1-5 Highway Programming

There are three inseparable sets of iuputs involved in highway programming, they are:

1. Economic - Deals with the questions of resources.

2. Financial- The question of who pays and who spends, how much, and where?
3 Political and Administration This involves decision making.

In highway programming, projects are prioritized. Those that are most economically viable were
selected, if they fit into the financial capability and of course political criteria. Projects that failed
on either financial or political criteria are abandoned, modified for substitute, or an alternative
but shall passed rigor ous tests.

Highway Programming Approaches

1.Financial resources are either short or long ranged implementation by the agencies functions
like construction, operations, and maintenance.

2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire and constraint.

3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical situations, present and future
expected level of traffic, and claims based on political subdivisions.

4. Providing continuity of route system and coordination with other transportation mode.

5. Selection of projects based on availability of labor and materials, including climatic conditions

6. Scheduling the project implementation in coordination with other agencies, acquiring right of
way and making final plan and specifications.

7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and other natural disasters.

Direct Effects of Highway Construction and its Use

A. Quantifiable market value

1. Cost of highways as to:

a. Planning cost.
b.Right of way appropriations.
c.Construction costs.
d. Maintenance costs
e.Operating costs.
2. Cost benefits to highway users

a. Vehicles operating costs (including congestion cost) net income or decrease in costs of
vehicle operation per year
b. Travel savings time (commercial). Net increase or decrease in travel time multiplied by
the peso value of commercial time.
c. Motorist's safety (economic cost accident) Net Change in expected number of accidents
times the average cost per accident per year.

B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value

1. Cost benefits to highway user

a. Motorists safety - Accident cost of pain suffering and deprivation.

b. Comfort and conversion Discomfort, inconvenience and strain of driving.
C. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint Benefit of pleasing views and scenery from road.

C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value

1. Cost benefits to highway users -Traveling savings time. (non-commercial) Minutes save per
vehicle trip.

1-6 The Planner

Before any project comes to reality, it has to undergo rigorous and careful studies with
participation of several line agencies involved. Where proposals may be opposed or questioned
by other agencies, or in the political mil, the planner appoints coordinators or catalysts, to work
out in exchanging information as to the needs, goals, and alternative solutions of those who are
affected, and to incorporate them into the planning and decision making

Where planners act as coordinators, catalysts or to work as community advocates, should not
be either partisan or advocate to a particular solution. Their role is:

1. To provide technical and organizational support.

2. To receive input or information on the needs and goals of affected persons group or agencies.
3. Incorporate the above for planning and making decision.

The planner's role must be of a clarifier, expediters, conciliators and impartial negotiators. The
myth of rationality must be avoided because they might believe that as professionals, they are
uniquely super qualified to judge what is best for the society in their field of expertise and
competence. They must accept that their personal values and goals are different from other
participants.
The Functions of the Planners are:

1.To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study and the initial work program. Know the basic
needs, plan and objectives of affected persons.

2. Exploration of alternatives. Data gathering by contacting the representatives of other

agencies involved.

3. Detailed analysis. Prepare detailed plan for appropriate community interaction.

4. Secure formal ratification from the local officials and have the results documented. If nothing
goes wrong, this step is considered final.

Good ethics demand that planners should understand that their role is to provide knowledge
and unbiased information. To be partisan and emotionally involved, will only jeopardize their
credibility. This might give them the feeling of personal defeat and disillusionment with their
profession, if the solutions that they offered are only thrown into the trash can.

1-7 Community Involvement

In a democratic government, the public has the right to hear and be heard. Much more to
participate in public hearing where planning and decision making will be conducted before major
decisions are made.

lt is a common practice to call public hearing after all major decisions were made and approved.
Indeed, public hearing is no more than information forum for the public to know what the
administration wants for them, rather than, what the people wants from them. Public hearing
should involved the public from the start of planning to give them a chance to participate in the
discussions and involved them in:

1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials non-government organizations,

influential persons and conservative group of the community.
2. Create special staff to carry out this function.
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the planning stage.
4 Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group meeting, workshops, hearing and
other related activities.

1-8 Highway Economy

A Country who will not avail of loans or grant from foreign financing institutions will not feel the
great impact of their infrastructure projects, if domestic income through taxes alone will be
depended on. Financing institution such as the World Bank insists that projects to which they
make grants or loans be justified primarily on the economic basis. According to W. Gillespe,
professor of Civil Engineering at the Union College:
"A minimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable; but the road which is truly the cheapest
is not the one which has cost the least money, but the one which makes the most profitable
returns in proportion to the amount expended upon it "

There are many designs and administrative decisions that does not involve public policy, but
these should be made by selecting the alternative that is cheapest in the long run. Meaning: the
result from an economic study that is reasonably interpreted must prevail.

The intent of expenditures for highways and public transportations are enumerated as follows:

1. To augment the country's level of economy.

2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of related basic services.
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and increase property assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of operations and maintenance.
7.Benefit in time saving.
8.Less road accident.
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel.

Most of the country's expenditures for highways and public transport facilities are based on the
principle of "Pay as you go" Meaning, road appropriations and expenditures depend on tax
collections.

Legally, the appropriation and expenditