electrical transformers, where the extreme electromagnetic fields present
make other measurement techniques impossible.

Pressure sensor based on Fiber optics Fibre-optic sensors provide an alternative

method of measuring displacements in diaphragm and Bourdon tube pressure sensors
by optoelectronic means and enable the resulting sensors to have lower mass and size
compared with sensors in which the displacement is measured by other methods.
The external unknown pressure is given to the diaphragm. The diaphragm expands and
contracts as the pressure increases and decreases. The displacement of the diaphragm
is measured by the Fotonic sensor.

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Fotonic sensor in which light travels from a light source, down an optical fibre, is reflected
back from a diaphragm, and then travels back along a second fibre to a photodetector.
There is a characteristic relationship between the light reflected and the distance from
the fibre ends to the diaphragm, thus making the amount of reflected light dependent
upon the diaphragm displacement and hence the measured pressure.
Light rays are sent through an optical fibre to sense the movement of the diaphragm.
The light reflects from the diaphragm and the incident light are studied There is a
characteristic relationship between the light reflected and the distance from the fibre
ends to the diaphragm.

Displacement sensor based on Fiber optics Non-contact instrument, which uses

the fiber optics lever principle to perform displacement, vibration and surface-condition
measurements. The Fotonic Sensor transmits a beam of light through a flexible fiber-
optic probe, receives light reflected from a target surface, and converts this light into
an electrical signal proportional to the distance between the probe tip and the target
being measured. The output signal voltage from the fiber optic sensor is then used to
determine position, displacement, vibration amplitude, frequency and waveshape of a
target surface. As the target moves further away from the probe , the amount of light
illuminated on the receiving fibers increases rapidly. Even small target movements in
this range cause a significant increase in the amount of received light.

2.9 Key points

1. Field of applied science with engineering design s enabling an application of optical
y s i c
fibers is known as fiber optics. Ph
n Eng.
o i nts ofi reflection
2. Guiding light by property
bor
e ore
frefraction making communication pos-
p . P o k s
sible was demonstrated
Im e
by
x Bothis effect and wrote the property
Deniel
t of
Colladon and Jacques Babinet in 1840. John
T
Tyndall later demonstration
d transmission was demonstrated by Clarence of total internal
ReaImage
reflection in 1870. hansell and
H.John Logie Baird in 1920 and Heinrich lamm showed images through bundle
of unclad optical fibres for examining body during medical. In 1953, Bram Van
Heel demonstrated image transmission through cladding through optical fibres.
In 1953, Harold Hopkinds and Narinder Singh Kapany succeeded in making im-
age transmitting bundles and latter introduced this term ’fiber optics’ in scientific
American.
3. Optical fibre made up of transparent dielectric material made up of plastic or
glass or stretchable optical medium which carries electromagnetic waves at optical
frequencies.
c
4. Refractive index is the ratio of speed of light to velocity of light. µ = v

5. Optical fiber primarly used in communication devices or large scale internet oper-
ation between two cities/counties or continents. Other application include illumi-
nations, imaging, fiberscope in medical applications, optic sensors or fibre lasers
used in security purposes. They have become important in areas of photonics.
6. It has three parts 1. Core 2. Cladding and 3. Jacket ( sheath )
7. Light propagate through core which has diameter vary from 8µm to 50µm

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8. Refractive index of core (n1 ) is slighter greater than refractive index of cladding
(n2 ).

9. Light is launched in to core through core-air interface and light enter into core
greater than critical angle, thus causing total internal reflection. As angle of
incidence and reflection are equal, this rebound is extended through out fibre.
Outer sheath protects the cladding or core from any abrasions, contamination and
moisture.

10. The electromagnetic waves propagates through total internal reflection (TIR).

11. Critical angle is angle of incidence for which angle of refraction is 90 °. Critical
angle is angle at which if light enters into core, it suffers total internal reflection.
Critical angle is calculated from Snel’s law and is given as
 
n2
θc = arcsin
n1

If arcangles is less than or equal to 1, then total internal reflection do take place
and by which critical angle can be defined. However, it is arc-angle is greater than
1 then total internal reflection do not occur.

12. Acceptance angle: Acceptance angle is defined as the maximum angle of inci-
dence at the end face of the optical fibre for which the ray can be propagated in to
optical fibre. It is angle at which light propagates through optical fibre by totoal

P h y si s with in angle
internal reflection, then the light must be incident in to the fibreccore
θo .
g .
t s i n En foatrethe end face of an
13. Acceptance cone: A cone obtained Po i n the rotatings abray
by e
. with acceptance k
Impaxis
optical fibre, around the fibre
T e x t Boo angle is known as acceptance
cone.
Read
14. Numerical aperature (NA) Numerical aperature is light gathering capacity of
an optical fibre and this is proportional to sine of angle θo .

n1 sin (90 − θ1 ) = n2 sin (90)

s
n2
sin θ1 = 1 − 22
n1

As
s
n22
no sin θo = n1 1−
n21
p
n21 − n22
sin θo =
no
q
if n0 = 1 θo = sin−1 n21 − n22
q
NA = sin θo = n21 − n22

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15. Fibre optics can be further divided into

Step index: Refractive index is uniform throughout the core of the fibre.
There is step change of refractive index observed at core-cladding interface.
Graded index Refractive index decreases systematically from centre radially
to the core towards core-cladding interface. Thus refractive index is maximum at
the centre and lower at core-cladding interface. As a result light travels at different
speeds in optical fibre. It is faster at the core surface and slower at the centre.

16. Based on the mode of propagation, the step index and Graded index is further
divided as
Single mode Classification is based on the diameter of the core and cladding.
Core diameter is around 8 to 10 µm where as diameter of cladding is around 60
to 70 µm.
Multimode Diameter of core is around 50 to 200 µm where as diameter of
cladding is around 100 to 250 µm.

17. Condition for light propagation in the fibre

sin θi < sin θo
p
sin θi < n21 − n22
sin θi < NA

18. Fibre cable suffer losses interms of attenuation ands measured interms of attenua-
h y s
tion constant. Presence of attenuationPdecreases
i c light transmittance with power
E n g. input
ts in
of output light less than power of the e
light.
r
. Poin o k s befo
p
Imcoefficient (α) for o
ext B
19. Attenuation length of the fibre (L) is given as
d T
Rea 20
 
pt
α= log dB.Km−1
L po

where p is power given as input or obtained as output.

20. It should be remembered that refractive index of cladding remains constant or

uniform in all classification.

21. Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place

to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms an
electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information.

22. Fibre optical communication system has three main essential parts.
Transmitter
Optical fibre
Receiver

23. Fiber is preferred over electrical cabling when high bandwidth, long distance, or
immunity to electromagnetic interference are required.

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24. V-Number Definition: a normalized frequency parameter, which determines the

number of modes of a step-index fiber. The V number is a dimensionless parameter
which is often used in the context of step-index fibers. It is defined as
rh
2π i
V = ×a× n2core − n2cladding
λ
where λ is the wavelength, ’a’ is the radius of the core, NA is numerical aperature.
V number should not be confused with velocity or Abbe number which has
similar denotions.
V number can be interpreted as a kind of normalized optical frequency. (It is
proportional to the optical frequency, but rescaled depending on waveguide prop-
erties.) It is relevant for various essential properties of a fiber:
For values of V< 2.405, fiber supports one mode of polarization directions,
i.e., single mode.
Multimode fibers can have higher V numbers and can be calculated using the
equation as
V2
M≈
2
V number determines the fraction of the optical power in a certain mode
which is confined to the fiber core.
low V number makes a fiber sensitive to micro-bend losses and to absorption
losses in the cladding. However, a high V number may increase scattering losses
in the core or at the core–cladding interface.
Physics
n Eng.
2.10 Important question P o i
to ntsprepares before
i
k
Imp. e x t Boo
ad ? T
Refibre
1. Describe the structure of optical
2. Write a note on total internal reflection and how this concept is useful in optical
fibre?
3. Explain and derive the terms numerical aperture and acceptance angle?
4. Draw the block diagram of optical fibre communication system and explain each
function in it?
5. What are important features of optical fibre and explain its advantage over copper
wire?
6. Write short notes on
Step index fibre
Graded index Fibre
Single mode transmission
Multi mode transmission
7. What are different losses in optical fibre and how to calculate them?
item What are the advantages of cladding in fiber?

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8. Describe an Optical fiber?

What do you mean by single mode and multimode fibers?
Discuss step index and graded index on the context of single mode and mul-
timode?
9. Compare the optical wire over copper wire communication system?
10. What do you mean by ’numerical aperture’, acceptange cone and the acceptance
angle of the fiber? derive expression for each of them ?
11. Why does optical fiber communication have such a high information carrying ca-
pacity?
12. What do you mean by V parameter. Give the expression for the same.
13. Why did earlier attempts to communicate with light fail?
14. What role would optical fiber play in the information superhighways and the in-
ternet?
15. What role does internal reflection play in light propagation through an optical
fiber?
16. What is cutoff wavelength and how it is measures?
17. What are different types of optical fiber and how are they classified.
18. What are different tpes of materials can be used to make optical fibers?
ysics
g. Ph
19. How fiber optics used in different conditions
n t s in En fore source for use in optical commu-
o
20. Discuss the important
P i requirement for
s aneoptical
b
. k
nication. Imp
T e x t Boo
Read
2.11 Multiple Choice Questions
1. Light Source used in fibre optics communication are
(a) LED (b) Laser
(c) Both (d) none of the above
[ C]
2. Acceptance angle is defined as the angle of incidence atthe endface
of an optical fibre for which the ray can be propagated in the optical fibre
(a) Maximum (b) minimum
(c) Neither of them (d) None of the above
[A]
3. In multimode graded index fibre, light rays travel in different
parts of the fibre
(a) Different speeds (b) with constant speed
(c) Do not travel at all (d) None
[A]

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4. Optical fibre guides light waves by

(a) Diffraction of waves (b) interference of waves
(c) Total internal reflection (d) Polarization
[C]

5. Condition for light travelling through optical fibre with refractive index of core
(n1 ) and cladding (n2 ) is
(a) n2 = n1 (b) n2 < n1
(c) n2 > n1 (d) n2 6= n1
[B]

6. Loss of intensity of light in optical fibre is attributed to

(a) Scattering (b) Absorption
(c) Multiple reflection (d) a&b
[D]

7. Numerical Aperture (NA) for optical fibre is

p
(a) n21 − n22 (b) n21 − n22
q q
4 3
(c) (n21 − n22 ) (d) (n21 − n22 )
[A]

P h y sics
8. By increasing the refractive index of core, number of mode of propagation in optical
fibre
(b) increases ts in
Eng.
(a) decreases
Poin e fore
(c) Remains the same p. not applyt
Imdoes
(d) B o oks b
a d Tex [B]
Re
9. Numerical aperture represents capacity of optical fibre
(a) Absorption (b) Dissipation of light
(c) Dispersion (d) light gathering capacity
[D]

10. Total internal reflection takes place when angle of incidence is than
the critical angle
(a) Less (b) Equal
(c) not equal (d) greater
[D]

11. Acceptance angle is maximum if the critical angle is

(a) Maximum (b) Equal
(c) not equal (d) minimium
[D]

12. Optical fibre are made up with materials

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

(a) Conductors (b) semicondutors

(c) liquids (d) Dielectrics
[D]
13. Laser light is based on .........emission.
(a) Coherent (b) Stimulated
(c) Spontaneous (d) Coherent and stimulated
[D]
14. In Fiber optics, inner layer of the fiber cable is called.......
(a) Cladding (b) Coating
(c) Inner conductor (d) Core
[D]
15. Which of the following is not part of fiber-optic cable system?
(a) Single-mode step-index (b) Multimode graded-index
(c) Single-mode graded-index (d) Multimode step-index
[C]
16. Total internal reflection takes place if the light ray strikes the interface at an angle
with what relationship to the critical angle?
(a) Greater than (b) Less than
(c) Equal to (d) Zero
P h y sics [A]
ng.
nofElight
17.
P o i n t s
Principle used in propagation i
s b e fore cable is
in fiber-optic
k
Imp. (b) Reflection
(a) Refraction
e x t Boo
T
d Absorption
Rea(d)
(c) Dispersion
[B]
18. Core of a fiber optic is surrounded by ...
(a) Wire braid shield (b) Kevlar
(c) Cladding (d) Plastic insulation
[C]
19. The core of a fiber optic cable is made of
(a) Glass (b) Air
(c) Diamond (d) Quartz
[A]
20. is applied to protect core and cladding of the fiber
(a) Insulation (b) Fiber insulation
(c) Silica (d) Polymer jacket
[D]
21. In optical fiber, for injection of light, maximum angle by which light may strike
the air/glass interface and then propagate in fiber is

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

(a) Acceptance cone half-angle (b) Acceptance cone

(c) Critical angle (d) Angle of incidence
[A]

22. Which one indicate the index profile of an optical fiber that has a central core and
outside cladding with a uniform refractive index
(a) Single-mode step-index (b) Multimode graded-index
(c) Single-mode graded-index (d) Multimode step-index
[A]

23. Skew rays follow a. . . .. path along the axis.

(a) Hyperbolic (b) Parabolic
(c) Helical (d) Path where rays changes angles at core-cladding interface
[C]

24. The optical bandwidth is ........ the electrical bandwidth.

(a) Smaller (b) Greater
(c) Equal (d) None
[B]

25. V-number is a parameter which specifies the number of modes in....fiber

(a) Step Index (b) Multi mode
(c) Copper cable (d) None
P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
[A]
P o i n s b e
k
26.
Impis. given asext Boo
V-number for multimode fiber
2 2 T
Read
(a) V /3 (b) V /4
2 2
(c) V /2 (d) V /1.5
[C]

27. wavelength is referred as minimum wavelength at which fiber still acts as a single
mode fiber.
(a) Launching (b) Cutoff
(c) Cut-inn (d) Operating
[B]

28. Which type of optical fiber is used in military purpose?

(a) Polyethylene (PE) (b) Flame-retardant polyethylene (FRPE)
(c) Polyurethane (PU) (d) Tefzel
[C]

29. One of the type of cable is not comes under indoor cables
(a) Interconnect cable (b) Breakout or fanout cable
(c) Tight-buffered fiber cable (d) Distribution cable
[C]

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

30. For optical fibers to be installed in working environment, the fundamental prereq-
uisite is
(a) Transmission property of the fiber (b) Mechanical property of the fiber
(c) Core cladding ratio of the fiber (d) Numerical aperture of the fiber
[B]

31. What is the numerical aperture of the fiber if the angle of acceptance is 18 degree
(a) 0.50 (b) 0.76
(c) 0.33 (d) 0.27
[B]

2.12 Problems and solutions

Problem 2.1 Refractive indices of core and cladding of step index fibre are 1.563 and
1.498. Calculate Numerical aperture and acceptance angle?

Solution 2.1 Refractive index of core

p (n1 )=1.563 Refractive index of Cladding (n2 )=1.498
Numerical aperture
√ NA = sin θ o = n21 − n22
NA = sin θo = 1.5632 − 1.4982
N A = 0.446
q
Acceptance angle θo = sin−1 n21 − n22
θo = sin−1 0.446
P h y sics
θo = 26°300 g.
t s i n En fore
P o i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Problem 2.2 Read the fractional index change
Calculate for a given optical fibre if the
refractive indcies of the core and cladding are 1.563 and 1.498 respectively?

Solution 2.2 Refractive index of core (n1 )=1.563

Refractive index of Cladding (n2 )=1.498
n1 − n2
Fractional refractive indices change 4 =
n1
1.563 − 1.498
4=
1.498
4 = 0.0416

Problem 2.3 In an optical fibre, the core material has refractive index 1.45 abd
refractive index of clad material is 1.35. FInd the propagation angle.

Solution 2.3
n2 1.35
cos θc = = =
n1 1.45
Propagation angle θc is equal to.............

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Problem 2.4 In an optical fibre, the core material has refractive index 1.55 and
refractive index of clad material is 1.33. What is the value of critical angle and angle of
acceptance cone?

Solution 2.4 Critical angle is given by

n2 1.35
sin φc = =
n1 1.45
φc = .....

Acceptance angle is given as

q 
−1 2 2
θo = sin n1 − n2

θo = .........

Acceptance angle cone is given as 2θo = .....

Problem 2.5 A step index fiber is made with a core of refractive index of 1.523, a
diameter of 28 µm and a fraction difference index (4) of 0.00065. It is operated at a
wavelength of 1.3 µm. Find the V-number and the number of modes that the fiber will
support.

Solution 2.5 Equation for V-number is given as

πd p
P h y sics
V = .n1 . 2.4
g.
λo
−6 ts i
n En√ fore
3.143 × 28 × 10oin e


. P s b
k2 × 0.00065
×p tB o
V = × 1.523o×
1.3Im 10−6
e x
T
V = ..........
R ead
Number of modes is given by
1
N= × V 2 = ..........
2

Problem 2.6 Optical power of 1.2 mW is launched into an optical fibre of length 102
m. If the power emerging from the other end is 0.25 mW, calculate the fiber attenuation.

Solution 2.6 Attenuation (α) is given as

 
10 Pi
α = log
L Po
 
10 1.2mW
α = log
102 0.25mW
α = ..........

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

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Chapter 3

Dielectrics

3.1 Introduction
Dielectrics are basically insulating materials with resistivity values in the range of 106
ohm-m to 1016 ohm-m. The dielectric substances have the ability to polarize in which
presence of electric static field exists for longer period of time. The electrical insulator
for any engineering material is required as it prevents leakage of charges in devices play-
ing important role in electronic applications.Materials such as capacitors, ferroelectrics,
antiferroelectrics, piezoelectrics and ferrites comes under the umbrella of dielectric ma-
terials. Dielectric materials can withstand high voltages and conduction phenomenon
P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

Figure 3.1: Dielectric material

77
 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

is associated with ionic motion through hopping of charges. The dielectric material of
either polar or non polar nature. In non-polar materialss, molecules which are diatomic
in nature with positive charge surrounded by negative charge in terms of electron. In
absence of any applied field, the centres coincide with each other. Under the influence
of any applied field, the centres displaces by a distance and the system is said to be
polarized. Polar molecules are composed with either molecules or two atoms having
dipole moment is zero under absence of external field. Dipole moment is defined as
the product of one of the charge (q) and seperation of charges δx. In the presence of
the applied field, molecules tend to orient themselves in the direction of field such that
material have resultant dipole moment. The resultant dipole moment per unit volume
in material is said to be polarization.
Dielectric constant  of any dielectric can be defined as ratio of capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor with and without dielectric.It can be expressed in terms of permittivity
and it is dimensional less. The Permittivity of free space has the value.
C 
r = = (3.1)
C0 0
0 = 8.85 × 1012 F arad.m−1
r = 0 × r
The dielectric constant can be expressed also interms of electric flux density (D) for
applied electric field (E). Electric flux density (D) is proportional to electric applied field
(E) and represents the number of lines of force passing unit area perpendicular
to field. The equation can be written as
D =
P h sics
(0 ryE) (3.2)
g .
En under the
If polarization(P) of the dielectricinmaterial re influence of electric field (E) then
o i n t s b e foresultant
. P
flux density (D) is resultant of flux s
density
k
ooabove
with polarization in the material.
mpequation
We can rewrite Ithe x
usingt B
the equation as
Te
Read D = 0 E + P (3.3)
(0 r E) = 0 E + P
P = E × (r − 1) 0 (3.4)
Polarization (P) is defined as dipole moment per unit volume. The equation can be
written as P = Vp . Ratio’s of polarizability to applied electric field is given as suscep-
tibility. Susceptibility is given by the equation
P
χ= (3.5)
0 E
For understanding the material response of any engineering applications, we need to
understand the susceptibility nature of material which has permittivity nature in any
dieletric. The inter-relationship can be written as
P = E × (r − 1) 0
χ0 E = E × (r − 1) 0
χ = r − 1 (3.6)

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Figure 3.2: Relationship between D, E and P

Therefore, to understand any dielectric nature of any material, we need to find the
capacitance (C) of the material with capacitance of free space C0 . The capactiance of
free space for area (A) with thickness ’t’ of slab between the plates or distance between
the plates is calculated as

0 A
C0 = (3.7)
t

3.2 Energy Stored in uniform Electric P h ysics

field
g.
n En
P o t
If Dielectric material is present in the. electric
s i
in field , it kwill
s b efore some effect or
experience
force. With applied field, polarization
T t Boo
Imp causesexdisplacement of positive and negative
R e
charges causing a shift in dipole moment. a dIf ’q’ is the magnitude of charge with ’dl’ as
~
displacement, the change in dipole moment is dp = q dl. ~
The force (F) acting on the charge due to the electric field (E) is F = qE. The work
done by the force through displacement ’dl’ is

dW = Force × displacement
⇒ dW = q E × dl
⇒ dW = E × dp (3.8)

This work is stored as electrostatic energy of the dielectric and the energy changes in
the internal energy of the molecule. We know that polarization vector is

p~
P~ =
V
p~ = P~ V
~ =
dp ~ )V
(dP (3.9)

Using Equation (1.1) and (1.2), we have

dW = E ~ )
~ V (dP (3.10)

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Further, we know that

P ~ − 0 E
= D ~
P ~ ~
= r 0 E − 0 E
P = ~
(r − 1) 0 E
dP ~
= (r − 1) 0 (dE) (3.11)

Using 1.4 in 1.3, we have

dW = E ~
~ V (r − 1) 0 dE
Z
W = dw
Z
W = (E.V )(r − 1)0 (dE)
1
W = (r − 1)0 E 2 (3.12)
2

The above equation (1.5) is due to polarization is ratio of work done per unit volume.
Total energy density of the dielectric is sum of energy in free space and energy density
due to polarization.

1 1
U = (r − 1)0 E 2 + 0 E 2
2 2
ysics
1
r 0 E 2
2 g. Ph
U = (3.13)

n t s in En e oreunit volume in dielectric in electric

fper
P o i
The above equation represents the energy s
k b
stored
field. Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read
3.3 Gauss law in dielectrics
“Gauss law states that the surface integral of the normal components of electric field
1
over any closed surface is equal to times the total charge enclosed by the surface.”
ε0
q
E0 = (3.14)
0 A
Here E0 is the electric field at any point at any Gaussian Surface. ’q’ is the free charge
on both the capacitor.
When dielectric is introduced between the capacitor and electric field is applied then the
electric field, then the electric field induces charge on the dielectric surface. The charges
produce their own field within the dielectric and oppose the electric applied field (E0 ).
If the charge ’q’ is the induced charge on the dielectric surface then effective charges
within the Gaussian surface us (q − q0 ). If ’E’ is the resultant field within the dielectric
then the Gauss law can be written as
q − q0
I
E.dA = . (3.15)
0

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

ysics
g. Ph
Figure 3.3: Gauss law in Dielectrics
n t s in En efore
. Po i b
E~I0mp x t B ooks
However, we know that E ~ = Tewe can rewrite equation (3.14) as E
. Using this
r Read
=
q0
. Comparing above equations, we have
0 r A
q0 q q0
= −
0 r A 0 A 0 A
q0
⇒ q − q0 = (3.16)
r

The above equation suggests that q is less than that of q0 . the charge induced is equal
to zero when dielectric constant is zero which is case of absence of dielectrics. using the
above equation,
I
q0
E.dA =
r , 0
I
⇒ r 0 E.dA = q0
I
⇒  E.dA = q0
I
⇒ D dA = q0 (3.17)

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Here ’D’ is the displacement vector and above equation is Gauss law valid in the presence
of dielectric. The surface integral of electric displacement vector over a closed surface
is equal to the free charge enclosed with the surface. As electric displacement ’D’ is
connected with free charge, so the effect of the induced charged.

3.4 Local field

The electric field which dipole experience in a medium is called local field or internal
field. This field is different from the externally applied field (Eo ). A dielectric consists
of large number of molecules. if a molecule attains an induced electric moment (P~ )
which would be equal to the product of polarizability of the molecule and intensity
of the applied electric field. In an state, there are several polarized molecules with
dipole moment (P~ ). These molecules in surroundings with dipole moment(P~ ) impose
an internal field on the molecule. Therefore there exists a net effective field which is
equal to sum of the external field and internal field. Imagine a small spherical cavity of

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

Figure 3.4: Local Field

radius (R) with centre at the dipole chosen for consideration. The dipole experiences
following conditions for the applied field.

1. Field E1 produced by changes on the specimen.

2. Field E2 arising from dipoles inside the sphere which depends on the symmetry
for cubic E2 = 0.

3. The field E3 is due to polarization of charges on the surface of a cavity (fictitious

cut out of the specimen with consideration as reference atom as centre). This is
often referred as Lorentz cavity field.

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To calculate E3 , consider a enlarge view of the spherical cavity. Let θ be the polar angle
referred to the polarization direction. The surface charge density on the cavity is then
(−P cos θ).
If ’ds’ is the area on the surface element, the charge element os the area of the surface
element with normal component of polarization. This is equals to (−P cos θ) ds. A test
charege ’q’ is placed at the centre of cavity experiencing force. The equation for force
is written as
1 q1 q2
dF =
4πo r2
1 q1 (−P ) cos θ
dF = (3.18)
4πo r2
The resulting electric field at the centre is
dF
dE3 =
q
1 (−P ) cos θds
dE3 = (3.19)
4πo r2
Here electric field can be resolved into two components. One along the direction of P
and another one is perpendicular components which cancels out each other. The sum
of all such components for the whole surface is given as
1 (−P ) cos θ cos θ
dE3 = ds (3.20)
4πo r2
The surface area element ’ds’ can be represented as
P h ysics
g.
ds = (2π r)sinθ(rdθ)
s i n En re
ds p=. P oirn2 )sinθ(dθ)oks befo
(2π
t
(3.21)
Im o
d T ext B
Rea
Substituting in Equation (1.14) we have,
1 (−P ) cos θ2
dE3 = ds
4πo r2
P (−(2π r2 )sinθ(dθ)) cos θ2
dE3 = ds
4πo r2
−P
I
dE3 = cos2 θ (sinθdθ)
2o
To evaluate we use
cosθ = Z
−sinθ dθ = dZ
Using the above evaluation we have
−P
I
dE3 = Z 2 dZ
2o
P Z3
E3 =
2o 3
P
E3 = (3.22)
3o

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Writing for total electric field for which E0 , E1 ,E2 = 0 acts on same line. Therefore
E − 0, E1 , can be represented as ’E’ . The Total equation becomes

P
El = E+ (3.23)
3o

3.4.1 Clausius Mossotti Relation

In case of non-polar dielectric molecule do not possess permanent dipole moment. An
external applied field induces a dipole moment ’P’ proportional to the local electric field
El . The polarizability of the molecule is given ’α’ and ’N’ is the number of unit volume
of dielectric. The relation given for dipole moment is given as

P = N α El (3.24)

using the Equation of local field in the above equation, we have

P
P = N α (E + )
3o
Nα
⇒ P (1 − ) = N αE (3.25)
3o

Here we need to substitute the relation P = o E (r − 1) in the above equation. solving,
we have
Nα
o E (r − 1)(1 − h icsN α E
)ys=
P
Eng.r − 1 re N α
3 o
n
i nts i efo = 3
oksrb+ 2
o ⇒ (3.26)
P
Imp. ext B
o o

d T
3.5 Rea
Measurement of Dielectric constant
Measurement of dielectric constant can be done by calculating the value of capacitance
for the unknown sample and then ratio it with value of capacitance for free space.
Consider ’C0 ’ is the value of the capacitance in free space between the plates. When the
dielectric is introduced in the circuit between the plates, the capacitance increases to a
new value ’C’. The ratio of capacitance with dielectric to the capacitance with vacuum
between the plates is dielectric constant.

Figure 3.5: Dielectric Set up

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

C
κ= (3.27)
C0
A simple circuit arrangement could be useful in explaining the measure of capacitance
or dielectric constant. Using a simplified circuit, we measure the capacitance using
the resonance phenomenon. A RF oscillator is used to determine the frequency by
inductor(L) and Capacitor (Cs ). The equation for the frequency can be written as

1
f= √ (3.28)
2π LC

The apparatus containing cell with a set up of parallel plate. The cell is connected to
variable capacitor (Cs ). The digital frequency meter measures frequency through RF
oscillator which couples it together. Then a series of step for measurement of dielectric
constant.

1. In the absence of dielectric cell, determine the value of capacitance using RF

oscillator.

2. Connect the dielectric cell (parallel plate: Air medium) to the cell. The frequency
in the RF oscillator decreases. Oscillator (f0 ) resonates at new frequency for which
new capacitance value is obtained.

3. Difference in the above two steps gives value of (C0 ).

P h ysics
4.
i n ng. resonancee frequency
Insert the dielectric in parallel plate for whichEnew (f) is
s r
obtained.
. Poin
t
o k s befo
Im p o
d T ext B
Rea
5. Evaluate new capacitance (C) with dielectric between the plates.

6. calculate dielectric constant using Equation

C
κ=
C0

3.6 Dielectric loss and Dielectric relaxation

The permittivity value of any dielectric depends on the variable external elements like
frequency applied, temperature and humidity, pressure etc. Out of these components,
frequency dependence is most important as some dielectric works as capacitor or insu-
lator under applied alternating field. In A.C field, electric field [E = Eo eiωt ] varies with
time sinusoidally (orientations of dipoles or electric displacement). This implies, polar-
izability becomes independent on time thus therfore permittivity is complex quantity.
The permittivity is now described as

∗ = 0r − j 00 (i) (3.29)

Both the quantities varies with the applied a.c. frequency.

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Figure 3.6: Dielectric relaxation and loss

Dielectric loss
When a dielctric is kept under the applied field among the plates, the dielectric possess
finite conductivity or resistivity values. The dielectric samples contains resistivity nature
and show displacement field (D) with a phase difference w.r.t field. The displacement
field (D) is given by the relation:

D = Do ej(ωt−δ)
D = o + P~ hysi
cs
g. P
= Eno E + o (r −
D
s i n fore1)E (3.30)
P o i nt s b e
k
Imp. r consists
The relative permittivity
e x t Boofotwo components (a) Real component (b) Imagi-
T
d equation for displacement can be written as :
Reaabove
nary components. The

D = o E + o (r − 1)E
−→ D = o E + o (0r − j 00r (i) − 1)E
−→ D = o (0r − j00r (i))E
−→ Do ej(ω t−δ) = o (0r − j00r (i))Eo ejωt
−→ Do ej(ω t) e(−δj) = o −→ (0r − j00r (i))Eo ejωt
−→ Do e(−jδ) = o (0r − j00r (i))Eo
Do (−jδ)
⇒ e = o (0r − j00r (i))
Eo
Do
⇒ 0r = cos δ (3.31)
Eo
Do
⇒ 00r = sin δ (3.32)
Eo
00r
tan δ = (3.33)
0r

The factor tanδ is referred as loss tangent. if its value of energy that is dissipated in the
dielectric sample, under the influence of field. The dielectric power loss is given under

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

the applied a.c voltage is given as

Dielectric loss = ωo o 0r V 2 tanδ (3.34)

This loss results in absorbing the energy and sample is thermally excited resulting func-
tion with dependence on temperature. In polar dielectrics, the polarization begin when
the voltage is applied for which dipoles tend to orient along the field orientation. The
build up of charges or polarization in the dielectrics takes place over a period of time
with in short cycle, attaining a equilibrium value. When the field is not switch off,
then the charges or polarization will not be instantaneous be zero. There is a delay for
certain time as dipoles undergoes rotation. This creates dependence of polarization as
function of time and dipolar substance which has two terms in its equation. The first
term is a initial value of polarization P(t) and second term five rise to relaxation. This
relaxation is responsible for the loss variation in dielectric for frequency. Here, it should
be remembered for Pα is polarization after lapse of time and ’n’ is the relaxation time for
the particular polarization process. The change in polarization with time is described
as
t
P (t) = Pα (1 − e− n ) (3.35)
The variation of P with frequency under the applied field is given as
 
χ 1 0
P = χ 0 0 + E
1 + jωτ
χ1 0
⇒ P = χa E, where χa = χ0 0 + (3.36)
1 + jωτ
Now writing for Permittivity in terms of loss we have
 g. Phy
sics
in En0 χ1 ωτ
 
0 χ 1
e
∗ − 1 = 0 χ 0 +
1P+oω in2 τt2s − j 1 +sω2bτe2 for (3.37)
Imp.
Real part of permittivity is written as: d Text
Book
Rea  
0 χ1
0a = 0 χ0 + (3.38)
1 + ω2 τ 2
Imaginary part of Permittivity is written as:
 
0 χ1 ωτ
00a = (3.39)
1 + ω2 τ 2

3.7 Frequency dependence of total polarizability

The dielectrics without any field applied have positive charge at centre and negative
charge distributed all around. The dielectrics is balanced electrically and sample is said
to be stable state. At this point, there is no dipole moment. But when material is
subjected to applied field, the imbalances occurs takes place such that displacement of
charges causing polarization.
The total polarizability for any state is given as

αT = αd + αi + αe + αs
 2  2
e2 e2
  
µ 1 1
αT = + + + (3.40)
3KT ω M m ωo e2 m

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

The above equation is applied on the sample for which under the variation of total
polarization on application of electric field. The polarization as a function of time is
given as  
−t
P (t) = P 1 − exp (3.41)
n
Here ’n’ is the relaxation time taken for a polarization process to reach 63 percentage
of its maximum value. The relaxation time varies for sample to sample for different
applications. These relaxation times varies for sample further dependent on different
polarization mechanisms. The four basic mechanisms are space charge, Ionic polar-
ization, Orientation polarization and electronic polarization .
Electronic Polarization is essential for samples when instant voltage is applied. The
polarization (electronic) is rapid in nature existing in all frequencies (∼
= 1015 Hz) and
process during cycle of the applied voltage. Ionic polarization is slower than electronic
polarization in which applied field displaces (mobility of charges) the heaiver ions. The
ionic polarization occurs at lower frequency (1013 Hz) requires some time as ions initially
do not respond to the field very quickly. Orientational polarization takes longer pe-
riod to respond to the applied field. The Polarization (orientational) occurs at very low
frequencies (MHz range) and responds to any applied field in micro to nano seconds.
The graph shows the response for a sample for all frequencies. As the frequency in-
creases, space-charge, orientational and ionic becomes inoperative at different points in
frequency. This information is often useful for material design to be operated at various
frequencies.

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

Figure 3.7: polarization for different types

3.8 Electronic Polarization

Electronic polarization is due to displacement of the negative electron cloud with respect
to nucleus. When an external field, the distribution of charges leads to development of
dipole moment, through out the material. The nucleus and electron cloud will tend to
move in opposite direction by a distance (R) due to force developed among the charges.
After some time, an equilibrium is established between the nucleus and electron at

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

distance (X).Along the field direction, the applied force on the nucleus is (ZeE). consider
the electron cloud to be in two regions:
1. Inside a sphere of radius ’x’
2. other one between two spherical surface of radii of ’x’ and ’R’.
In according to gauss theorem, the charges in the second region does not exert a force
−Zex3
on the nucleus. The negative charges inthe sphere of radius ’x’ exerting force of
R3
on the nucleus.Applying coulomb’s law, the force between the negative charges and the
nucleus for a sphere of radius ’x’ is given as

F = ZeE (3.42)

using the above equation, we have

ZeX 3
  
  Ze
1  R3 
F =  
4π0  X2 

ZeX 3
  
  Ze
1  R3 
ZeE =  
4π0  X2 

 
1 ZeX
E =
4π0 R3
P h y sics
g.
4π0 R3 E n En
 
= ZeX (3.43)
Po i n t s i
s b e fore
k
Writing for dipole moment(µe ) Imp. e x t Boo
T
=adZeX
µe Re
4π0 R3 E
 
µe = (3.44)

Writing electronic polarizability (αe )

µe
αe =
E
= 4π0 R3

αe (3.45)

Now relating polarizability with permittivity and electric field, we have

0 (r − 1)E = N αe E
N 4π0 R3
 
0 (r − 1) = (3.46)

3.9 Ionic Polaribility

The ionic polarizability is primarly due to displacement of anions and cations in opposite
direction to each other under the applied field in a ionic solid. If x1 and x2 are the
distances moved by ions in either direction, the dipole moment per unit cell is

µ = e(x1 + x2 ) (3.47)

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Restoring force come in the play due to displacements under the conditions is
F1 = K1 x1
F2 = K2 x2
Here K1 and K2 are force constants for ions with mass ’m’ and ’M’ under the applied
field (E). The equations are rewritten as
F1 eE F1 eE
x1 = = , and x2 = = (3.48)
K1 mω02 K2 M ω02
Total displacement (x) is written as summation of displacements of x1 and x2 .
eE eE
x = x1 + x2 = +
mω02 M ω02
  
eE 1 1
= + (3.49)
ω02 m M
The dipole moment (µ) is then calculated as
 2  
e E 1 1
µ = e(x1 + x2 ) = + (3.50)
ω02 m M
Writing Ionic polarizability (αi )
e2
  
µe 1 1
αi = = + (3.51)
E ω02 m M
ics
hyswhich could ne in infra-red region in
g . P
Here ω0 is the natural resonance for ionic molecule
case of NaCl(∼= 1013 rad−1 = ω) in En re
ts befo
p . Poin o o k s
Im
Frequency dependence exi )t BThe frequency dependence of αi is similar as per case
of(α
d T
Rea The ionic polarizability will be more complex in nature. The
of electronic polarizability.
real part (αi0 ) and imaginary part of permittivity (αi00 ) exhibits similar feature. The only
shift in the natural resonance (ω0 ) values (both maxima and minima) which displaces
towards infrared region.

3.10 Orientational Polarizability

Polar dielectrics exhibits dipolar polarizability even in the absence of external electric
field. In the presence of applied field, the dipoles tends to align along the direction of
applied field. When the molecule of dipole moment µ is exposed to an external applied
~ ·E
field, it acquires a potential energy µ ~ = µ E cos θ. Here θ is the angle between the
field direction and the dipole. Using Boltzmann distribution, probability that the dipole
making an angle along the applied field E is given as
 
µE cos θ
exp (3.52)
KT
The number of dipoles having their axis in these regions is between (θ) and (θ + dθ) is
given by  
µE cos θ
n θ dθ = A(2π) sin θ dθ exp (3.53)
KT

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Here A is the constant. The polarization is then equated for number of dipoles per unit
volume ’N’ can be written as Pd = N µ ~ . The equation can be written as
 
Rπ µE cos θ
0
µ cos θ 2 sin θdθ.exp
KT
Pd = N   (3.54)
Rπ µE cos θ
0
2π sin θdθ.exp
KT

µE
now consider cos θ = x and = a. Substituting in above equation we have
KT
R 1+
x dx exp[ax]
Pd = N µ R−1
1+
−1
dx exp[ax]
  Z +1
d
= Nµ ln dx
da −1
    
d a −a

d
= Nµ ln e − e − ln a
da da
 
1
= N µ coth a −
a

P0 = N µL(a) (3.55)

P h ysics
For a particle, we assume a ∼
ng.
−4 a
= 10 and L(a) = , we have equation as
3
n E
Po i nts  µE  s before
i
ImpP. 0 = eNxµt B3KT ook
T
Read  
µ2 E
using µ
~ =
3KT
P0 = Nµ
~ (3.56)

Here µ
~ represents average dipole moment in the direction of applied field. The dipolar
polarizability is written as
 2 
µ
~ µ
αd = = (3.57)
E 3KT

The Frequency dependence for dipolar polarizability αd for relaxation time τ is given as
α0
αd = (3.58)
1 − jωτ
 2 
µ
here α0 =
3KT

The dipolar polarizability remains generally constant at lower frequencies. It begins to

fall rapidly at ω = 2π
τ . Here ω is the relaxation frequency and generally lies in microwave
region. For Liquids, relaxation time is around τ ∼ = 10−11 s.

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3.11 Ferroelectrics
Few dielectrics show dipole moment even in the absence of any external applied field. A
very few dielectrics exhibits spontaneous polarization; a nature observed from the curve
of polarization versus electric field. The characteristics of dielectrics gives a unique
nomenclature as Ferroelectrics. Phenomenon which permits spontaneous polarization
for special structures is known as ferro electricity. These ferroelectric substances possess
very high value of permittivity and dependent on Curie temperature. Some of the well
know materials used in different applications of ferroelectrics are BaTiO3 ,LiNbO3 and
ADP (NH4 H2 PO4 ).
Ferroelectrics materials exhibits hysteresis under the influence of electric field. If the
polarization increases in the electric field reaching saturated value, then corresponding
value is said as Spontaneous polarization (Ps ). When the Applied field is with
drawn slowly on the sample i.e., E = 0, then the amount of polarization left is referred
as Remnant Polarization (Pr ). The amount of energy in dipole when there is no
external applied field. To remove this energy or change the direction of dipole, a field
must be applied oppositely on the sample. The applied field is known as Coercive field
(Ec ). These parameters of energy are useful in designing a device such as transducers,

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

Figure 3.8: Hysterisis in ferroelectrics

sensors, etc. The parameters depends on the intimate relationship between the prop-
erties of the ferroelectric and arrangement of crystal structure (atomic arrangement).
Certain ferroelectric materials show characteristic nature such as Piezoelectricity
and pyroelectricity.

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

BaTiO3 , one of the most popular materials in ferroelectrics can be used as example
for explaining the structure. Barium ions are at the corners and oxygen atoms are on
the faces with titanium ion at the centre; which is in the octahedral voids. These fer-
roelectrics possess electric polarization under the absence of the applied field with in
definite temperature range. The variation is observed in the value of Ps with tempera-
ture could be explained using BaTiO3 .Under the absence of field, the centers of gravity
do not coincide the positive and negative charges causing spontaneous polarization. The
Curie temperature of the BaTiO3 is around 120◦ C. Above the Curie temperature, the
BaTiO3 , the centers of gravity coincide resulting zero dipole moment. Under the Curie-
Weiss law, dielectric constant estimated under the influence of temperature is given
as:
C
ε= for (T > Tc ) (3.59)
T − TC

Ordinary dielectric materials have linear relationship between the applied electric field.
For ferroelectrics, the non-linear relationship is exhibited as a hysteresis loop under
the action of alternating applied electric field (see ).

3.12 Multiple Choice Question

1. Dielectric constant for water is
(a) 20 (b) 40
(c) 60 (d) 80
P h y sics [D]
g.
t s i nbyEn fore
2. i n
Polarization in simple voltaic cell is prevented
P o s b e
p.Electro-Chemical k
(a) Mechanical Methods Im (b)
T e x t Boomethods
(c) Chemical methods (d) eadthe methods
RAll
[D]

3. Total surface polarization charge in a dielectric medium is given by...

(a) qk (b) -qk
(c) q/k (d) -q/k
[C]

4. Electric field intensity E, polarisation vector P and electric displacement vector D

are related with each other as
(a) D=-E + P (b) D=E − P
(c) D=E + P (d) D=-E − P
[C]

5. What is the process of producing electric dipoles inside the dielectric by an external
electric field?
(a) Polarization (b) Magnetization
(c) Suspectibility (d) Magnetic moment
[A]

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

6. Which of the following easily adapt itself to store electrical energy?

(a) Passive dielectric (b) Superconductor
(c) Active dielectric (d) Polar molecules
[C]

7. For any dielectric material, there is a maximum electric field that the material can
withstand without breaking down and lsing its insulating quantity. This field is
called the
(a) Dielectric strength (b) Dielectric constant
(c) Polarization (d) None
[B]

8. As the temperature of a ferrolectric exceeds a certain, its ferroelectric properties

vanish and it becomes an ordinary polar dielectric. This temperature is called
(a) Absolute temperature (b) Curie temperature
(c) Thermal temperature (d) Critical temperature
[B]

9. All dielectric substances, when kept in an external electrical field, are equivalent
to a large number of tiny electric dipoles situated in ..
(a) Air (b) Solid
(c) gas (d) Vacuum

P h y sics [D]
g.
10. How does ionic polarisation
t s i n En
occur? fore
Po i n s b e
k
Impof. ions ext Boo
(a) Splitting (b) Passing magnetic field
T
Readof cations and anions (d) Never occurs
(c) Displacement
[C]

11. Which of the following polarisations is very rapid?

(a) Electronic polarisation (b) Ionic polarisation
(c) Space charge polarisation (d) Orientation polarisation
[A]

12. Which of the following is the slowest polarisation method?

(a) Electronic polarisation (b) Ionic polarisation
(c) Space charge polarisation (d) Orientation polarisation
[C]

13. Which of the following breakdowns occur at a higher temperature?

(a) Avalanche breakdown (b) Thermal breakdown
(c) Electrochemical breakdown (d) Dielectric breakdown
[B]

14. Which of the following materials exhibit Ferro-electricity?

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

(a) Iron (b) platinum

(c) Hydrogen (d) Rochelle Salt
[D]

15. Dipoles are created when dielectric is placed in .....

(a) Magnetic field (b) Electric field
(c) Vacuum (d) Inert Environment
[B]

16. The dipole is most stable when the angle between the dipole and the field is
(a) 0 ° (b) 45 °
(c) 90 ° (d) 180 °
[A]

17. Polarization is defined as the dipole moment....

(a) per unit length (b) per unit area
(c) per unit volume (d) per unit time
[C]

18. The four types of polarization are Electronic Polarization, Ionic Polarization,
Space-charge polarization and..
(a) Magnetic Polarization (b) Electric Polarization
(c) Orientational Polarization
P h y sics
(d) Potential Polarization
g. [C]
s i n En re
19. o i t
n field is used
In which category of polarizationPElectric s b tofodevelop
e a net dipole
k
Imp.
moment in dipolar substances?
e x t Boo
T
adIonic polarisation
(a) Electronic polarisation Re(b)
(c) Space charge polarisation (d) Orientation polarisation
[D]

20. Which category of polarizability strongly depends on Temperature and frequency?

(a) Electronic polarisation (b) Ionic polarisation
(c) Space charge polarisation (d) Orientation polarisation
[D]

21. The frequency for electronic polarization lies in which region of the electromagnetic
spectrum?
(a) microwave (b) Infrared
(c) Visible (d) ultravoilet
[D]

22. Polarization in Ferroelectric materials is

(a) permanent (b) Spiked
(c) Linear (d) reversible
[D]

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

23. Dielectrics which show spontaneous polarization are called as

(a) Pyroelectric (b) Piezoelectric
(c) Ferroelectric (d) Centrosymmetric
[C]
24. The dielectric constant of a ferroelectric material changes with...
(a) Frequency (b) Temperature
(c) Pressure (d) Wavelength
[B]
25. Symmetry of BaTiO3 in ferroelectric form is
(a) Cubic (b) Tetragonal
(c) trigonal Bipyramidal (d) Octahedron
[B]
26. Piezoelectric effect is when materials produce electric charges when..
(a) Voltage is applied (b) Mechanical stress is applied
(c) Electric field is applied (d) Magnetic field is applied
[B]
27. Piezoelectricity is shown by substances which are
(a) Polar (b) Non-polar
(c) Symmetric (d) Asymmetric
P h y sics [D]
E n g.
28. For polar dieelctrics, since
n in polarization
ts the e e
foisrcaused mainly bu the orientation of
. P o i k s b
tis permanentpdipolar
Im
molecules,
o o
its polarization will be dependent on
T ext B
(a) Pressure (b)dTemperature
Rea
(c) Area (d) Volume
[B]
29. All the dielectric substances, when kept in an external electric field, are equivalent
to a large number of tiny electric dipoles, situated in
(a) Air (b) Solid
(c) Gas (d) Vacuum
[D]
30. Mica us used as dielectric in condensers because
(a) Its dielectric strength is large (b) its dielectric constant is low
(c) Its is mechanically low (d) High dielectric constant in thin sheets
[D]
31. In certain pyroelectric crystals, one can reverse the direction of polarization by
applying a sufficiently intense external field. Such crystals are called...
(a) Ferrielectric (b) Ferroelectric
(c) Peizoelectric (d) None
[B]

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

32. Under the action of an electric field, the centres of the electron and the nucleo in
the atoms of the molecules get displaced in opposite directions. This process of
including dipoles is called
(a) Atomic polarization (b) Electronic polarization
(c) Orientation polarization (d) Interfacial polarization
[B]

3.13 Questions in dielectrics

1. Explain the behaviour of dielectric under the statics electric fields.
2. Derive a relation between Polarization (P), the external field (E) and displacement
vector (D).
3. Distinguish betwee electronic, ionic and orientation polarization and discuss the
effect of temperature on each of them.
4. Define dielectric susceptibility and polarizability of a dielectric and derive the
relation among them.
5. Explain the term internal field. Derive an expresson for internal field in the case
of one dimensional array of atoms in dielectric solids.
6. Derive Clausius Mosotti equation ?

ysicseffect?
7. Explain the origin of piezoelectric effect and inverse piezoelectric
8. Explain the phenomenon of ferroelectricityin
g. Ph
Enparticular reference
fore
with to barium
o i n t s b e
titanate? . P k s
Imp e x t Boo
T
Read
9. How does the dielectric constant of a ferroelectric vary with temperature?
”r
10. Write short notes on dielectric loss tan δ = 0r

11. Explain and obtain the expression for each terms:

Space Charge polarization
Ionic polarization
Orientational polarization
Electronic polarization

3.14 Problems

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

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Chapter 4

Magnetic materials

4.1 Introduction
Since discovery of lode stone as magnetic material, various application in terms of Com-
pass, inductors, transfomers, ferrites, antenna’s, loudspeakers (amplifiers), floppy disks,
magnetic sensors and transducers, magnetic memories, magnets as speaker or receiver.
Most of them made in engineering application made up of permanent magnets. Selection
of magnetic material is based on the application which requires specific permeability or
susceptibility. Permeability nature describes the material ability to allow the magnetic
lines of force in to it where as susceptibility value indicates how much material responds
to the external magnetic field. Classification of magnetic materials are
h y csbased on perme-
siFerromagnetic
P
En . Therediamagnetic along
ability and susceptibility values for different applications.gMajority and
i n
oints materials
ferrimagnetic materials find their way in majority of application.
Pinsulation k s b efomagnetic field. Mag-
with paramagnetic material are usedpas .
Imway in effective o o from
netic materials are now found their
d Text Buse of treatment of hyperthermia or
MRI applications. Rea

4.2 Fundamental definitions

Magnetic field strength The magnetic field strength (H) at any point in a magnetic
field is the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at the point. Its unit is Am−1 .

Magnetic dipole It is an object that generates a magnetic field that is considered to

originate from two opposite poles as in the case of a bar magnet.

Magnetic dipole moment (~ pm ) is the product of the magnetic pole strength and
the length of the magnet. In case of magnetic moments produced by loops of current,
the magnetic dipole moment is given by
~
p~m = I · A (4.1)
~ is the area vector
where I is the magnitude of current in the current carrying loop and A
~
of the current loop. The magnitude of A is the area enclosed by the current carrying
loop with its direction being that of the thumb when the fingers of the right hand curl
around in the direction of the current.

99
 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

It can be also defined as product of the magnetic pole strength and the length of the
magnetic. The equation can be written as

p~m = m l

If a magnetic is suspended in a magnetic field, it experiences a certain force or torque

by which it will rotate coming to rest at some point. The torque experienced by magnet
is cross product between the magnetic flux density and magnetic moment.The equation
is written as
τ = p~m × B
Its unit is A · m2 .

Magnetization (M ~ ) is the magnetic moment per unit volume developed inside a solid.
−1
Its unit is Am . It is indiced by an applied magnetic field. Thus, one can write
~
M ~
∝ H
~
M = χH~ (4.2)

Magnetic susceptibility (χ) is the ratio of the intensity of magnetization (M ) to

the intensity of the applied magnetic field (H). It does not have a unit.

M
χ= (4.3)
H
The dipoles in a substance always align themselvesic
y s the direction or opposite to the
s aintensor
g. P h
applied field. The susceptibility of the substance is and in general depends not
only on the material but also upon i n Endirection
the r e
along which χ is measured. (It varies
ts 1efo
Poin substances)
with direction inside .anisotropic k s b
Imp
Te x t Boo
Magnetic Reaord flux density
induction ~ in any material is schematically repre-
(B)
sented by the number of magnetic lines of force passing perpendicular to a unit area.
Its unit is W b m−2 or Tesla (T ). It is the net magnetic field inside a substance arising
out of the applied field (H) and the fields due to the magnetic dipole moments inside
the material.
~ = µ0 (H
B ~ +M~) (4.4)

Magnetic field intensity (H) ~ is the ratio between the magnetic induction (B)
~ to
−1
the permeability (µ) of the medium. Its unit is Am .

~
~ =B
H (4.5)
µ

Magnetic permeability or absolute permeability (µ) is the ratio of the magnetic

induction (B) to the intensity of the applied magnetic field (H).

B
µ= (4.6)
H
1 Note that in Eq. 4.6 and 4.3 the ratio of the magnitudes of the fields are taken whereas in Eq. 4.5

and 4.2 the vector fields are used.

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Relative permeability (µr ) of a substance is defined as the ratio of its absolute

permeability (mu) to the permeability of free space.
µ
µr = (4.7)
µ0

4.2.1 ~ and H;
Relation between B ~ χ and µ
We start with Eq. 4.4 .
~
B = ~ +M
µ0 (H ~)
= ~ + χH)
µ0 (H ~ using Eq. 4.2
= ~
µ0 (1 + χ)H (4.8)
= ~
µH (4.9)
µ = µ0 (1 + χ)
µ
µr = = (1 + χ)
µ0

4.2.2 Origin of magnetization

The source of magnetic fields are currents, that is, moving charges. A moving charge
is equivalent to a current. A circular current loop produces a dipolar magnetic field.
The magnetic properties of solids arise out of the motion of electrons in atoms. The
magnetic dipole moments arise from three sources:
1. Orbital motion of electrons: The motion of electronsyin s around the
sicorbits
nucleus of an atom is equivalent to a current loop. P h
. current loop produces a
gThis
magnetic field like a bar magnet. t s i n En fore
n
p . Poi
melectrons
2. Electron spin: The spin Iof
ks be
Booown axis gives rise to a magnetic
about
Te x t their
ad
moment called the spin magneticemoment.
R
3. Nuclear spin: The nucleus of an atom spinning about its own axis gives rise
to a magnetic moment. The contribution of the nuclear spin is ∼ 10−3 times the
electron spin and is therefore usually neglected.

4.2.3 Orbital magnetic moment

Consider an electron of charge −e and mass me revolving around a positively charged
nucleus with an angular speed ω in a circular orbit of radius r. Such an orbital motion
of the electron is equivalent to a current loop. This electron crosses a point in the orbit
ω/(2π) times per second. The current in the loop is therefore given by
ω
(−e) ωe
I= 2π =− (4.10)
1 2π
The area of the loop is given by A = πr2 .
The magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment is therefore given by
h ωe i  eωr2 eme ωr2 eL
πr2 = −

p= − =− =− (4.11)
2π 2 2me 2me
where L is the angular momentum of the electron.

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

4.2.4 Spin magnetic moment

The magnitude of the spin magnetic moment of an electron is given by

eS
ps = − (4.12)
2me
1
where S = s~ is the spin angular momentum, s = ± being the spin quantum number.
2

4.2.5 Bohr magneton

Accoding to quantum mechanics the orbital angular momentum is quantized and is
given by L = n~; n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . The orbital magnetic moment of an electron will be
quantized and its magnitude, by Eq. (4.11) is

en~ enh
pL = − =− ; n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (4.13)
2me 4πme

An electron in the Bohr orbit (ground state) is characterized by n = 1. The orbital

magnetic moment for such an electron is

eh
µB = − = 9.274 × 10−24 A · m2 (4.14)
4πme

It is the smallest magnetic moment contributed by the orbital angular momentum and
is known as the Bohr magneton.
hysics
g . P
n t s in En e e
formaterials
4.3 Classification Po i of magnetic
k s b
Imp. e x t Boo
T
d sign of relative permeability, magnetic materials are classified
eaan
Based on the magnitude
R
as

1. Diamagnetic materials: µr < 1 (equivalently χ < 0)

2. Paramagnetic materials: µr > 1 (equivalently χ > 0)

3. Ferromagnetic materials: µr  1 (equivalently χ  0)

Based on the basis of magnetic dipole moments, magnetic materials are classified into
two broad groups

1. Materials without permanent magnetic dipole moments.

2. Materials with permanent magnetic dipole moments. This group is further divided
into four groups

(a) Paramagnetic materials

(b) Ferromagnetic materials
(c) Antiferromagnetic materials
(d) Ferrimagnetic materials

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Figure 4.1: Classification of Magnetic materials

4.3.1 Diamagnetic materials

Diamagnetic materials exhibit negative susceptibility (χ < 0). From Eq. 4.2 it is clear
that the magnetization, and therefore, the magnetic dipoles are opposite to the direction
of applied magnetic field. A majority of the metals, inert gases and organic compounds
exhibit diamagnetism. These substances have paired electrons in the outermost shell. If
a diamagnetic material is kept in the non-uniform magnetic field, it experience a small

P h siacsmaterial. Mostly
force towards smaller fields due to presence of closed shell/subshellyin
covalent or ionic materials exhibits diamagnetic property.
in E ng.
Po i n t s
s b e fore
Susceptibility These substancesImp .
acquire a feeble
x ook
t Bmagnetism in a direction opposite
d T e (∼ −10−6 ) and is
R e a
to the applied magnetic field. The magnetic susceptibility is small
practically independent of temperature.

Magnetic flux These substances are repelled by the magnetic field. The induced
dipole moments oppose the applied field inside the substance and therefore the flux of
magnetic field lines inside the materials is reduced.

Variation of the magnetic field The magnetization changes linearly with the ap-
plied magnetic field.
Although, generally diamagnetic materials do not have any significant engineering ap-
plications, superconductors exhibit perfect diamagnetism, that is, their susceptibility is
χdia = −1. Such strong diamagnetism is used to make frictionless bearings leading to a
levitation effect as known in terms as Messiner effect.

Langevin’s theory of diamagnetism

For certain dipoles, magnetic moments within the atom cancels out resulting net effective
magnetic moment zero. If atom experiences a magnetic field, a minority current is
produced due to internally induction . Len’s law suggests that these currents which
oppose the increasing filed, results in diamagnetic behaviour. The is a result of induced

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

magentic moment of the atoms opposite the applied magnetic field. Conduction of
electrons in normal metals also contributes to diamagnetism.
Consider a electron moving in a orbit in an atom,is equivalent to a current loop. If the
atom is placed under the influence of magnetic field(H), precession of the orbits changes.
Due to this super position of the precessional current over the normal current occurs
in absence of field leading to additional current. The magnetic moment µ for area (A)
within the current loop is given as µ = i × A.
In absence of field, magnetic moments due to atoms with electron is zero due to random
orientations cancelling out each other field due to infinite loops. But under the applied
field the balance is restored in some areas for which residual magnetic moment have
coexistence. With negative charge electrons, magnetic moment direction will be opposite
and obviously have negative susceptibility which becomes characteristics
Consider a electron of mass (m) moving in the orbit of radius (r). For angular frequency
ω0 of the orbital motion of electron in an atom, the effect of centripetal force is equal
to electrostatic force resulting the equation:
e2
m ω02 ρ =
ρ2
Once the field (H) is applied, the frequency is changed to new angular frequency ω and
Lorentz force effect is felt on the moving electron in electromagnetic field. The resultant
equation is written as:
F = Ee + (e ν × H) (4.15)
e2
m ω2 ρ = − (e ν × H) (4.16)
 2 Phy sρic2 s
neg. = 0e
 
eH E
2
ω +
s i
ω n− mρ r (4.17)
oin mt 3
befo
P
Imp.equation,
x t B ooks
Solving the quadratic
Te we obtain
Read 2 ! 21
e2

eH 1 eH
ω=− ± +4 (4.18)
2m 2 m mρ3

Considering a case
e2
 
eH
4
m mρ3
Then the equation is modified as
eH e2
ω = − ±
2m mρ3
e2 eH
ω = ± 3
− (4.19)
mρ 2m
The equation can be written suing precession frequency ωp as
eH
ω = ±ω0 −
2m
eH
where ωp =
2m
ω = ±ω0 − ωp (4.20)

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The presence of magnetic field alters ω0 −→ ω. The sign ± indicates the magnetic
moments parallel to B are slowed down and anti parallel moments are accelerated.

4.3.2 Paramagnetic materials

Paramagnetic materials exhibits positive susceptibility (χ > 0). From Eq. 4.2 it is
clear that the magnetization, and therefore, the magnetic dipoles are in the direction
of applied magnetic field. Substances with unpaired electrons in the outermost shell
exhibit paramagnetism. If a paramagnetic material is kept in the non-uniform magnetic
field, it experience a greater force when compared with diamagnetic material.
Examples: Magnesium, Liquid Oxygen, chromium, platinum, CuCl, solutions of iron
salts.

Susceptibility These substances acquire a feeble magnetism in the direction of the ap-
plied magnetic field. The magnetic susceptibility is small (∼ 10−6 ) and is inversely pro-
portional to the absolute temperature. This dependence on temperature is the Curie’s
law of paramagnetism.
C
χpara = (4.21)
T

Magnetic flux These substances are feebly attracted towards regions of stronger
magnetic field. The induced dipole moments are along the applied field and therefore
strengthen the magnetic flux inside the substance.

si
hylinearly cs
Variation of the magnetic field The magnetization changes
n g . P with the ap-
plied magnetic field when the applied field is not very
in Estrong.
r e
ts befo
p . Poin o o k s
Im
Langevin’s theory of paramagnetism ext B
d T
Rea
Consider a paramagnetic system having permanent dipole momentµ placed in the mag-
netic field, the dipoles tend to orient themselves in the direction of field. The thermal
agitation disturbs the normal alignment and dipoles align in different angles with each
other. The potential energy of the dipole moment placed in a magnetic field is given as

4 U = −µ. H = −µ H cos θ (4.22)

The statistical mechanics gives the probability that an atom is in any state have pro-
portional to exponential factor of potential energy i.e., exp [−4U/(kB T )], also known
as Boltzmann factor for absolute temperature (T). The equation is written for number
of particles lying within the solid angle dω within the cones of semi-angles θ + dθ can
be written as  
µ H cos θ
dn = A exp dω (4.23)
kB T
The solid angle dω = 2 π sin θ dθ with A which is a constant. The total number of
molecules ’n’ in the gas can be computed as
Zπ  
µ H cos θ
n = 2πA exp 2 π sin θ dθ (4.24)
kB T
0

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µH
Let us consider x = cos θ and α = , by substituting these and solving the equations
kB T
we get
Z −1
2πA α
4πA
n = −2π eαx dx = e − e−α = sinh α (4.25)
+1 α α
The parallel component to the magnetic dipole moment is µ cos θ. The perpendicular
components µ sin θ gets cancelled out due to the symmetry. Magnetization of the system
can be calculated as
Z π
M = µ cos θ dn
0
Z π
= µ cos θ 2 π A exp [α cos θ] sin θ dθ
0
Z −1
= −2πAµ x eαx dx (where x = cos θ)
1
−1
eαx

= −2πAµ (αx − 1)
α2 1
e + e−α eα − e−α
 α 
= −2πAµ −
α α2
  
2µ π n 2 sinh α
= − 2 cosh α −
4 π sinh α α
 
1
α hysics
= µ n coth α −
g. P
= n En
µ n L (α)
fore
(4.26)
Po i nts i s b e
. k written as:
t Boo 
Here L(α) is called p
Im Langevin function
e x
and
T
Read

1
L (α) = coth α −
α
The value of L(α) at different (α) values decides the magnetic moment and at origin
α
it is nearly a straight line. For small values L(α ∼
= ). Substituting and obtaining we
3
have,
α
M = µn
3
µ2 n H
 
µH
= where α =
3kT kT
The susceptibility can be obtained as
M µ2 n C
χpara = = = (4.27)
H 3kT T

4.3.3 Ferromagnetic materials

Ferromagnetic material dipoles are align in one direction. If any small magnetic field is
applied, the large value is produced. Ferromagnetic material has positive susceptibility

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Figure 4.2: Curie temperature Variation in magnetic materials

with permanent dipole moment showing non linear behaviour in magnetic field attaining
saturation. These type of magnetic materials have two distinct regions before (Ferromag-
netic) and after (Paramagnetic) at Curie temperature exhibiting different properties.
Examples: Iron,Cobalt, Nickel, Gadolinium, Dysprosium etc..

P h y sics
Susceptibility Susceptibility for ferromagneticin Eng. above rthe
materials e Curie tempera-
i n t s e f o
ture is given by the equation below. P o
The ’C’
mpis. the measured
on the material characteristics, I’T’
is
B
the
o o ks b and Twhich
Curie constant depends

d T ext temperature c is the Curie

temperature.
Rea
C
χpara = (4.28)
T − TC

Magnetic flux In the magnetic field, the flux is a measure of ability to pass/absorb
number of magnetic lines of force through an area. When the applied field is zero,
the material shows a value in terms of flux density. When applied field is increased
in a particular direction ,maximum value of flux density is referred as saturated flux
density (Bsat ). The direction of applied is very important as field can be revered.
With reverse field is applied up to a point, the flux density becomes zero. This nature
is useful in studying and designing various applications. These substances are attracted
towards regions of stronger magnetic field. The induced dipole moments are along the
applied field and therefore strengthen the magnetic flux inside the substance.

Variation of the magnetic field Dipoles responds to the magnetic field and they
aligned parallel to each other. This response is seen even in the absence of magnetic field.
The material shows broad curve showing Hysteresis nature.The nature of hysteresis
curve can be understood in the further topics. The Ferromagnetic materials have high
values of spontaneous magnetization with high corecivity and retentivity.

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4.3.4 Ferrimagnetic materials

Ferrimagnetic material such as ferrites have dipoles aligned parallel to each other but
there is variation of magnitude which is positive value. This enables them to have
magnetization even in the absence of magnetic field and nature of it comes with ordering
of dipole. They have properties of ferrimagnetic materials below Curie temperature and
above Curie temperature, TC , they have properties for paramagnetic materials.
Examples: Ferrous ferrite F e3 O4 .

Susceptibility The Susceptibility for ferrimagnetic material is positive and relation

is given below. Here ’C’ is the Curie constant for temperature of measured sample (T)
which is greater than Neel temperature TN .

C
χpara = (4.29)
T − TC

Magnetic flux These substances are feebly attracted towards regions of stronger mag-
netic field increasing the saturation flux density. The induced dipole moments are along
the applied field and therefore strengthen and increasing the magnetic flux .

Variation of the magnetic field The magnetization changes non linearly with the
applied magnetic field when the applied field.

4.3.5 Antiferromagnetic materials

P h y sics
Antiferromagnetic materials have small g. value of susceptibility with some dipoles
Enpositive
t s i n recancellation of each other magne-
foin
aligned in antiparallel to o
P i
eachn other. Thissresults
b e
Imp. by dipoles.
tization effect produced t ok do not possess magnetization value in the
BoThey
T e x
Read effects which are associated with the mechanical forces.
absence of magnetic field.The presence of anti parallel alignment of dipole is due to
ordering based on quantum
Examples: NiO,MnO,M nF2 etc....

Susceptibility Above the Neel temperature TN , the material behaves like paramag-
netic and antiferromagnetism occurs below Neel temperature. The susceptibility for
antiferromagnetic materials is given the equation below. Here temperature of measured
sample (T) is greater than TN .

C
χantiferro = (4.30)
T + TC

Magnetic flux These substances are not freely attracted and diverse nature towards
regions of stronger magnetic field. The induced dipole moments are along the applied
field and therefore weakens but have positive flux density or the magnetic flux inside
the substance.

Variation of the magnetic field The response of the anti-ferromagnetic material is

very weak but positive value under the influence of magnetic field. These resultant flux
density is slightly increases under the applied magnetic field.

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4.4 Weiss theory of ferromagnetism

The spontaneous magnetization is the main cause of ferromagnetism where magnetic
moment of adjecent atoms align with each other in a pattern. Weiss theory explains
the reason behind magnetization in ferro-magnetism using spin-spin exchange or spin
waves.

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

Figure 4.3: Domain comparision

According to Weiss, in domains, the interaction between atomic dipoles leads to sponta-
neous magnetization. The interactions produces internal molecular field 0 Hm
0
for which
spin align themselves with ordered nature. It indicates that Internal molecular field
is proportional to magnetization (M) explaining the magnetic interaction between the
magnetic dipole moment. Weiss postulated for effective field as

Hef f = H + γ M (4.31)

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Here γ is the Weiss constant or molecular field constant.

The possibility of magnetism using above equation with quantum mechanical theories
of paramagnetism. Consider a system with ’N’ spins per cubic meter giving rise to a
magnetic moment of one Bohr magneton. The magnetization of any such system is
given by equation
 
µ0 µ B Hef f
M = N µ B tanh
kB T
 
µ0 µ B (H + γ M )
M = N µ B tanh
kB T
M = N µ B tanh [α]
where  
µ0 µ B (H + γ M )
α =
kB T

At high temperatures, the square bracket terms tends to unity. As tanhα ∼

= α for
α <<< 1, we can rewrite as

N µ0 µ2B
 
M = [H + γM ] (4.32)
kB T
N γµ0 µ2B N µ0 µ2B
   
⇒M 1− = H
kB T kB T

s
hymagnetization ics
The susceptibility can be expressed as ratio
g . Pof to magnetic field. The
equation can be expressed as:
ts in En r e
. Poin o k s befo 
Im p o
d Text B N µ0 µ2B
Rea M
χ =
kB
= (4.33)
N γµ0 µ2B

H
T−
kB

N µ0 µ2B
 
Assuming C = and θ = γC, we can rewrite the above equattion as
kB
 
C
χ= (4.34)
T −θ

The above equation is known as Curie Wiess law. we can also find a similar way to
find and solve for T >> θ. Variation of χ−1 versus temperature for paramagnetic or
ferromagnetic showing a nature similar to paramagnetic materials. The slope determines
1
the curve and θ can be measured. The γ can be measured is larger due to magnetic
C
interaction. The forces among the dipoles in ferromagnetic material cannot be explained
classical and quantum approach is needed to understand. This could be explained in
terms of wave nature of electrons and wave mechanics and often referred as exchange
forces. The Curie Wiess law do not hold good for T < θ for which susceptibility becomes
negative; and for T = 0 χ becomes infinite. This indicates at H = 0, M is non vanishing.

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That means:
 
µ0 µB γM
M = N µB tanh
kB T
 
M µ0 µB γM
= tanh
N µB kB T
M
= tanh [α]
Ms
where
µ0 µB γM
α =
kB T
Ms = N µB

Here Ms show maximum saturation magnetization value indicating that ’N’ number of
dipole moment are contributing by aligning parallel in the magnetic field. Equating the
terms by comparing with and without presence of magnetic field, we have
M µ0 µB γM
= tanh [α] ≈ α = (4.35)
Ms kB T
For H = 0 we can compare this equation the with equation from (4.32) to obtain
M Tα
= . (4.36)
Ms θ
M
From above must satisfy the hyperbolic function with respect
h y cstangential term
sito
Ms
ng. P
in above equations and
Tα
s
is a stright line. tAs i n Eprocedure
the e
fisorexperimented their,
θ
P o i n s b e
one can plot
M
versus
Tα
Im
. The p. scenario
possible x tB ookthe behaviour of the material
shows
Ms θ T e
under different conditions. Read
M
1. At T < θ, the curves intersect and ratio of has positive value. This shows
Ms
presence of magnetization.
M
2. At T = θ ; = α; a line observed which is tangent to tanhα.
Ms
M
3. At T < θ, the intersection is observed at origin for which = 0, indicating
Ms
vanishing nature of spontaneous magnetization.

4.5 Domain theory of ferromagnetism

Domains concept can be understood on the basis of thermodynamic conditions. Ther-
modynamic conditions for solids will be based of the configuration of minimum free
energy (F = U − T S). With high degree of crystalline nature in magnetic ordering for
which the entropy can be neglected such that entire focus is on the internal energy. The
total internal energy is contributed from different aspects:
1. Magnetostatic energy or Magnetic field energy or exchange energy

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2. Anistropy energy

3. domain wall energy or Bloch wall energy

4. Magnetostriction energy

Figure 4.4: Domain comparision

Magnetostatic energy
The energy interacts with dipoles and aligns them in according to the interaction or

P h y sics established by exhcange energy

exchange (magnetic field) energy. The single domain
g. on the surface. The energy is equal to:
have free energy due to magnetic polesnformed
t s i nE Z fore
Po i n 1 s b e
Imp. ook H dV
2

T ext B 8π
Read
Energy is equal to amount of work done or potential energy in assembling the atomic
magnetics. The net magnetic energy is reduced to half as domains which are magnetized
are opposite orientated. Division of domains further reduces the magnetic energy which
has less energy forming another domains with boundaries called Bloch wall. Thermo-
dynamic can be used to understand the principle of minimum energy. The free energy
(F = U − T S) is stable at minimum configuration. This equation suggests higher or-
der at lower temperature with less entropy. With domains increasing,the field energy
conspicuously reduced with spatial extension of field is smaller. This includes the some
energy requires formation of new domains. With number of domains increases, the net
magnetic energy becomes zero .

Anistropy energy
The ferromagnetic materials have easy and hard direction of magnetization. It is ability
of magnetic material to get magnetized in a particular direction. The direction of
magnetic is material is important as it plays important role in deciding basic properties
like saturation magnetization. Same saturation magnetization of a particular material
can be produced for lower field in easy direction and higher with stronger field in hard
direction. The difference or excess energy required to magnetize a material compared
with easy direction is called as crystalline Anisotropy energy.

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Bloch wall energy or Domain wall energy

The boundary of domain with spin up and spin down showing clear demarcation of
two regions. The transition of direction is not sudden but gradual change of domain
in different direction in a certain area or several atomic planes. The entire region the
transition of these domains extended over planes is called Bloch wall.The variation
of Bloch wall width depends of interaction energy.The Bloch wall is considered to be
thick if total change of spin direction is distributed over several spins. The influence of
anisotropy varies by which it restricts the thickness of Bloch wall. The thickness of the
Bloch wall is compromise between the influence of exchange energy and anisotropy.

Magnetostrictive energy
Magnetostriction, a phenomenon in a specimen which is magnetized and undergo change
in dimension. The lateral expansions or deformations takes place along one direction
under the influence of magnetic field. Due to this, the domains shrink or expands in
direction for which work will be done as restoring forces which are elastic . The work
done by the magnetic field against the restoring forces is the energy contributed as
magnetostriction or magnetoelastic energy.

4.6 Hysteresis
The Hysteresis is showing trends for leading, lagging and leading characteristic nature
of the magnetic flux density (B) or magnetization (M) under the influence of magnetic
field (H). It is a variation of non-linear behaviour of closed loop observed
s isbetween flux
ys i c
as Wb.m−2 or for magnetization M is taken as emu.gm Eng−1 . . hThe Units for magnetic
density (Magnetization) with magnetic field(H). The Units ofPflux density B is taken

ts i n ore
field is either in Oe or AT.m−1 . Poin k s bef
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

Figure 4.5: Hystersis In magnetic material

A polycrystalline material generally consists of number of grains. The size of grains

are influenced by preparation technique which is heated above Curie temperature and

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cooled down to room temperature. The grains consists of domains and size of grain is an
indication of number of domains. If a grain size is small then domain size is equivalent
to grain size. If grain size is large, then there are number of domains in it. When
this polycrystalline material is subjected to small change in magnetic field, it results in
large value in flux density. For further increase in magnetic field, the small change in
direction of domain is observed suggesting small rise in flux or saturation nature in the
sample. This state is known as saturation magnetization.From that point which is
completely magnetized state, by reversing the applied field, we take the sample journey
towards de-magnetized state. At a point when there is no applied field (H = 0), the
value of magnetic flux represents the amount of energy present in a state. This energy
is called residual magnetism or remanence. Taking it from no field to maximum
negative field (-H), between a set of points of applied field, the residual magnetism
slowly reduces to zero. The point where residual magnetism or remanence drops to zero
is called coercivity. The process of magnetising and then de-magnetising in a closed
loop under the influence of field is Hysteresis.

When the domains are subjected to external magnetic field, they align in the direction of
field. The order-ness of the alignment results in increase in magnetization. The domains
which are already slowly increases their area or size. This growth under the magnetic
field is affected by imperfection, impurities or secondary phases. The domain wall over-
comes these obstacles to have rotation which also produces energy (converted in form of
heat). This energy is observed as jerk in the energy curve also known as Barkhausen
effect. When the applied field increases, the continuous process of rotation or shrinking
of domains which are not parallel to applied field, occurs increasing the magnetization.
Up to certain point reversal of domains is possible h y cs removal of applied field. After
siwith
P
. beginning the indicating the beginning
certain point, pinning of domains takes Engplace
n point,
i n t
of saturation nature. At saturation
P o s i
s
the
b e forofe domain will not increase and en-
size
p. single domain. k is no further rise in magnetization at this
ooTheir
tire specimen actsImlike t Bsaturation
Texas
moment and this point isdcalled magnetization.
Rea
If the field is decreased, domain begins to grow. Even when field is zero, the specimen
having of value of magnetization know as remanence or retentivity. Here the specimen
do not regain the original positioning of domain structure before magnetization state. To
remove remanence, the negative field (opposite direction) is applied and the specimen
have magnetization zero. This opposite field is called as coercive field or coercivity
(Hc ). At this point, the material regain its original domain structure which was earlier
observed before magnetization process. On further increasing the negative field, the
domain begins to aligh in the similar way as decribe above but in opposite direction
towards single domain. It reaches a lowest value of magnetization where no further
decrease in magnetization is not possible. If we change the field direction, again the
specimen will take a journey. This journey or path taken by specimen of closed loop
in which leading,lagging and leading the magnetization nature with magnetic field is
Hysteresis curve.

In Ferromagnetic material, residual magnetism is due to revolving nature of domains

which are aligned in ordered way. Energy require to change this direction some time
appears as heat during the magnetization cycle. This heat is known as hysteresis
loss.

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4.7 Soft and hard magnetic materials

Depending on the nature of application, magnetic material is used. The magnetic ma-
terial is divided in to two types: soft and hard magnetic material. In the domain theory
and hysteresis, the process of magnetization for which orientation of domain with growth
and shrinking is observed. The domains are able to move easily then less resistance is
observed with lower values of corecivity and remanance. This type of magnetic material
where domains are easily move their direction is called soft magnetic materials. If the
resistance is large for domain wall then corecive force is large for which the magnetic
material is put in to category of hard magnetic material.

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read
Figure 4.6: Soft and Hard materials

In hard magnetic materials, domains are immobilized by certain imperfections or pre-

cipitation of any non-magnetic materials. These defects pay important role in leading to
hysteresis loss or advantages interms of mechanical hardness, increased electrical resistiv-
ity. High resistivity tends to reduce eddy current losses. Hard or permanent magnetics
materials are able to retain their fields in even when field is removed. This nature of this
type of magnetic materials helps in retaining the magnetic field even when magnetic field
is removed. The low permeability with large magnetising force are primary conditions
at attain saturation magnetization of the magnetic material. Hard magnetic materials
are characterized by relatively large area of hysteresis loop or square shape loop. They
have large corecivity value with large area under curve.

In soft magnetic materials, the permeability is very high with low coercive force. These
materials can be magnetized and demagnetized very easily can used in alternating mag-
netic field application such as transformer cores, magnetic switching and magnetic am-
plifier. Soft magnetic materials ascends steeply in the magnetization curve as they have
high permeabilities and posses curve shape.

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4.8 Eddy current losses

An eddy current is like a whirlpool of current which is generated in the induced sys-
tem.By Lenz’s law, the, swirling current creates a magnetic field in conductor opposing
any change in conductor. The electrons revolve in plane perpendicular to magnetic field.
So eddy current have tendency to oppose any change causing energy to be released or
lost. In order words, eddy current produces heat through energy which is in form of
kinetic energy. There are some practical applications .

Figure 4.7: Eddy Currents in Ferrites

4.9 Ferrites
P h y sics
Ferrites are mixed iron ceramics having .
Engbrittle, black/grey in colour and have strong
magnetic properties. They have t s i ndefined f retransition temperatures at Curie
o
magnetic
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. of flux Bootemperature.The
temperature (TC ) also refereed as Neel dipoles are aligned antiparallel
but resultant magnitude T e x tdensity is non-zero and having a moderate value. If a
adexternal magnetic field, then flux density increases to large
Reby
dipoles are influenced
value increasing magnetization.

Structure:
Ferrites with simple spinel structure as formula M2+ Fe3+ 2−
2 O4 . There are 32 oxygen
atoms with 16 trivalent iron ions and 8 divalent iron ions. In the spinel structure state,
the oxygen are closed packed in face centered lattice (FCC) in to which interstices of
which the metal ions are distributed.
The A sites are occupied by 4 nearest oxygen centres are connecting forming the tetra-
hedron structure in the unit cell and are called tetrahedral sites. The B sites with 6
oxygen ions with connecting oxygen centres forming
a octahedron and are called octa-

hedral sites. That means there are 8 ions
Fe2+ (tetrahedral sites), 16 ions Fe3+
(octahedral sites) and 32 oxygen ions O2− . In one spinel ferrite molecule, 2 octahe-
dral sites and one 1 tetrahedral sites are present. So in an unit cell of ferrite, there are
64 tetrahedral sites, 32 octahedral sites and 32 oxygen ions.
In the normal spinel structure such as ZnF e2 O4 , divalent ions occupy A sites and
trivalent ions occupy B sites. But in inverse spinel state such as magnetite, 8 trivalent
ions (F e+++ ) occupy A sites and other 8 trivalent ions (F e+++ ) occupy B sites. The
remaining divalent ions occupy F e++ occupy B sites. In case of Nickle ferrite, divalent

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Figure 4.8: Strcuture of Ferrite

ions occupy half of the B sites and trivalent ions share B and A sites in several possible
combinations.
The nature of hysteresis decides which whether is soft magnetic or hard magnetic ma-
terial. The general substitution replacing M is done using different ions such as Fe2+ ,
Co2+ ,Ni2+ ,Zn2+ ,Cu2+ ,Mg2+ ,Mn2+ , etc. The presence of other ions can be used to
provide the unpaired electron spins resulting variation in net magnetic moment of the

P h y s insthe moments of
structure. The magnetic moment of a ferrite is equated to differenceic
individual A and B sites. g.
n t s in En e fore
Po i k s b
Properties: Imp. e x t Boo
T
d resulting in low eddy losses even at high
∼ ReaΩ.m


Ferrites have high resistivity = 107−10
frequency. Ferrites are widely used to increase flux linkage in core / inductance devices
/ transformers. Prerequisites of high induction / permeability with high resistivity with
moderate saturation magnetization are desirable properties for ferrites.

4.10 Applications
1. Primary used as temporary magnetic materials under the applied fields in many
applications.

2. Ferrites are used as thermal sensing materials in refrigerators, air conditioners,

electric ovens etc.

3. Magnetostrictive property is utilized in ultrasonic wave production.

4. Insulating nature of ferrite is used in electric motors, flat rings in speakers/amplifiers

in radios or correction magnets in television.

5. Used in inductors or induction cores or transformers due to high resistive and good
magnetic properties.

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

6. Used in television as deflection yokes, cores in line output transformers in television

sets, antennas for medium and long wave broadcasting.

7. Used in automatic control system, frequency modulation, switching, filtering and

storing signals in communication devices.

8. Certain application in biomedical application such as treatment of Hyperthermia

using nanomagnetic particles.

9. used in electromagnetic absorption devices emitting from electromagnetic devices.

Figure 4.9: Application of Ferrites

P h y sics
4.11 Multiple choice Eng.
n question
P o i n t s i
s b e fore
k
Imp. with emagnetic
1. What will happen
x t Boomaterials is kept in an external magnetic field
T
Read
(a) They will move (b) Develop magnetic lines of force
(c) create a permanent magnetic moment (d) Unaffected
[C]

2. What is the name of the continuous curve in the magnetic field, the tangent of
which gives the direction of magnetic intensity ?
(a) Magnetic lines of force (b) Magnetic lines of induction
(c) Magnetic force (d) Magnetic dipole moment
[A]

3. What is the name of the magnetic lines which forms a closed path ?
(a) Magnetic lines of force (b) Magnetic force between two poles
(c) Magnetic field (d) Magnetic lines of induction
[D]

4. Which of the following is a weak magnet ?

(a) Ferromagnetic material (b) Antiferromagnetic
(c) Paramagnetic (d) Diamagnetic
[D]

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

5. When does a paramagnetic material become diamagnetic material?

(a) At critical temperature (b) Above critical temperature
(c) Below critical temperature (d) Never
[C]

6. If a material is ferromagnetic, what shall be the value of suspectibility

(a) Negative (b) Small and Positive
(c) Large and Positive (d) Insufficient infomation
[C]

7. The phenomenon of perfect diamagnetism is called

(a) Superconductivity (b) Diamagnetic Effect
(c) Zero Kelvin Effect (d) Meissner Effect
[D]

8. At high temperature a Ferro magnet becomes

(a) Diamagnetic (b) Paramagnetic
(c) hard ferromagnet (d) Soft Ferromagnet
[B]

9. When a ferromagnetic rod is placed in a solenoid with current, what happens to

the rod
(a) Retentivity increases (b) Coercivity Increases
P h y sics
(c) Permanently Magnetized (d) None g.
t s i n En fore [C]
Po i n s b e
10. Imp. are desired
Which of the following conditions okcore of an electromagnet
t Binothe
T e x
(a) High permeability and High ad
Reretentivity (b) Low permeability and High retentivity
(c) Low permeability and Low retentivity (d) High permeability and Low retentivity
[D]

11. In which of the following the magnetic moments align themselves parallel to each
other?
(a) Ferromagnetic material (b) Antiferromagnetic
(c) Paramagnetic (d) Diamagnetic
[A]

12. Which of the following is a strong magnet ?

(a) Ferromagnetic material (b) Antiferromagnetic
(c) Paramagnetic (d) Diamagnetic
[A]

13. Which of the following exhibits spontaneous magnetisation?

(a) Ferromagnetic material (b) Antiferromagnetic
(c) Paramagnetic (d) Diamagnetic
[A]

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

14. When does a ferromagnetic material become paramagnetic material?

(a) At Curie temperature (b) Below Curie temperature
(c) Above Curie temperature (d) Never
[C]

15. How is the magnetic field, B, related to Magnetization, M ?

(a) B ∝ M (b) B ∝ 1/M
(c) B ∝ M 2 (d) B ∝ M 3
[A]

16. If the relative permeability of material lies between zero and one, the material is
(a) Diamagnetic (b) Paramagnetic
(c) Ferromagnetic (d) Antiferromagnetic
[A]

17. If the relative permeability of material lies between 1 and 20, the material is
(a) Diamagnetic (b) Paramagnetic
(c) Ferromagnetic (d) Antiferromagnetic
[B]

18. If the relative permeability of material lies between 100 and above , the material
is
(a) Diamagnetic (b) Paramagnetic
Phy sics
g.
(c) Ferromagnetic n En
(d) Antiferromagnetic
fore
Po i nts i s b e [C]
k
Imp. e x Boo
tmade
T
Read
19. Core of electromagnets are up of
(a) Diamagnetic (b) Paramagnetic
(c) Ferromagnetic (d) Antiferromagnetic
[C]

20. Permeable substance is one which is a

(a) Good conductor (b) Bad conductor
(c) Strong Magnet (d) Through which the magnetic lines of force can pass very easily
[D]

21. Magnetic field exits around

(a) iron particles (b) Copper plate
(c) Aluminium sheet (d) Moving charges
[D]

22. Ferrites are ...... materials

(a) Ferrimagnetic (b) Paramagnetic
(c) Ferromagnetic (d) Antiferromagnetic
[A]

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23. A material which is slightly repelled by a magnetic field is known as

(a) Diamagnetic (b) Paramagnetic
(c) Ferromagnetic (d) Antiferromagnetic
[A]

24. The ratio of intensity of magnetization to the magnetisation force is known as

(a) Flux density (b) Suspectibility
(c) relative permeability (d) None
[C]

25. Reciprocal of permeability is

(a) reluctivity (b) Susceptibility
(c) permittivity (d) Conductance
[A]

26. Retentivity is a property of material which is useful for the construction of

(a) Permanent magnets (b) transformers
(c) Non-magnetic substance (d) Electromagnets
[A]

27. Hysteresis loop in case of magnetically hard materials is more in shape as compared
to magnetically soft materials
(a) Circular (b) Triangle
P h y sics
(c) Rectangular (d) None g.
t s i n En fore [C]
Po i n s b e
k
28. Imp. needle ebehave
How does the magnetic compass
x t Boinoa magnetic field ?
T
Read
(a) Right angle to magnetic field (b) Circular rotation
(c) It assures a position following a line of magnetic flux (d) None
[C]

29. Attraction capacity of electromagnetic will increase if the ...

(a) Core length increases (b) Core area increases
(c) Flux density decreases (d) Flux density increases
[D]

30. Magnetism of a magnet can be destroyed by

(a) heating (b) hammering
(c) inductive action (d) All the above
[D]

31. If ’p’ is the magnetic moment of a bar magnet in a magnetic field, than maximum
value of the torque is
(a) pB cos θ (b) p cos θ
(c) 180° (d) pB
[D]

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

32. Since the induced magnetic moments in a diamagnetic substance in a magnetic

field oppose the applied field, the diamagnetic susceptibility is
(a) Negative (b) Small positive value
(c) Zero (d) Large positive value
[A]

33. All materials have

(a) Paramagnetic property (b) Diamagnetic property
(c) Ferromagnetic property (d) Ferrimagnetic property
[B]

34. Sure test of magnetism is

(a) Attraction (b) Repulsion
(c) Both (d) None
[C]

35. The magnetic elements of Earth magnetic field are

(a) Dip and magnetic induction (b) total flux and declination
(c) Horizontal intensity (d) Horizontal intensity, declination and dip
[D]

36. A magnetic needle when kept in a non-uniform magnetic field experience

(a) A force but not a torque (b) A torque but not a force
sics
hy a force and a torque
(c) Neither a force nor a torque
g . PBoth
(d)
n En
i efore
s [D]
t
p. Poin ooks
b
I m x t B
Te
4.12 Read in magnetic materials
Questions
1. Explain terms in detail:
Magnetic flux density (B)
Magnetic field strength (H)
Magnetization (M)
Susceptibility
Magnetic dipole moment
Permeabilty

2. Explain magnetic flux density (B), magnetic field strength (H) and magnetization
(M). How are they related to each other?

3. How do you distinguish between diamagnetic, paramagnetic,ferrimagnetism, an-

tiferromagnetism and ferromagnetic materials on the basis of magnetic dipoles of
the atoms?

4. What are domain?

5. Explain the significance of Curie temperature for a ferromagnetic materials?

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

6. State the Curie law of paramagnetism?

7. Explain ferromagnetic hystersis on the basis of domains?
8. What are soft and hard magnetic materials? Give their characterisitics properties
and applications?
9. Compare and contrast ferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism?

4.13 Problems
Problem 4.1 A magnetic material has a magnetization of 2350 A/m and produces a
flux density of 0.0035 Wb/m2 . Calculate magnetizing force and relative permeability of
the material. (µo = 12.57 × 10−7 H/m)

Solution 4.1 Magnetizing force (H) is given as

B 0.0035W b/m2
H= −M = − 2350A/m =
µo 12.57 × 10−7 H/m

Relative permeability is given as

B 0.0035W b/m2
µr = = − 2350A/m = .....
µo H 12.57 × 10−7 H/m × .........A/m

P h y sics
Problem 4.2 Diamagnetic Al2 O3 is subjected ian Eng. magnetic
n external re field(H) 5of 10
5

i n t s e
b2 3 f o
Po
A/m. Evaluate magnetization and magnetic flux
ooks
density in Al O (χ = −5 × 10 )
Imp. x t B
Te
Solution 4.2 Read −5 5
M = χH = −5 × 10 × 10 = ..........
Magnetic flux density:
B = µo (H + M ) =

Problem 4.3 Find the relative permeability of the ferromagnetic materials if a mag-
netic field of strength(H) 220 A/m produces magnetization(M) of 3300 A/m in it.

Solution 4.3 Permeability is given by relation

M 3300
µr = (1 + χ) = 1 + =1+ =
H 220

Problem 4.4 Area of a hysteresis loop drawn between B and H is 100 m2 . Each unit
space along the vertical axis represent 0.01 weber/m2 and each unit space along the
horizontal axis represents 40 A/m.Determine the hystersis loss per cycle.

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Solution 4.4 Hystersis loss per cycle= Area of the hysteresis loop × Value of unit
length along B-axis × Value of unit length along H-axis.

Hystersis loss per cycle = 100 × 0.01 × 40 =

Problem 4.5 A magnetic field 104 produces a magnetic induction of 4π weber/m2 in

an iron rod. Compute the suspectibility.

Solution 4.5
B
µr = =1+χ
µo H
B
χ = −1
µo H
4π
χ = −1
4π × 10−7 × 104

χ = ............

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

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Chapter 5

Superconductivity

Superconductivity is a set of physical properties observed in certain materials where

electrical resistance vanishes and magnetic flux fields are expelled from the material.
Any material exhibiting these properties is a superconductor. In theory, this allows
electrical energy to be transferred between two points with perfect efficiency, losing
nothing to heat.
For an example, if mercury is cooled below 4.1 K, it loses all electric resistance. This
discovery of superconductivity by H. Kammerlingh Onnes in 1911 was followed by the
observation of other metals which exhibit zero resistivity below a certain critical temper-
ature. The fact that the resistance is zero has been demonstrated by sustaining currents

P h ysics An induced
in superconducting lead rings for many years with no measurable reduction.
current in an ordinary metal ring would decay rapidly from
i n ng. constant
Edecay
the dissipation
e
of ordinary

P o i nts
resistance, but superconducting rings had exhibited a
s b e for of over a billion
years.
Im p. t Bo ok
a d Tex
Re
5.1 Definition
A superconductor is a perfect conductor of electricity; it carries direct current with
100% efficiency because no energy is dissipated by resistive heating. Once induced in
a superconducting loop, direct current can flow undiminished forever. Superconductors
lose all resistance to the flow of direct electrical current and nearly all resistance to the
flow of alternating current when cooled below a critical temperature, which is different
for each superconducting material.

5.2 Properties of Superconductors

5.2.1 Zero electrical resistance
The first characteristic property of a super conductor is its electrical resistance. The
electrical resistance of the super conductor is zero below a transition temperature. This
property of zero electrical resistance is known as defining property of a superconductor.
The variation of electrical resistivity of a normal conducting metal and a superconducting
metal as a function of temperature is shown in figure below:

125
 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Figure 5.1: Effect of resistance on Temperature

5.2.2 Persistent Current

A steady current which flows through a superconducting ring without any decrease in its
strength as long as the material is in superconducting state is called persistent current.
The current persists even after the removal of the magnetic field.

5.2.3 Critical temperature

h y i s which
The critical temperature (Tc), or the temperature cunder
smaterials, a material acts as a
superconductor, is an essential concern. For P
ng. and -263
most it is between absolute zero
n
and 10 Kelvin, that is, between i-273ECelsius e
practical use. P o i nts s b e for Celsius, too cold to be of any
. k
Imp
Te x t Boo
ead
5.2.4 CriticalRmagnetic field
Below the transition temperature of a material, its superconductivity can be destroyed
by the application of a strong magnetic field. The minimum magnetic field strength re-
quired to destroy the superconducting property at any temperature is known as critical
magnetic field (Hc). The critical magnetic field (Hc) depends upon the temperature of
the superconducting material. The relation between critical magnetic field and temper-
ature is given by
 2
T
Hc = Ho 1 −
Tc
where Ho is the critical magnetic field at absoulte zero temperature, Tc is supercon-
ducting transition temperature of a material, T is the temperature below Tc of the
superconducting material.

5.2.5 Critical Current density

The critical magnetic field is required to destroy superconductivity need not be neces-
sarly applied externally. An electric current flowing through the superconduting material
itself may produce magnetic field of requisite strength. If a superconducting ring carries

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

a current (I), it gives rise to its own magnetic field. As the current increases to critical
value, Ic , and the assoicated magnetic field increases to Hc and the superconditivity
decreases. The maximum current density at which the superconductivity disappears is
called the critical current denssity.
The application of very high electrical current to superconducting material destroys its
superconducting property. The critical current ic required to destroy the superconduct-
ing property is given by
Ic = 2πrHc
where ’r’ is the radius.

5.2.6 Meissner effect

Please check next section.....Why don’t you turn the page.....

5.2.7 London Penetration Depth

Arising in the theoretical and experimental investigations of superconductivity are two
characteristic lengths, the London penetration depth and the coherence length. The
London penetration depth refers to the exponentially decaying magnetic field at the
interior surface of a superconductor. It is related to the density of superconducting
electrons in the material. When a magnetic field is applied to a superconductor, the
applied field does not drop to zero at the surface but decreases in exponentially as per
formula
−x
H(x) = H(0). exp λ
Ph ysics
i n ng. penetration
Here x is the distance from the surface and λ is the London depth. It is an
Esuperconductivity.
e
ts
effective length at which magnetic field penetrates
Poin
the for
m p. B o o ks be
I
5.2.8 Flux Quantation a d Text
R e
A closed superconducting loop can enclose magnetic flux only in integral multiples of
the fundamental quantum of flux. The magnetic flux enclosed by a superconducting
ring is given
nh
φ= = nφo
2e
Some times φo is called fluxon and its values is 2.07 ×1015 weber.

5.2.9 Entropy
Entropy is a measure of disorder of a state or system.In superconductors, entropy de-
creases linearly upto a critical temperature and more below the the critical temperature.
This indicates that superconductivity is more ordered than normal state.

5.2.10 Heat Capacity

Due to the energy gap, the specific heat of the superconductor is suppressed strongly
at low temperatures, there being no thermal excitations left. However before reaching
the transition temperature, the specific heat of the superconductor becomes even higher
than of the normal conductor.

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Figure 5.2: Entropy effect on superconductivity

The onset of superconductivity is accompanied by abrupt changes in various physical

properties, which is the hallmark of a phase transition. For example, the electronic heat
capacity is proportional to the temperature in the normal (non-superconducting) regime.
At the superconducting transition, it suffers a discontinuous jump and thereafter ceases
−b
to be linear. At low temperatures, it varies instead as exp T for some constant, b. This
exponential behavior is one of the pieces of evidence for the existence of the energy
gap. The specific heat of a normally conducting metalsis composed of a lattice part and
electronic part. The electronic contribution part sic
Phydecreases is given
g.
t s i n En fore
P o i n C = s b
exp e −b.Tc

k
Imp.
T

t Boo
v

T e x
ad
5.2.11 IsotopeReeffect
It was observed that the critical temperature(Tc) decreases with increasing isotopic mass
(M) and is given be the relation
Tc ∝ M −b
where ’b’ is a constant and equal to half. The phenomenonon decrease of critical temper-
ature with increasing atomic mass is called isotope effect. Change in the isotopic mass
does not change the electronic structure and dependence of the transition temperature
on the isotropic mass suggests involvement of electron-lattice interaction.

5.3 Meissner effect

When a material makes the transition from the normal to superconducting state, it
actively excludes magnetic fields from its interior; this is called the Meissner effect.
This constraint to zero magnetic field inside a superconductor is distinct from the perfect
diamagnetism which would arise from its zero electrical resistance. Zero resistance would
imply that if you tried to magnetize a superconductor, current loops would be generated
to exactly cancel the imposed field (Lenz’s law). But if the material already had a steady
magnetic field through it when it was cooled trough the superconducting transition, the

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Figure 5.3: Meissner Effect in conductors. a) Magnetic field penetrating the specimen
b) Magnetic field exclusion from the specimen which is Meissner effect.

magnetic field would be expected to remain. If there were no change in the applied
magnetic field, there would be no generated voltage (Faraday’s law) to drive currents,
even in a perfect conductor. Hence the active exclusion of magnetic field must be
considered to be an effect distinct from just zero resistance. A mixed state Meissner
effect occurs with Type II materials.
One of the theoretical explanations of the Meissner effect comes from the London equa-
tion. It shows that the magnetic field decays exponentially inside the superconductor
over a distance of 20-40 nm. It is described in terms of a parameter called the London
penetration depth.
The exclusion of the magnetic field from a superconductor takes place regardless of
sicsin the interior of
whether the sample becomes superconducting before or after the external magnetic field
is applied. In the steady state, the external magnetic field is P h y
cancelled
g.
i
the superconductor by opposing magnetic fields produced
t s n En by a steady
fore
screening current
Po i n
that flows on the surface of the superconductor. s b e
p.exclusion oft the
Boo k
It is important to recognise thatIm the x magnetic field from inside a su-
T e
perconductor cannot be predicted by ad Maxwell’s equations to a material that
Reapplying
has zero electrical resistance. We shall refer to a material that has zero resistance but
does not exhibit the Meissner effect as a perfect conductor, and we shall show that a
superconductor has additional properties besides those that can be predicted from its
zero resistance.
Consider first the behaviour of a perfect conductor. We showed in the previous sub-
section that the flux enclosed by a continuous path through zero resistance material -a
perfect conductor – remains constant, and this must be true for any path within the
material, whatever its size or orientation. he magnetic field throughout the material
must remain constant, that is, δB/δt = 0.

5.4 Type I and II superconductors

The difference between type I and type II superconductors can be found in their magnetic
behaviour. A type I superconductor keeps out the whole magnetic field until a critical
applied field Hc reached. Above that field a type I superconductor is no longer in its
superconductiong state.
A type II superconductor will only keep the whole magnetic field out until a first critical
field Hc1 is reached. Then vortices start to appear. A vortex is a magnetic flux quantum
that penetrates the superconductor. Where the vortex appears the superconducting

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

order parameter drops to zero. In this region the metal is no longer a superconductor.
Around the vortex a current starts to circulate. Even though the vortices have formed,
the rest of the metal stays superconducting. If the field is increased to the second critical
field Hc2 the metal stops to be superconducting. Hc2 is usually a lot bigger than Hc that’s
why type II superconductors are typically used for superconducting magnets. Type II

Figure 5.4: Type I and Type II superconductivity

superconductors are the most technologically useful because the second critical field can
be quite high, enabling high field electromagnets h y icsbe made out of superconducting
sto
g. P
wire. ires made from say niobium-tin
t s i n Enuseful
(Nb3Sn)
o
have a Bc2 as high as 24.5 Tesla- in
re
f applications
Po i n
practice it is lower. This makes them
s b e
for requiring high magnetic
p . o o k
Im
fields, such as Magnetic Resonance
e x tis Bthat
Imaging (MRI) machines. The advantage of using
superconducting electromagnetsT
ad into a closed loop and allow the becurrent
the current only has to applied once to the
wires, which are thenReformed (and field) to
persist indefinitely- as long as the superconductor stays below the critical temperature.
That is, the external power supply can be switched off. As a comparison, the strongest
permanent magnets today may be able to produce a field close to 1 Tesla. However, it
is possible to obtain up to 24.5 Tesla from a niobium–tin superconductor.

5.5 BCS theory:qualitative

According to classical physics, part of the resistance of a metal is due to collisions be-
tween free electrons and the crystal lattice’s vibrations, known as phonons. In addition,
part of the resistance is due to scattering of electrons from impurities or defects in the
conductor.
The central feature of the BCS theory is that two electrons in the superconductor are
able to form a bound pair called a Cooper pair if they somehow experience an attrac-
tive interaction between them. This notion at first sight seems counterintuitive since
electrons normally repel one another because of their like charges.
An electron passes through the lattice and the positive ions are attracted to it, causing
a distortion in their nominal positions. The second electron (the Cooper pair partner)
comes along and is attracted by the displaced ions. Note that this second electron can

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

only be attracted to the lattice distortion if it comes close enough before the ions have
had a chance to return to their equilibrium positions. The net effect is a weak delayed
attractive force between the two electrons.

Figure 5.5: BCS behaviour in material

From the BCS theory, the total linear momentum of a Cooper pair must be zero. This
means that they travel in opposite directions as shown in Figure 8. In addition, the
nominal separation between the Cooper pair (called the coherence length) ranges from
hundreds to thousands of ions separating them! This is quite a large distance and has
been represented incorrectly in many textbooks on this subject. If electrons in a Cooper
pair were too close, such as a couple of atomic spacings apart; the electrostatic (coulomb)
repulsion will be much larger than the attraction from the lattice deformation and so
they will repel each other. Thus there will be no superconductivity. y s
sAiccurrent flowing in
g . P h
the superconductor just shifts the total moment slightly
i n En from zero so
r e
that, on average,
n t
one electron in a cooper pair has a slightlyilarger s momentum
bef o
magnitude that its pair.
p .
They do, however, still travel in opposite Podirections. o o k s
Im ext B Each electron in the pair goes on
T
The interaction between a Cooper pair isdtransient.
Rea and this process continues with the newly
to form a Cooper pair with other electrons,
formed Cooper pair so that each electron goes on to form a Cooper pair with other
electrons. The end result is that each electron in the solid is attracted to every other
electron forming a large network of interactions. Causing just one of these electrons
to collide and scatter from atoms in the lattice means the whole network of electrons
must be made to collide into the lattice, which is energetically too costly. The collective
behaviour of all the electrons in the solid prevents any further collisions with the lattice.
Nature prefers situations that spend a minimum of energy. In this case, the minimum
energy situation is to have no collisions with the lattice. A small amount of energy is
needed to destroy the superconducting state and make it normal. This energy is called
the energy gap.
Although a classical description of Cooper pairs has been given here, the formal treat-
ment from the BCS theory is quantum mechanical. The electrons have wave-like be-
haviour and are described by a wave function that extends throughout the solid and
overlaps with other electron wave functions. As a result, the whole network of electrons
behaves line one wave function so that their collective motion is coherent.
In addition to having a linear momentum, each electron behaves as if it is spinning. This
property, surprisingly, is called spin. This does not mean that the electron is actually
spinning, but behaves as though it is spinning. The requirement from the BCS theory
is that spins of a Cooper pair be in opposite directions.

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5.6 High temperature superconductors

It has long been a dream of scientists working in the field of superconductivity to find a
material that becomes a superconductor at room temperature. A discovery of this type
will revolutionize every aspect of modern day technology such as power transmission
and storage, communication, transport and even the type of computers we make.
Critical temperatures as high as 135 K have been achieved. Whilst this is not room
temperature, it has made experiments on superconductivity accessible to more people
since these need only be cooled by liquid nitrogen (with a boiling point of liquid nitrogen
is 77 K), which is cheap and readily available.
The nominal distance between cooper pairs (coherence length) in these superconductors
can be as short as one or two atomic spacings. As a result, the coulomb repulsion force
will generally dominate at these distances causing electrons to be repelled rather than
coupled. For this reason, it is widely accepted that Cooper pairs, in these materials,
are not caused by a lattice deformation, but may be associated with the type of mag-
netism present (known as antiferromagnetism) in the copper oxide layers. So high–Tc
superconductors cannot be explained by the BCS theory since that mainly deals with
a lattice deformation mediating the coupling of electron pairs. The research continues
into the actual mechanism responsible for superconductivity in these materials.

5.6.1 Josephson effects applications

Devices based upon the characteristics of a Josephson junction are valuable in high speed
circuits. Josephson junctions can be designed to switch in times of a few picoseconds.
Their low power dissipation makes them usefulhin y ics
shigh-density computer circuits where
n P
gof. conventional switches. Parallel Josephson
E
resistive heating limits the applicability
junctions are used in SQUID
o i ts in for thebdetection
ndevices e fore of minute magnetic fields.
P s
ok insulating layer can experience tunneling of
Imp. separated
Two superconductors
e x tbyBaothin
T
Read by a wavefunction similar to a free particle wavefunction. In
Cooper pairs of electrons through the junction. The Cooper pairs on each side of the
junction can be represented
the DC Josephson effect, a current proportional to the phase difference of the wavefunc-
tions can flow in the junction in the absence of a voltage. In the AC Josephson effect, a
Josephson junction will oscillate with a characteristic frequency which is proportional to
the voltage across the junction. Since frequencies can be measured with great accuracy,
a Josephson junction device has become the standard measure of voltage.
The wavefunction which describes a Cooper pair of electrons in a superconductor is an
exponential like the free particle wavefunction. In fact, all the Cooper pairs in a super-
conductor can be described by a single wavefunction in the absence of a current because
all the pairs have the same phase - they are said to be ”phase coherent” (Clarke). If
two superconductors are separated by a thin insulating layer, then quantum mechanical
tunneling can occur for the Cooper pairs without breaking up the pairs. Clarke envi-
sions this condition as the wavefuntions for Cooper pairs on each side of the junction
penetrating into the insulating region and ”locking together” in phase. Under these
conditions, a current will flow through the junction in the absence of an applied voltage
(the DC Josephson effect).
When a DC voltage is applied to a Josephson junction, an oscillation of frequency

2eOV
fjoshep =
h

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Figure 5.6: Josephson effects in materials

occurs at the junction. Since this relationship of voltage to frequency involves only
fundamental constants and since frequency can be measured with extreme accuracy, the
Josephson junction has become the standard voltage measurement.
Josephson junction standards can yield voltages with accuracies of one part in 1010 .
NIST has produced a chip with 19000 series junctions to measure voltages on the order
of 10 volts with this accuracy.

5.7 Questions
P h y sics
g.
1.
t s i n En
Define of super conductivity and super conductors.
fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. t Boo
2. What is transition temperature?
T e x
3. Readthat occur in super conductor (or) what are
Mention any four property charges
the properties of a superconductor.

4. What is Meissner effect?

5. What are the properties of High TC superconductors?

6. What are the applications of superconductors?

7. What is magnetic levitation?

8. Distinguish between type –I and II superconductors.

9. Define cooper pairs?

10. What is Josephson Effect.

11. is superconductivity related to magnetism?

12. How to arrive at the highest temperature superconductivity?

13. Why do various superconductors have different Tc ?

14. Explain BCS theory with Key note of Cooper pairs?

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

15. How is Josephson tunneling different from single particle tunneling?

16. What is the significane of critical temperature, critical magnetic field and critical
current density for super conductors?
17. What do you mean by perfect diamagnetism of a superconductor?
18. How does a supercondctor differe from a normal conductor?
19. Describe the application of Superconductor in various fields?

5.8 Multiple Choice Question

1. In superconductivity the conductivity of a material becomes
(a) Zero (b) Finite
(c) Infinite (d) No relation
[C]
2. In superconductivity, the electrical resistance of material becomes
(a) Zero (b) Finite
(c) Infinite (d) No relation
[A]
3. The temperature at which conductivity of a material becomes infinite is called....
temperature
(a) Critical (b) Absolute sics
g. Phy
(c) Mean n En
(d) Crystallization
fore
P o i nts i s b e [A]
Imp. theeFermi ok
4. In superconductors,
d T xt Bo
energy level is....... ground state and excited state
(a) Below Rea (b) Above
(c) between (d) Not related
[C]
5. The superconducting state is perfectly............ magnetic in nature.
(a) Ferro (b) Ferri
(c) Dia (d) Para
[C]
6. Which of the following are the properties of superconductors?
(a) Diamagnetic (b) Zero resistivity
(c) Infinite conductivity (d) All the listed options
[D]
7. The minimum amount of current passed through the body of superconductor in
order to destroy the superconductivity is called..... current
(a) induced (b) critical
(c) Hall (d) Eddy
[B]

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

8. The energy required to break a cooper pair is......of the energy gap of supercon-
ductor.
(a) Twice (b) Equal
(c) Half (d) One fourth
[B]
9. The magnetic lines of force cannot penetrate the body of a superconductor, a
phenomenon is known as
(a) Isotopic effect (b) Copper effect
(c) Meisnner effect (d) London theory
[C]

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

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Chapter 6

Semicondutors

Introduction A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling

between that of a conductor, such as metallic copper, and an insulator, such as glass.
Its resistance decreases as its temperature increases, which is behaviour opposite to that
of a metal.
Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon or germanium, or compounds such
as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide. In a process called doping, small amounts of
impurities are added to pure semiconductors causing large changes in the conductivity
of the material.
Semiconductors are employed in the manufacture of various kinds of electronic devices,
including diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. Such devices
P h y sicshaveandfound wide
application because of their compactness, reliability, power . efficiency,
Engdevices,
low cost.
As discrete components, they have found use sinin power re sensors, and
o i t
nThey have a swide b e ooptical
frange
P
p. important,
light emitters, including solid-state lasers.
ookthemselves to integration into
of current- and
voltage-handling capabilities and,Immore x t Blend
Te
ead
complex but readily manufacturableRmicroelectronic circuits. They are, and will be in
the foreseeable future, the key elements for the majority of electronic systems, serving
communications, signal processing, computing, and control applications in both the
consumer and industrial markets.

History on Semiconductor The birth history of semiconductors can be traced back

to the invention of the rectifier (AC-DC converter) in 1874. Decades later, Bardeen
and Brattain at Bell Laboratories in the US invented the point-contact transistor in
1947, and Shockley invented the junction transistor in 1948. This heralded the arrival
of the transistor era. In 1946, the University of Pennsylvania in the US built a computer
using the vacuum tubes. The computer was so large that its vacuum tubes occupied
the entire building, and it consumed a huge amount of electricity and produced a lot of
heat. Later, the innovative transistor calculator (computer) was developed, and since
then computers have grown by leaps and bounds.
In 1956, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded jointly to Shockley, Bardeen and
Brattain for their contribution to semiconductor research and the development of the
transistor. The semiconductor industry grew rapidly following the invention of the
transistor. In 1957, it already exceeded the scale of 100 million dollars. In 1959, the
bipolar integrated circuit (ICs) was invented by Kilby of Texas Instruments and Noyce
of Fairchild Semiconductor in the US. This invention had a major impact on the history

137
 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

of semiconductors, and it marked the dawn of the IC era. Being small in size and light
in weight, the IC was widely used in a variety of electric appliances.
In 1967, Texas Instruments developed the electronic desktop calculator (the calculator)
using IC. In Japan, electronic equipment manufacturers released calculators one after
another, and fierce “calculator wars” continued until the end of the 1970s.
IC integration advanced even further, and the large-scale integrated circuit (LSI) was
developed. The technologies continue to advance. The VLSI (from 100 thousand to
10 million electronic components per chip) was developed in the 1980s, and the ULSI
(more than 10 million electronic components per chip) was developed in the 1990s. In the
2000s, the system LSI (a multifunction LSI with multiple functions integrated in a single
chip) was put into full-scale production. As IC progresses toward high performance and
multiple functions, its field of application is expanding broadly. Semiconductors are now
used in every corner of our society and support everyday life.

6.1 Origin of energy band

According to the Bohr atomic model, in an isolated atom the energy of any of its electrons
is decided by the orbit in which it revolves. But when the atoms come together to form
a solid they are close to each other. So the outer orbits of electrons from neighbouring
atoms would come very close or could even overlap. This would make the nature of
electron motion in a solid very different from that in an isolated atom.
Inside the crystal each electron has a unique position and no two electrons see exactly
the same pattern of surrounding charges. Becauseicof
y s this, each electron will have a
s with
different energy level. These different energy. P hlevels continuous energy variation
i n Engenergy e
form what are called energy bands.
P o i
The
nts the valence
s b e forThe energyincludes
band which the energy levels
p.
of the valence electrons is called
Imconduction t B ok
oWith band. band above the valence
band is called the
d x
Te If the lowest level in the conduction band happens
band. no external energy, all the valence electrons
R ea
will reside in the valence band. to
be lower than the highest level of the valence band, the electrons from the valence band
can easily move into the conduction band. Normally the conduction band is empty. But
when it overlaps on the valence band electrons can move freely into it. This is the case
with metallic conductors.
If there is some gap between the conduction band and the valence band, electrons in the
valence band all remain bound and no free electrons are available in the conduction band.
This makes the material an insulator. But some of the electrons from the valence band
may gain external energy to cross the gap between the conduction band and the valence
band. Then these electrons will move into the conduction band. At the same time
they will create vacant energy levels in the valence band where other valence electrons
can move. Thus the process creates the possibility of conduction due to electrons in
conduction band as well as due to vacancies in the valence band.
At the distance between the atoms in the crystal lattices of Si and Ge, the energy
band of these N states is split apart into two which are separated by an energy gap
Eg . Lower band completely occupied by the N/2 valence electrons at temperature of
absolute zero is the valence band. The other band consisting of N/2 energy states,
called the conduction band, is completely empty at absolute zero.
The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band is called
the energy band gapEg .It may be large, small, or zero, depending upon the material.

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Figure 6.1: origin of band gap

Metals: One can have a metal either when the conduction band is partially filled
and the balanced band is partially empty or when the conduction and valance bands
overlap. When there is overlap electrons from valence band can easily move into the
conduction band. This situation makes a large number of electrons available for electrical
conduction. When the valence band is partially empty, electrons from its lower level
can move to higher level making conduction possible. Therefore, the resistance of such
materials is low or the conductivity is high. ics
hys
n g . P
Insulators: a large band gap E exists Egin>ts3 ieV) n Ebetween fore
conduction and valence
P o k s b e
band. There are no electrons in m
I .
thepconduction o
Bo that electrons cannot be excited
band, and therefore no electrical con-
duction is possible. Note that the energy gapT e
is x
sotlarge
Readband by thermal excitation. This is the case
from the valence band to the conduction
of insulators.

Semiconductors: Semiconductors do not fall into either the conductor or non-conductor

categories. Instead they fall in between. A variety of materials fall into this category,
and they include silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, and a variety of other substances.
In its pure state silicon is an insulator with no free electrons in the crystal lattice.
However to understand how it acts as a semiconductor first look at the atomic structure
of silicon in its pure state. Each molecule in the crystal lattice consists of a nucleus with
three rings or orbits containing electrons, and each electron has a negative charge. The
nucleus consists of neutrons that are neutral and have no charge, and protons that have
a positive charge. In the atom there are the same number of protons and electrons so
the whole atom has no overall charge.

6.2 Crystal Structure of Semiconductors:

The electrons in the silicon, as in any other element are arranged in rings with strict
numbers of electrons in each orbit. The first ring can only contain two, and the second
has eight. The third and outer ring of the silicon has four. The electrons in the outer

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

shell are shared with those from adjacent atoms to make up a crystal lattice. When this
happens there are no free electrons in the lattice, making silicon a good insulator. A
similar picture can be seen for germanium. It has two electrons in the inner most orbit,
eight in the next, 18 in the third, and four in the outer one. Again it shares its electrons
with those from adjacent atoms to make a crystal lattice without any free electrons.
a small band gap E exists Eg < 3 eV) between conduction and valence band.Because of
the small band gap, at room temperature some electrons from valence band can acquire
enough energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction band. These electrons
(though small in numbers) can move in the conduction band. Hence, the resistance of
semiconductors is not as high as that of the insulators.

6.3 Intrinsic semiconductors

An intrinsic semiconductor is formed from a pure material thus also known as pure
semiconductors. These are basically undoped semiconductors that do not have doped
impurity in it.n intrinsic semiconductor is an undoped semiconductor. This means that
holes in the valence band are vacancies created by electrons that have been thermally
excited to the conduction band, as opposed to doped semiconductors where holes or
electrons are supplied by a “foreign” atom acting as an impurity. At room temperature,
intrinsic semiconductors exhibit almost negligible conductivity. As no any other type of
element is present in its crystalline structure.
As electrons and holes are charged electrons particles, they are together are called charge
carriers. Carrier concentration is the number ofyelectrons
P h sics in the conduction band per
gin. the valence band per unit volume (p) of the
nalsoEn
unit volume (n) and the number of holes
in
material. Carrier concentration t s i
is known redensity of charge carriers.
easfothe
Po b
Imp. x t B ooks
Te
Read

Figure 6.2: Instrinsic Semiconductor

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6.3.1 Calcuation of Electron Density

The electron density equals the hole density since the thermal activation of an electron
from the valence band to the conduction band yields a free electron in the conduction
band as well as a free hole in the valence band. We will identify the intrinsic hole and
electron density using the symbol ni , and refer to it as the intrinsic carrier density.
Let dn be the number of electrons whose energy lies in the energy interval E and E+dE
in the conduction band. Then

dn = Z(E)f (E)dE

where Z(E) dE is the density of states in the energy interval E and E+dE and f(E) is
the probability that a state of energy is occupied by an electron.
As the probability of electrons occupying upper levels of conductions band f(E) readily
approaches zero for higher energies, the
Z ∞
n= Z(E)f (E)dE
Ec

. The density of states in the conduction band is given as

4π 3 1
Z(E)dE = (2m∗e ) 2 E 2 dE E > Ec
h3

The bottom edge of the conduction band Ec corresponds to the potential energy of an
electron at rest. Therefore, E-Ec will be the kinetic energy of h y
the ics
sconduction electron
g . P
at higher energy levels. Hence,
n En
P o i nts i s b e fore
4π
Z(E)dE = 3 (2m∗ p
Im .
e ) (E − E
3
t
) xdE
ce
2 Book 1
E > Ec
2
h a d T
Re
The probablity of an electron occupying an energy level is given by

1
f (E) =  
E − EF
1 + exp
KB T
 
− (EF − E)
f (E) ≈ exp
KB T

Solving for electron density in instrinsic semiconductor, we have

Z ∞
n = Z(E)f (E)dE
Ec
Z ∞  
4π ∗ 2
3 1 − (EF − E)
n = (2me ) (E − Ec ) 2 . exp dE
Ec h3 KB T

Using E − Ec = x and using the integral standard solution as

Z ∞ √
1 π
x 2 exp−ax dx = √
0 2a a

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

1
where a = KB T . Substitution, we get
√ q
4π ∗ 2
3 EF −Ec π 3
n = 3
(2m e ) exp KB T
(KB T )
hs 2
3
2πm∗e kB T

Nc = 2
h2
−(EC −EF )
n = Nc exp KB T

Here value of Nc is dependent of material and temperatuer. For silicon, at 300 K, the
value of Nc = 2.8 × 1025 m3 .

6.3.2 Calcuation of Hole Density

Let dp be the number of holes whose energy lies in the energy intervals E and dE in the
valence band. Then
dp = Z(E) (1 − f (E)) dE
where Z(E) is the density of states in the energy interval E and E+dE and (1 − f (E)) is
the probablity of that state of energy which is vacant and not occupied by an electron.
Since a hole represents a vacant state in valence band, the probability for occupancy of
a state at E by an hole is equal to the probability of absence of electron at the state.
Since a hole represents a vacant state in valence band, the probability for occupancy of
a state at E by a hole is equal to the probability of absence of electron at that state.
s
We can write,
P hysic
n Eng.
Po i nts i
s b e fore
Imp. 1 − fe(E) B=oo1k−
1
T x t 
E − EF

Rea d 1 + exp
K T B
 
− (EF − E)
f (E) ≈ exp
KB T

Density of the states in the valence band is given by

4π 3 1
Z(E)dE = 3
(2m∗h ) 2 E 2 dE
h
Ev − E will be the kinetic energy of the hole at lower energy levels and hence, the above
equation is modified as

4π 3 1
Z(E)dE = (2m∗h ) 2 (Ev − E) 2 dE
h3

Z Ev
p = Z(E)f (E)dE
−∞
Z Ev  
4π
3
∗ 2
1 − (EF − E)
p = 2mp (Ev − E) . exp
2
dE
−∞ h3 KB T

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Using Ev − E = x and using the integral standard solution as

Z ∞ √
1 π
x 2 exp−ax dx = √
0 2a a

1
where a = KB T . Substitution, we get

√ q
4π 3 EF −EV π 3
p = 3
(2m∗e h) 2 exp KB T (KB T )
hs 2
3
2πm∗h kB T

Nv = 2
h2
−(EF −Ev )
p = Nv exp KB T

Here Nv is the effective density of states in the valence band. For silicon, at 300 K,
Nc
Nv = 1025 m3 and the N v
= 2.8.

6.3.3 Intrinsic Carrier concentration

Any single event of bond breaking in pure semiconductor leads to generaltion of electron-
hole pair. At any temperature, the number of electron T, the number of electrons
generated will be equal to the number of holes generated per unit h y ics As the two
svolume.
P
by. symbol ni , called instrinsic
i n Eng
charge carrier concentrations are equal, they are denoted
re
in
density or instrinsic concentration. Thus, for t s
n=p and Ec−E bve=foEg we have
Po ks
Imp. 2 ext Boo
T
Reandi = n × p ( − EC −EF )
  −(EF −Ev )

n2i = Nc exp KB T
× Nv exp KB T
−(Eg )
n2i = (Nc .Nv ) exp KB T

−(Eg )
1/2
ni = (Nc .Nv ) exp 2KB T
 3/2 −(Eg )
2πKB T 3/2
ni = 2 (m∗e m∗h ) exp 2KB T
h2

Law of Mass action

In case of intrinsic semconductor, the product of n and p is a constant for a certain

semiconductor at a certain temperature is given by

n2i = np

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6.3.4 Fermi level in instrinsic Semiconductor

Considering the electron and hole concentration equal in instrinsic semiconductor, we
have
n = p
−(EC −EF ) −(EF −Ev )
Nc exp KB T
= Nv exp KB T
   
Ec + EV 1 Nv
EF = + KB T ln
2 2 Nc
   ∗
Ec + EV 3 mh
EF = + KB T ln
2 4 m∗
   ∗e 
Ec + EV 3 me
EF = − KB T ln
2 4 m∗h
 
Ec + EV
EF = (m∗e = m∗h )
2
 
Eg
EF = + Ev
2
 
Eg
EF =
2

6.3.5 Variation of intrinsic carrier concentration with tempera-

ture
h
toPtemperature
ysics
Eng.
From the above equation, terms pertaning can be sepereted and written
as, ts i n for e
p. Poin o o ks be
I m B
a d Text
R e

"  3/2 #
−(Eg )
2πKB ∗ ∗ 3/2 3/2
ni = 2 (m e mh ) × T × exp 2KB T
h2
By putting the values of constants in the above equations, we have
−2500Eg
ni = 1021.7 × T 3/2 × 10 T

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Here, following points may be writted for Instrinsic concentration for variation of tem-
perature as
1. independent of fermi level.
2. Exponential dependence on the band gap value Eg
3. Depends on temperature
4. factor 2 in the exponent indicates the two charges carrier are produced for one
covalent bond broken.
5. Fermi level displaced upward to the bottom edge of the conduction band if m∗h >
m∗h or downward to the top edge of the valence band if m∗h < m∗h . In the most of
the materials, shift of fermi level on account of m∗h 6= m∗h is insignificant.
6. Conductivity can be written as
 E 
g
−
p
σ = Nc .Nv e (µe + µh ) exp 2KB T
 Eg

−
σ = σo exp 2KB T

 
σ
7. Energy gap can be calculated as Eg = 2KB T ln
σo

Question: Write down the limitation of intrinsic semiconductor.

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

6.4 Extrinsic semiconductors

Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that are doped with specific impurities.
The impurity modifies the electrical properties of the semiconductor and makes it more
suitable for electronic devices such as diodes and transistors.
While adding impurities, a small amount of suitable impurity is added to pure mate-
rial, increasing its conductivity by many times. Extrinsic semiconductors are also called
impurity semiconductors or doped semiconductors. The process of adding impu-
rities deliberately is termed as doping and the atoms that are used as an
impurity are termed as dopants. The impurity modifies the electrical properties of
the semiconductor and makes it more suitable for electronic devices such as diodes and
transistors.

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The dopant added to the material is chosen such that the original lattice of the pure
semiconductor is not distorted. Also, the dopants occupy only a few of the sites in the
crystal of the original semiconductor and it is necessary that the size of the dopant is
nearly equal to the size of the semiconductor atoms.

While doping tetravalent atoms such as Si or Ge, two types of dopants are used, and
they are:

1. Pentavalent atoms: Atoms with valency 5; such as Arsenic (As), Phosphorous

s
(Pi), Antimony (Sb), etc. hysic
P
n Eng.
2. Trivalent atoms: Atoms
o i
i
ntswith valency b oreas Indium (In), Aluminium (Al),
3;efsuch
P k s
I etc.p.
Boron (B),m
e x t Boo
T
Readthese dopants is to have similar-sized atoms as the pure semi-
The reason behind using
conductor. Both Silicon and Germanium atoms belong to the fourth group in the peri-
odic table. Hence, the choice of dopants from the third and fifth group is more viable.
This ensures that the size of the atoms is not very different from the fourth group.
Therefore, the trivalent and pentavalent choices. These dopants give rise to two types
of semiconductors as follows:

1. n-type semiconductors

2. p-type semiconductors

6.4.1 N-type semiconductors

An n-type semiconductor is produced when a pure semiconductor is doped with a pen-
tavelent impurity such as phosphorous. A phosphorous atoms have five valence electrons
and four of the electrons pairs with host silicon atoms. Remaining one electron remains
lossely and at temperature, it is free to move in the crystal as charge carrier. As pentava-
lent nature phosphorous is donating excess electrons in the electrical conductions, it is
called donor atom. The donor atoms cannot interact with each other and their energy
levels are discrete levels, ED . As even small amount of thermal energy can liberate the

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excess fifth electron from the atoms into conduction band. If ND is the concentration
of donor atoms then
nn ∼
= ND
where nn is the electron concentation in the conduction band of n-type material. In
n-type semiconductor, the electrons are majority carriers, producing current and holes
are in minority.

P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read
Carrier concentration
Let ND be the concentration of donors in the material and we assume that the electron
concetration ’n’ in the conduction is
+
n = ND
o
n = ND − ND
+ o
where ND is the number of donor atoms that are ionized and ND is the number of atoms
left as unionized at the energy level ED . The concentation of ionized donors is

n = ND [1 − f (ED )]
ND
n = 
ED −EF

−
1 + exp K T B
 
ED −EF
n = ND exp KB T

(EC −EF )
−
The electron in condution band is given as n = NC exp KB T
. On comparing with
above equation it can be written as

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

(EF −EC )
 
ED −EF
ND exp KB T
= NC exp KB T
 
NC
(ED + EC ) − 2EF = (KB T ) ln
ND
     
ED + EC KB T ND
EF = + ln
2 2 NC
EF = ....................... (T = 0)
(EF −EC )
Now substituting the value of EF in the exp KB T , we get
(EF −EC )
   
EF EC
exp KB T
= exp − exp
KB T KB T
   
ED + EC  1/2  
ND EC
 
 2KB T 
= exp +  − exp KB T
 
NC
 
 1/2 ED − EC
ND
 
2KB T
= exp
NC
Solving for value of ’n’, ie. total number of electrons in n-type extrinsic semiconductor
is
ysics(
ng.=PhNC exp
EF −EC )
KB T

n t s in En efore

ED − EC


Po i b
oonks=
1/2
Imp.
ND
 
2KB T
x t B NC exp
Te NC
Read  ED − EC

 
p 2KB T
n = NC ND exp

6.4.2 P-type semiconductors

, A ptype semiconductor is produced when a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent
impurity such as boron. Boron atom has three valence electrons and creates a vacancy.
It requires fourth electron and accepts any electron from the acceptor atoms from valence
band. If the acceptor atom density is low, acceptor atoms are distantly spaced from one
another and cannot interact with each other easily. These energy states EA , known as
acceptor levels and represent ground energy states for holes. If NA is the concentration
of acceptor atoms, then
PP ∼= NA
where pp is the hole concentration in the valence band of p-type material.

Carrier concentration
In p-type material, the holes are majority carriers when compared to electrons and
current is constituent from motion of holes. Assuming the hole concetration, p, in the

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

conduction band can be written as

p = NA−
where N−A is the number of acceptor atoms that are ionized. The concentration of ionized
acceptors

NA− = NA f (E)
(EF − EA )
NA− = NA exp KB T
(EF − EA )
p = NA exp KB T

But the hole concentration in the valence band is given as

(Ev −EF )
p = Nv exp KB T

(EF − EA )
(Ev −EF )
NA exp KB T = Nv exp KB T
 
NV
− (EV + EA ) + 2EF = (KB T ) ln
NA
     
EV + EA KB T NV
EF = + ln
2 2 NA
EF = ................... (T = 0)
s
g . P hysic in valence band,
Now using the value of EF in the fermi level of the hole concentration
we have
n t s in En e fore
EV . P o i k s b
= exp Imp − exp xt Boo
(EV −EF )
  
EF
exp KB T
KB T T eK T
ead 
B
EV R
    
EV + EA 1KB T NV
= exp − exp + ln
KB T 2KB T 2KB T NA
    1/2
EV EV + EA NV
= exp − exp
KB T 2KB T NA
r  
NV EV − EA
= exp
NA 2KB T

Writing the equation of hole we have,

r  
NV EV − EA
p = NA exp
NA 2KB T
 
p EV − EA
p = NA .NV exp
2KB T

6.4.3 Charge neutrality conditions

As extrinsic semiconductor is an electrically neutral body in its equailbrium conditions.
In n-type semiconductor, the total number of electrons in the conduction band must
be equal to the sum of electrons originated from the donor atoms and electrons excited

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

from the valence band. Electrons coming from donor levels leave behind positive donor
ions while electrons excited from the valence band leave behind holes. These oricesses
gave not created any additional charges and the equality between positive and negative
charges remains undistrubed. Charge neutrility condition applied to the n-type semi-
conductor implies that the total negative charge of mobile electrons is equal to the total
positive charge created in the crystal. it means that

n n = ND + p n

where ND is the donor impurity concentration and all the donor atoms are assumed
to have got ionized. But nn  pn bad nn = ND . The above relation indicates that
the majority carrier concentration, nn is an n-type semiconductor is equal to the donor
impurity concentration ND . The charge neutrality for a p-type semiconductor requires
that

pp = NA + np
pp  np
p p = NA

6.4.4 Calculation of Minority carrier concentration

In the case of an n-type semiconductor, the majority carrier concentration nn is given
by
n n = ND
where ND is the donor impurity concentration and
h y icsdonor atoms are assumed to have
sthe
get ionized. The above relation indcates P
. the majority carrier concentration, nn in
ngthat
t s
an n-type semiconductor isinequal intoEthe e
donor ore concentration ND . Minority
fimpurity
Po s b
I tB ook
mp.for p-type semiconductor
carrier concentration is given as
a d Tex
Re n2i
pn =
nn
n2i
pn =
ND
In case p-type semiconductor, Minority carrier concentration for n-type semiconductor
is given as

n2i
nn =
pp
n2i
nn =
NA

6.4.5 Temperature variation in extrinsic semiconductor

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P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read
Figure 6.3: Temperature dependence in the extrinsic semiconductor

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P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
Po i n s b e
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read

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Chapter 7

Semicondutorsdevices

7.1 Drift and Diffusion currents

In a semiconductor, the majority and minority charge carriers will exit in p-type or
n-type. Because both the types of semiconductors will present over a single crystal at
the center so that PN-junction can be formed. When the doping of this junction diode
is done non-uniformly then charge carriers movement will be an exit from high to low
concentration which leads to the recombination of carriers as well as to the diffusion
process. There is an additional method is also occurs based on the applied electric field
namely drift current. This article discusses the main differences
P h ysics drift current
between
and diffusion current. Eng.
in re
Drift current can be defined as the charge nts movessinbaesemiconductor
Poicarrier’s fo because
of the electric field. There areIm p . B o o k
d Text to a semiconductor, then electrons
two kinds of charge carriers in a semiconductor like
holes and electrons. Once the voltage
Rea is applied
move toward the +Ve terminal of a battery.In semiconducting material, when a heavy
concentration of carrier is introduced to some region, the heavy concentrations of carriers
distribute themselves evenly through the material by the process of diffusion. It should
be remembered that there is no source of energy as required for drift current. When
an electric field is applied across the crystal, every charge carrier experiences a force
due to the electric field and hence it will be accelerated in the direction of force. This
results in drifting of the charge carriers in the direction of force will cause a net flow of
electric current through the crystal. The magnitude of this current can be obtained by
imagining an average drift velocity for every charge carrier in the direction of force. As
the electrons and holes are of opposite charges, the force due to electric field on them
will be opposite in direction. Hence the average drift velocity ofthe electrons will be in
a direction opposite to the average drift velocity of the holes.

Drift current Let Vh is the average drift velocity of holes and Ve is the average drift
velocity of electrons. Ve/h ∝ E i.e., Vh = µh E and Ve = µe E where µe , µh are mobility
carriers of electrons and holes. we may say the mobility of the charge carriers are the
average drift velocity per unit electric field applied. Now the drift current density for
hole and electrons are given by

153
 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Figure 7.1: Drift and Diffusion Process

Jh = peVh
Je = neVe

Negative sign indicates that the electrons having -ve charge move in direction opposite
to the applied field. Total drift current density

Jd = Jh + Je
Jd = peVh − neVe
Jd = (pµh + nµe ) eE
P h y sics (n = p = ni )
ng.
Jd = (µh + µe ) ni eE
σ = (µh +tµ s ni eE
e )in fore
P o i n s b e
.
Impwith t Bo ok
The electrons move more
T e x
ease compared to holes through the semiconductor I.e.
Read in a semi conducting material is considerably greater than
the mobility of the electrons
that of holes. Ve >> Vh and hence semiconductor current is largely due to free electrons.
Only a small fraction of current is due to holes.

Diffusion Current The diffusion current can be defined as the flow of charge carriers
within a semiconductor travels from a higher concentration region to a lower concentra-
tion region. A higher concentration region is nothing but where the number of electrons
present in the semiconductor. Similarly, a lower concentration region is where the less
number of electrons present in the semiconductor. The process of diffusion mainly occurs
when a semiconductor is doped non-uniformly.
In an N-type semiconductor, when it is doped non-uniformly then a higher concentration
region can be formed at the left side whereas the lower concentration region can be
formed at the right side. The electrons in the higher concentration region are more in
the semiconductor so they will experience a repulsive force from each other.
In semiconductor due to the non-uniformity of charge carriers (electrons/holes) which
gives the diffusion current (is independent of the electric field) even when no electric
field is applied. It depends on the concentration gradient. Let us suppose that the
concentration of holes(p) varies with the distance x
dp
Jh = −eDp
dx

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where Dp is diffusion constant or diffusion coefficient or diffusivity of holes. The hole

concentration is higher at lower value of x, so we assume the concentration gradient is
negative along the +ve X- direction and the diffusion current due to hole is +ve along
the +ve X-direction. Similarly diffusion current density for electrons,

dn
Je = −eDe
dx
Here we take positive sign because electronic charge is negative and also the concentra-
tion gradient is negative which makes Je +ve and also it is +ve along the -ve X-axis So
the resultant diffusion current density for both holes and electrons is
 
dn dp
JD = e Dn − Dp
dx dx

Total current: Total current density in semiconductor is the sum of drift current and
diffusion current is given by

J = Jd + JD
 
dn dp
J = (pµh + nµe ) eE + e Dn − Dp
dx dx

7.2 Generation and Recombination

, Excess electrons in the conduction band and excess holes in the valence band may
P h sics excitation is
exist in addition to the thermal-equilibrium concentrations if anyexternal
applied to the semiconductor. The creation of excessEn g.
electrons and holes means that
t s i n A suddenfchange
ore in temperature
Po n
the semiconductor is no longer in thermal equilibrium.
i s b e
or optical excitation can generatem p. electronst and k creating a nonequilibrium
Booholes
I excess e x
condition. Generation is a process whereby T electrons and holes are created whereas
Read and holes are coincided and lost. They de-
recombination is a process whereby electrons
pend on a) Direct band-to-band generation and recombination and b) the recombination
through allowed energy states within the bandgap, referred to as traps or recombination
centers.
Recombination of electrons and holes is a process by which both carriers annihilate each
other: electrons occupy - through one or multiple steps - the empty state associated
with a hole. Both carriers eventually disappear in the process. The energy difference
between the initial and final state of the electron is released in the process. This leads
to one possible classification of the recombination processes. In the case of radiative
recombination, this energy is emitted in the form of a photon. In the case of non-
radiative recombination, it is passed on to one or more phonons and in the case of Auger
recombination it is given off in the form of kinetic energy to another electron. Another
classification scheme considers the individual energy levels and particles involved.
Band-to-band recombination occurs when an electron moves from its conduction band
state into the empty valence band state associated with the hole. This band-to-band
transition is typically also a radiative transition in direct bandgap semiconductors.
Trap-assisted recombination occurs when an electron falls into a ”trap”, an energy level
within the bandgap caused by the presence of a foreign atom or a structural defect.
Once the trap is filled it cannot accept another electron. The electron occupying the
trap, in a second step, moves into an empty valence band state, thereby completing

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the recombination process. One can envision this process as a two-step transition of
an electron from the conduction band to the valence band or as the annihilation of the
electron and hole, which meet each other in the trap.
Auger recombination is a process in which an electron and a hole recombine in a band-
to-band transition, but now the resulting energy is given off to another electron or hole.
The involvement of a third particle affects the recombination rate so that we need to
treat Auger recombination differently from band-to-band recombination.
Each of these recombination mechanisms can be reversed leading to carrier generation
rather than recombination. Carrier generation due to light absorption occurs if the
photon energy is large enough to raise an electron from the valence band into an empty
conduction band state, thereby generating one electron-hole pair. The photon energy
needs to be larger than the bandgap energy to satisfy this condition. The photon is
absorbed in this process and the excess energy, Eph − Eg , is added to the electron and
the hole in the form of kinetic energy.
Carrier generation or ionization due to a high-energy beam consisting of charged particles
is similar except that the available energy can be much larger than the bandgap energy so
that multiple electron-hole pairs can be formed. The high-energy particle gradually loses
its energy and eventually stops. This generation mechanism is used in semiconductor-
based nuclear particle counters. As the number of ionized electron-hole pairs varies with
the energy of the particle, one can also use such detector to measure the particle energy.
Finally, there is a generation process called impact ionization, the generation mechanism
that is the counterpart of Auger recombination. Impact ionization is caused by an
electron/hole with an energy, which is much larger/smaller than the conduction/valence
band edge.

P h y sics pair through a band-to-band

The excess energy is given off to generate an electron-hole
transition. This generation process causes g. avalanche multiplication in semiconductor
Encarrier
diodes under high reverse bias: t s i
Asn one ore
faccelerates in the electric field it gains
P o i n s b e
energy. The kinetic p.energy is givenooffo kto an electron in the valence band, thereby
Im xt Bresulting two electrons can create two more electrons
eThe
T
creating an electron-hole pair.
d
which generate fourRmoreea causing an avalanche multiplication effect. Electrons as well
as holes contribute to avalanche multiplication.

7.3 Hall effect

he Hall Effect is the most common method of measuring magnetic field and the Hall
Effect sensors are very popular and have many contemporary applications. For example,
they can be found in vehicles as wheel speed sensors as well as crankshaft or camshaft
position sensors. Also they are often used as switches, MEMS compasses, proximity
sensors and so on. Now we will go through some of these sensors and see how they
work, but first let’s explain what is the Hall Effect.
The Hall effect is a phenomenon related to the behavior of charge carriers in a solid in
the presence of a magnetic field. If an electric current flows through a conductor in a
magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a transverse force on the moving charge carriers
which tends to push them to one side of the conductor. This is most evident in a thin
flat conductor as illustrated. A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductors will
balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage between the two sides
of the conductor.
A scenario where the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to one another is

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Figure 7.2: Hall Effect

called a crossed-field situation. If these fields produce equal and opposite forces on a
charged particle with the velocity that equates the forces, these particles are able to
pass through an apparatus, called a velocity selector, undeflected. If the current in the
strip is ’I’, we know that
I = nevd A
where ’n’ is the number of charge carriers per volume and A is the cross-sectional area
of the strip. Combining the equations for vd and I results in
E
I = ne A
sics
D
P h y
g.edges of the strip by
n En
Field is related to the potential difference (V) between the

P o i nVt s i
s b e fore
k
Imp. E = lext Boo
T
Read
The quantity V is called the Hall potential and can be measured with a voltmeter.
Finally, combining the equations for I and E gives us
IBl
V =
neA
We get the hall voltage in terms of the magnetic field as

V = Blvd

7.3.1 applications
1. Automotive and Automotive Safety: The automotive and automotive safety in-
dustries use both digital and analog Hall effect sensors in a variety of applications.
They are Sensing seat and safety belt position for air-bag control. Sensing the
angular position of the crankshaft to adjust the firing angle for spark plugs

2. Digital unipolar sensors help washing machines maintain their balance during wash
cycles. Analog sensors serve as availability sensors for power supplies, motor con-
trol indicators and shut-offs on power tools, and paper feed sensors in copier ma-
chines.

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3. Digital Hall effects sensors are commonly used for monitoring flow rate and valve
position for manufacturing, water supply and treatment, and oil and gas process
operations. In fluid monitoring applications, analog Hall effect sensors are also
used to detect diaphragm pressure levels in diaphragm pressure gauges.

4. Digital, proximity-sensing devices are often used in the design of:

Automatic toilet flushing mechanism
Automatic sinks
Automatic hand dryers
Building and door security systems
Elevators
Motor control devices
Timing mechanisms in photography equipment

5. Analog sensors are used for:

Motion sensing lighting
Motion sensing cameras
Disk drives
Power supply protectors

P h y sics
7.4 MagnetoresistanceEng.
o i ts in
nmetal b e fore
P s
ookthe magnetoresistance.
mp.this effect
The resistance of some
of the magneticIfield,
of the
x t B
and the semiconductor material varies in the presence

a d Te is called The element which has

R
these effects is known eas the magnetoresistor. In other words, the magnetoresistor is a
type of resistor whose resistance varies with the magnetic field.The magnetoresistor is
used for determining the presence of a magnetic field their strength and the direction
of the force. It is made of the indium antimonide or indium arsenide semiconductor
material.
The resistance of the magneto resistor is directly proportional to the magnetic field, i.e.,
their resistance raises with the increase of the magnetic field. The variation in resistance
occurs because of the magneto effect.
The magnetoresistor operates without physical contacts which is their major advantage.
The magnetoresistor has various applications like it is used in the hard disk of the
computer, an electronic compass, for measuring the current etc.

7.4.1 Working
It works on the principle of electrodynamics, which states that the force acting on the
current place in the magnetic field changes their direction. In the unavailability of the
magnetic field, the charge carriers of the magneto resistor move in the straight path
In the presence of the magnetic field, the direction of the current becomes changes, and
it flows in the opposite direction. The indirect path of the current increases the mobility
of their charge carrier which causes the collision.

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The collision increases the loss of energy in the form of heat. This heat increases the
resistance of the magneto resistor. The current of very small magnitude flows in the
magnetoresistor because of few free electrons.
The deflection of the magnetoresistor electrons depends on their mobility. It is more
in the semiconductor material as compared to the metals. The mobility of the indium
arsenides or indium antimonides is approximately 2.4m2/Vs.

7.4.2 Characterstics
The sensitivity of the magnetoresistor depends on the strength of the magnetic field.
The characteristic curve of the magneto resistor is shown in the figure below.

P h y sics
g.
Figure 7.3: Characteristics of magnetoresitance
t s i n En fore
P o i n s b e
kmaterial varies in the presence
Imp. the semiconductor
The resistance of some of the metal and
of the magnetic field, this effect is called the T e x t Boo
magnetoresistance. The element which has
Read In other words, the magnetoresistor is a
these effects is known as the magnetoresistor.
type of resistor whose resistance varies with the magnetic field.
The magnetoresistor is used for determining the presence of a magnetic field their
strength and the direction of the force. It is made of the indium antimonide or in-
dium arsenide semiconductor material.
The resistance of the magneto resistor is directly proportional to the magnetic field, i.e.,
their resistance raises with the increase of the magnetic field. The variation in resistance
occurs because of the magneto effect.
The magnetoresistor operates without physical contacts which is their major advantage.
The magnetoresistor has various applications like it is used in the hard disk of the
computer, an electronic compass, for measuring the current etc.
It works on the principle of electrodynamics, which states that the force acting on the
current place in the magnetic field changes their direction. In the unavailability of the
magnetic field, the charge carriers of the magneto resistor move in the straight path
In the presence of the magnetic field, the direction of the current becomes changes, and
it flows in the opposite direction. The indirect path of the current increases the mobility
of their charge carrier which causes the collision.
The collision increases the loss of energy in the form of heat. This heat increases the
resistance of the magneto resistor. The current of very small magnitude flows in the
magnetoresistor because of few free electrons.

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The deflection of the magnetoresistor electrons depends on their mobility. It is more

in the semiconductor material as compared to the metals. The mobility of the indium
arsenides or indium antimonides is approximately 2.4m2/Vs.
The sensitivity of the magnetoresistor depends on the strength of the magnetic field. The
characteristic curve of the magneto resistor is shown in the figure below.characteristic-
curve
In the absence of the magnetic field, the magnetization of the element becomes zero.
When the magnetic field slightly increases the resistance of the material reaches near to
b. The magnetoresistor element moves by an angle of 45º because of the presence of a
magnetic field.
The further increases in the magnetic field make the curve saturates, which is represented
by the point C. The magnetoresistive element either operates at O or at b. It gives linear
characteristic when operates at b.

7.5 P-N junction layer formation

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which
has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike
a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the
diode has an exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we can not
described its operation by simply using an equation such as Ohm’s law.

7.5.1 PN layer
P h y sics
i Eng. materials
If we join (or fuse) these two semiconductor
nproducing r e
together they behave in a very
different way merging together
in t s
and ef o
what
bP-type is generally known as a ”PN Junc-
p
tion”. When the N-type. Posemiconductor
o o k s
and semiconductor materials are first
m e x t Bgradient
joined together Ia very largeTdensity exists between both sides of the PN junc-
d of the free electrons from the donor impurity atoms begin
Reasome
tion. The result is that
to migrate across this newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the P-type material
producing negative ions.
However, because the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the N-type
silicon to the P-type silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions (ND ) on
the negative side and now the holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the
junction in the opposite direction into the region where there are large numbers of free
electrons.
As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with negatively
charged acceptor ions ( NA ), and the charge density of the N-type along the junction
becomes positive. This charge transfer of electrons and holes across the PN junction is
known as diffusion. The width of these P and N layers depends on how heavily each
side is doped with acceptor density NA , and donor density ND , respectively.
This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which have crossed
the junction have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any more charge
carriers from crossing over the junction. Eventually a state of equilibrium (electrically
neutral situation) will occur producing a ”potential barrier” zone around the area of the
junction as the donor atoms repel the holes and the acceptor atoms repel the electrons.
Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier, the
regions on either sides of the junction now become completely depleted of any more free

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Figure 7.4: PN juction Diode

carriers in comparison to the N and P type materials further away from the junction.
This area around the PN Junction is now called the Depletion Layer.
The total charge on each side of a PN Junction must be equal and opposite to maintain
a neutral charge condition around the junction. If the depletion layer region has a
distance D, it therefore must therefore penetrate into the silicon by a distance of Dp
for the positive side, and a distance of Dn for the negative side giving a relationship
between the two of: Dp × Na = Dn × ND in order to maintain charge neutrality also
called equilibrium.
As the N-type material has lost electrons and the P-type hashy lost s the N-type
sicholes,
P
g. the presence of impurity
material has become positive with respect to the P-type. EnThen
ions on both sides of the junction cause o ts in field to bbeefestablished
aninelectric ore across this
p . P o k s
Im
region with the N-side at a positive voltage relative
e x Boto the
tovercome P-side. The problem now is
that a free charge requires some extra energy T
ad junction.
to the barrier that now exists
Reregion
for it to be able to cross the depletion
This electric field created by the diffusion process has created a ”built-in potential
difference” across the junction with an open-circuit (zero bias) potential of:
 
ND .NA
Eo = VT ln
n2i

Where, Eo is the zero bias junction voltage, VT the thermal voltage of 26mV at room
temperature, ND and NA are the impurity concentrations and ni is the intrinsic con-
centration. A suitable positive voltage (forward bias) applied between the two ends
of the PN junction can supply the free electrons and holes with the extra energy. The
external voltage required to overcome this potential barrier that now exists is very much
dependent upon the type of semiconductor material used and its actual temperature.

7.5.2 PN diode
Typically at room temperature the voltage across the depletion layer for silicon is about
0.6 – 0.7 volts and for germanium is about 0.3 – 0.35 volts. This potential barrier will
always exist even if the device is not connected to any external power source, as seen in
diodes.

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The significance of this built-in potential across the junction, is that it opposes both
the flow of holes and electrons across the junction and is why it is called the potential
barrier. In practice, a PN junction is formed within a single crystal of material rather
than just simply joining or fusing together two separate pieces. If a suitable positive
voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it can supply
free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the
width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled
away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This
has the effect of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself
allowing or blocking the flow of current through the diodes pn-junction.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage
and narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the
differences in the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in
physical changes taking place. One of the results produces rectification as seen in the
PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage) characteristics. Rectification is shown
by an asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias voltage is altered as shown
below.

Forward Characteristics

With the externally applied voltage, a potential difference is altered between the P
and N regions.When positive terminal of the source issconnected to the P side and the
negative terminal is connected to N side thenPthe sic diode is said to be connected
hyjunction
g .
Enlowers therpotential
in forward bias condition. Forward
n t s inbias e f o e across the PN junction.
i s b are attracted towards the PN junction
p. Po in Ntlayer
The majority charge carriers
and the width Iofmthe depletion
and Pkregions
B oodecreases
d x
Te causes a departurewith diffusion of the majority charge
R
carriers. The external e abiasing from the state of equilibrium and a
misalignment of Fermi levels in the P and N regions, and also in the depletion layer.
When the PN junction is forward biased (Fig), the applied positive potential repels the
holes in the P-region, and the applied negative potential repels the electrons in the N-
region, so the charges move towards the junction. If the applied potential difference is
more than the potential barrier, some holes and free electrons enter the depletion region.
So an electric field is induced in a direction converse to that of the incorporated field.
The presence of two different Fermi levels in the depletion layer represents a state of
quasi-equilibrium. The amount of charge Q stored in the diode is proportional to the
current I flowing in the diode. With the increase in forward bias greater than the built in
potential, at a particular value the depletion region becomes very much thinner so that
a large number of majority charge carriers can cross the PN junction and conducts an
electric current. The current flowing up to built in potential is called as ZERO current
or KNEE current.
Hence, the potential barrier as well as the width of the depletion region are reduced.
The positive donor ions and negative acceptor ions within the depletion region regain
electrons and holes respectively. As a result of this, the depletion region disappears and
the potential barrier also disappears. Hence, under the action of the forward potential
difference, the majority charge carriers flow across the junction in opposite direction
and constitute current flow in the forward direction.

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Figure 7.5: PN juction Diode in forward and reverse bias

Reverse Characteristics
When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-side and negative
terminal to the P-side, so that the applied potential difference is in the same direction
as that of barrier potential, the junction is said to be reverse biased.
When the PN junction is reverse biased (Fig), electrons in the N region and holes in the
P-region are attracted away from the junction.Because of this, the number of negative
ions in the P-region and positive ions in the N-region increases. Hence the depletion
region becomes wider and the potential barrier is increased.
Since the depletion region does not contain majority charge carriers, it acts like an
insulator. Therefore, no current should flow in the external circuit. But, in practice, a
y
very small current of the order of few microamperes flows in thehreverse
P sics direction. This
is due to the minority carriers flowing in the opposite g.
Endirection. This reverse current
t s i n f o revery small. Since
P i n
is small, because the number of minorityocarriers e
in both regions
s b is
Imp.is, thermally
the major source of minority carriers
x t ook covalent bonds, the reverse
Bbroken
d T e
current mainly depends on the junctionatemperature.
Re
7.5.3 V-I characteristics
The V-I characteristics or voltage-current characteristics of the p-n junction diode is
shown in the below figure. The horizontal line in the below figure represents the amount
of voltage applied across the p-n junction diode whereas the vertical line represents the
amount of current flows in the p-n junction diode.
When anode is positive with respect to cathode , diode is said to be forward biased.
with increase of the source voltage Vs from zero value , initially diode current is zero.
from Vs=0 to cut-in voltage , the forward current is very small .cut-in voltage is also
known as threshold voltage or turn-on voltage. beyond cut-in voltage ,the diode current
rises rapidly and diode said to conduct. for silicon diode, the cut-in voltage is around
0.7. when diode conducts, there is a forward voltage drop of the order of 0.8 to 1V When
cathode is positive with respect to anode the , the diode said to be reverse biased. In
the reverse biased condition. a small reverse current leakage current , of the order of
microampers or milliampers flow . the leakage current is almost independent of the
reverse voltage until this voltage reach breakdown voltage at this reverse breakdown,
voltage remains almost constant but reverse current becomes quite high limited only by
the external circuit resistance . a large reverse break down voltage associated with high
reverse current, leads to excessive power loss that may be destroy the diode.

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

P h y sics
n Eng. of PN
Po i n
Figure 7.6:t s
Vi i characteriscs
s b e fore juction Diode
k
Imp. e x t Boo
T
Read of the diode occurs and current increase sharply damaging
At point a reverse breakdown
the diode . this point is called knee of the reverse characteristics. the cut in voltage
voltage for germanium ( Ge ) diode is about 0.3 while for silicon ( Si ) diode is as about 0.7
V.the potential at which current starts increasing exponentially is called offset potential,
threshold potential or firing potential of a diode.
An increased temperature will result in a large number of broken covalent bonds in-
creasing the large number of majority and minority carriers. This amounts to a diode
current larger than its previous diode current. The above phenomenon applies both to
forward and reverse current. The effect of increased temperature on the characteristics
curve of a PN junction diode is as shown in above figure. It may be noted that the
forward characteristics shifts upwards with increase in temperature. On the other hand,
the reverse characteristics shifts downwards with the increase in temperature.

7.6 Direct and Indirect band gap semiconductors

A direct band-gap (DBG) semiconductor is one in which the maximum energy level of
the valence band aligns with the minimum energy level of the conduction band with
respect to momentum. In a DBG semiconductor, a direct recombination takes place
with the release of the energy equal to the energy difference between the recombining

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

particles.The probability of a radiative recombination is high.The efficiency factor of a

DBG semiconductor is higher. Thus, DBG semiconductors are always preferred over
IBG for making optical sources.

Figure 7.7: Difference between DIrect and Indirect band gap

An Indirect band-gap (IBG) semiconductor is one in which the maximum energy level of
the valence band and the minimum energy level of the conduction band are misaligned
with respect to momentum. In case of a IBG semiconductor, due to a relative difference
in the momentum, first, the momentum is conserved by release of energy and only after
the both the momenta align themselves, a recombination occurs accompanied with the
release of energy. The probability of a radiative recombination is comparatively low.The
efficiency factor of a IBG semiconductor is lower.

P h y sics
7.7 Photodiode:construction and g.
working
t s i n En fore
P o i n s b e
k energy to produce electric
Imp. that consumes
A photodiode is a PN-junction diode
e x t Boo a light detector, and photo-
light
T
current. Sometimes it is also called as photo-detector,
d
Readesigned
sensor. These diodes are particularly to work in reverse bias condition, it
means that the P-side of the photodiode is associated with the negative terminal of the
battery and n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. This diode is
very complex to light so when light falls on the diode it easily changes light into electric
current. The solar cell is also branded as large area photodiode because it converts solar
energy into electric energy. Though, solar cell works only in bright light.
A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into current or
voltage based on the mode of operation of the device. It comprises of optical filters,
built-in lenses and also surface areas. These diodes have a slow response time when the
surface area of the photodiode increases. Photodiodes are alike to regular semiconductor
diodes, but that they may be either visible to let light reach the delicate part of the
device.
The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the
diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called as the inner
photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the depletion region junction, then the
carriers are removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.
Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the
cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated. The entire current through the diode is
the sum of the absence of light and the photocurrent. So the absent current must be
reduced to maximize the sensitivity of the device.

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Figure 7.8: Working principle of PhotoDiode

Applications: Charge coupled devices, photoconductors and photomultipliers. Also

used in smoke detectors, compact disc players, remote controls, street light etc.

7.8 LED
Lighting emitting diode(LED) is a p-n junction diode. It is a specially doped diode
and made up of a special type of semiconductors. When the light emits in the forward

P h y sicsisdiode.
biased, then it is called as a light emitting diode. LED a special type of diode and they

Enand. blocksrthe
have similar electrical characteristics of agPN junction Hence the LED allows the
i
flow of current in the forward directionn
ts which is less e
fo the 1 mm2 .in the reverse direction.
current
P o i narea s b e
The LED occupies the . small k than
Imp
Te x t Boo
Read

Figure 7.9: Working principle of LED

light emitting diode simply, we know as a diode. When the diode is forward biased,
then the electrons and holes are moving fast across the junction and they are combining
constantly, removing one another out. Soon after the electrons are moving from the
n-type to the p-type silicon, it combines with the holes, then it disappears. Hence it

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

makes the complete atom & more stable and it gives the little burst of energy in the
form of a tiny packet or photon of light.
Light emitting diode is based on the quantum theory. The quantum theory says that
when the electron comes down from the higher energy level to the lower energy level
then, the energy emits from the photon. The photon energy is equal to the energy gap
between these two energy levels. If the PN-junction diode is in the forward biased, then
the current flows through the diode. Flow of current in the semiconductors is caused by
the both flow of holes in the opposite direction of current and flow of electrons in the
direction of the current.
Recombination indicates that the electrons in the conduction band jump down to the
valence band. When the electrons jump from one band to another band the electrons
will emit the electromagnetic energy in the form of photons and the photon energy is
equal to the forbidden energy gap.
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP),Gallium
Indium Nitride (GaInN) ,Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP),Aluminium Gallium
Nitride (AlGaN),Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) are few types of LED with different materials.

Q. Write down VI charactersitics of LED for different colors and their use?

Q.Write three applications and advantages of LED?

7.9 Solar cell

Solar cells and photodetectors are devices that convert an opticalys
h ics intocurrent. A
input
P
g. generates voltage when
n En
solar cell is an example of aphotovoltaic device, i.e, a devicethat
exposed to light.
P o i n t s i
s b e fore
Theory of solar cells explains the m p. by whicht B k
ooenergy
I process e x
light in photons is converted
into electric current when the photons strike T a suitable semiconductor
ad they predict the fundamental device. The
Rebecause
theoretical studies are of practical use limits of a
solar cell, and give guidance on the phenomena that contribute to losses and solar cell
efficiency.
The functioning of a solar cell is similar to the photodiode (photodetector). Itis a
photodiode that is unbiased and connected to a load (impedence). Thereare three
qualitative differences between a solar cell and photodetector.
A photodiode works on a narrow range of wavelength while solar cellsneed to work over
a broad spectral range (solar spectrum).Solar cells are typically wide area devices to
maximize exposure.In photodiodes the metric is quantum efficiency, which defines the
sig-nal to noise ratio, while for solar cells, it is the power conversion efficiency, which is
the power delivered per incident solar energy. Usually,solar cells and the external load
they are connected to are designed tomaximize the delivered power.
Simple solar cell is a pnjunction diode. Then region is heavily doped and thin so that
the lightcan penetrate through it easily. Thepregion is lightly doped so that most ofthe
depletion region lies in thepside. The penetration depends on the wave-length and the
absorption coefficient increases as the wavelength decreases.Electron hole pairs (EHPs)
are mainly created in the depletion region and dueto the built-in potential and electric
field, electrons move to thenregion andthe holes to thepregion. When an external load
is applied, the excess elec-trons travel through the load to recombine with the excess
holes. Electronsand holes are also generated with thepandnregions.

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

Figure 7.10: Working principle of Solar Cell

The shorter wavelengths (higher absorption coefficient) are absorbed in thenregion and
the longer wavelengths are absorbed in the bulk of thepre-gion. Some of the EHPs
generated in these regions can also contribute to thecurrent.
Solar cell is the basic unit of solar energy generation system where electrical energy is
extracted directly from light energy without any intermediate process. The working of
a solar cell solely depends upon its photovoltaic effect, hence a solar cell also known
as photovoltaic cell. A solar cell is basically a semiconductor p-n junction device. It
is formed by joining p-type (high concentration of hole or deficiency of electron) and
n-type (high concentration of electron) semiconductor
P h y sicsmaterial. at the junction excess
Eng. positive
electrons from n-type try to diffuse to p-side
inexposes
and vice-versa.

Po i t s
Movement of electrons to thenp-side
s b e foreion cores in n-side, while movement
.exposes negative o k cores in the p-side. This results in an electric
Impand
of holes to the n-side ion
e x Bodepletion
tthe
field at the junction T
forming region. When sunlight falls on the solar
Readgreater than band gap of the semiconductor are absorbed by
cell, photons with energy
the cell and generate electron-hole (e-h) pair. These e-h pairs migrate respectively to n-
and p- side of the pn junction due to electrostatic force of the field across the junction.
In this way a potential difference is established between two sides of the cell.
Typically a solar or photovoltaic cell has negative front contact and positive back contact.
A semiconductor p-n junction is in the middle of these two contacts like a battery. If
these two sides are connected by an external circuit, current will start flowing from
positive to negative terminal of the solar cell

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Semicondutors

Questions
1. Show that the instrinsic concentration ni for semiconductor is given by
Eg
−
1/2 2K
ni = (Nc Nv ) exp BT

where the symbols have their usual meaning.

2. Write the expression for electrons and holes concentration in an instrinsic semi-
conductor and hence derive the experssion
 ∗
Ec + Ev 3 mh
EF = + KB T ln
2 4 m∗e
P h y sics
.
inginstrinsic
3.
how can we determine the band gap? ints i
n En
What is the effect of temperature on Fermi level
f e
o r
semiconductor and
P o k s b e
p. t Boowith their Fermi level diagram?
4. Differentiate the n-type andIm e x
p-type semiconductors
T
Read
5. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor?
6. How does the Fermi level change with temperature in extrinsic semiconductor ?
Discuss the effect of increasing amounts of dopants in extrinsic semiconductor?
7. For a n-type semiconductor material with high doping concentration, show that
 
ED − EC
 
p 2KB T
n= NC ND exp

where the symbols have their usual meaning.

8. For a p-type semiconductor material with high doping concentration, show that
 
p EV − EA
p = NA .NV exp
2KB T
where the symbols have their usual meaning.
9. Write shote note on Drift and Diffusion Currents.
10. Explain the formation of potential barrier across the p-n junction region?

169
 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

11. What causes majority carriers to flow at the moment when p-region and n-type
region are brough together? Why does this flows not continue untill all the carriers
have recombined?

12. What is p-n junction diode? Explain the characteristics of p-n junction under
reverse and forward bias?

13. What is an LED. Explain the construction and working of LED?

14. Explain the working of Solar cell and photovoltaic cell?

15. What is Hall effect? Derive expression for Hall voltage and Hall coefficient. Men-
tion important applications of Hall effect?

16. Discuss the magnetostriction effect and its use in various application?

Multile Choice Questions

1. A semiconductor is formed by . . . . . . . . . bonds.
(a) Metaalic (b) Covalent
(c) Ionic (d) Hydrogen
[B]

2. A semiconductor has ...... temperature coefficient of resistance

(a) Positive (b) Zero sics
y
(c) Negative (d) None En g. Ph
n fore
P o i nts i s b e [C]
Imp. ook
3. T ext B
The commonly useddsemiconductor is ........
Rea
(a) Germanium (b) Silicon
(c) Nitrogen (d) Sulphur
[B]

4. A semiconductor has generally....valence electrons.

(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
[C]

5. When a pure semiconductor is heated, its resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

(a) Goes Up (b) Goes down
(c) Will not change (d) Can’t say
[B]

6. When a pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes . . . . . . . . .

(a) p-type (b) n-type
(c) instrinsic (d) Cannot say
[B]

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

7. When a trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes . . . . . . . . .

(a) p-type (b) n-type
(c) instrinsic (d) Cannot say
[A]

8. Addition of pentavalent impurity to a semiconductor creates many . . . . . . ..

(a) Valence electrons (b) Bounded electrons
(c) Free electrons (d) Holes
[C]

9. A hole in a semiconductor is defined as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(a) Free Electron (b) Incomplete part of an electron pair bond
(c) Free proton (d) Free neutron
[B]

10. The impurity level in an extrinsic semiconductor is about . . . .. of pure semicon-

ductor
(a) 10 atoms for 108 atoms (b) 1 atom for 108 atoms
(c) 1 atom for 10 atoms (d) 1 atoms for 1 atoms
[B]

11. A hole and electron in close proximity would tend to ....

(a) Repel each other (b) Attrach each other
P h y sics
(c) Have no effect on each other (d) None Eng.
n fore
Po i nts i s b e [B]
p . o o k
Im ext B due to thermal agitation is called
12. The random motion of holes and freed T
electrons
(a) Diffusion Rea
(b) Pressure
(c) Ionisation (d) None
[A]

13. The Energy gap is more in silicon than in germanium becuase

(a) It has less number of electrons (b) It has high atomic mass number
(c) Its crystal has much stronger bonds called ionic bonds (d)
[Its valence electrons are more tightly bound to their parent nuclei] D

14. How is the resistance of semiconductor classified?

(a) High resistance (b) Positive temperature co-efficient
(c) Negative temperature co-efficient (d) HIgh conductivity
[C]

15. Which of the following is known as indirect band gap semiconductors?

(a) Germanium (b) Nickel
(c) Platinum (d) Carbon
[A]

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

16. Which column elements are combined to make compound semiconductors?

(a) First and Fourth (b) Fifth and sixth
(c) Second and Fourth (d) Third and Fifth
[D]
17. Which method can be used to distinguish between the two types of carriers?
(a) Hall Effect (b) Droppler effect
(c) Black body effect (d) Ohms law
[A]
18. When does a normal conductor become a superconductor?
(a) At normal temperature (b) At Curie temperature
(c) At critical temperature (d) Never
[C]
19. What is the energy level below which all levels are completely occupied at Zero
Kelvin called?
(a) Gibbs Energy (b) Fermi Energy
(c) Stable Energy (d) Ground Energy
[B]
20. The Concentration of doping is kept below....
(a) 1% (b) 5%
(c) 10% (d) 25%
P h y sics
g.
t s i n En fore
[A]
Po i n which extra s b e
21.
I mp.
In n-type semiconductors,
x t B ook energy level is added?
(a) Conduction level Te (b) Donor energy level
R ead
(c) Acceptor Energy level (d) Valence Level
[B]
22. For Germanium PN junction, the maximum value of barrier potential is.....eV
(a) 0.3 (b) 0.03
(c) 0.003 (d) 3
[A]
23. In a semiconductor it is observed that three-quarters of the current is carried by
electrons and one quarters by holes. If the drift speed is three times that of the
holes, what is the ratio of electrons to holes?
(a) 4:1 (b) 3:1
(c) 2:1 (d) 1:1
[D]
24. A solar cell is a
(a) PN junction (b) Instrinsic semiconductor
(c) n-type extrinsic semiconductor (d) p-type extrinsic semiconductor
[A]

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Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

25. Which of the following materials cannot be used as solar cells materials?
(a) Si (b) GaAs
(c) CdS (d) PbS
[D]

26. What is the difference between Photodiode and Solar cell?

(a) No External Bias in Photodiode (b) No External Bias in Solar cell
(c) Larger surface area in photodiode (d) No difference
[B]

27. In solar cells, during the collection of e-h pairs, holes are collected by
(a) Front contact (b) Back contact
(c) Si-wafer (d) Finger electrodes
[B]

28. What should be the band gap of the semiconductors to be used as solar cell
materials?
(a) 0.5 eV (b) 1 eV
(c) 1.5 eV (d) 3 ev
[C]

29. Which of the following should not be the characteristic of the solar cell material?
(a) High Absorption (b) High Conductivity cs i
(c) High Energy Band (d) High Availability Eng. Phys
n fore
Po i nts i s b e [C]
k
Imp. region eisxreduced
t Boo when
30. In a P-N Junction, the depletion T
Read
(a) P side is connected to the negative side of the terminal (b) P side is connected to the positive side of the te
(c) N side is connected to the positive side of the terminal (d) Never reduced
[B]

31. The voltage at which forward bias current increases rapidly is called as
(a) Breakdown Voltage (b) Forward Voltage
(c) Knee Voltage (d) Voltage barrier
[C]

32. The current produced in reverse-bias is called as

(a) Reverse Current (b) Breakdown Current
(c) Negative Current (d) Leakage Current
[D]

33. Which diode is designed to work under breakdown region?

(a) Photodiode (b) LED
(c) SOlar Cells (d) Zener diode
[D]

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 Lectures and tutorials Semester I Date: October/2021

34. The leakage current is measured in

(a) A (b) mA
(c) µA (d) nA
[C]
35. A light emitting diode is
(a) Heavily doped (b) lightly doped
(c) Instrinsic semiconductor (d) None of the options
[A]
36. Which of the following materials is used LED?
(a) Si (b) GaAs
(c) CdS (d) PbS
[B]
37. What should be the biasing of the LED?
(a) Forward Bias (b) Reverse Bias
(c) Both (d) Biasing not required
[A]

38. Which process of the Electron-hole pair is responsible for emitting of light?
(a) recombination (b) Movement
(c) combination (d) Generation
P h y sics
g. [A]
t s i n En forofe LED?
39. o i
Which of the following
P nis not a characteristic
s b e
mp.
(a) Fast Iaction okHigh warm up time
t Bo(b)
T e x
Read voltage (d) Long life
(c) Low operational
[B]
40. arg1
(a) arg2 (b) arg3
(c) arg4 (d) arg5
[arg6]

Problems

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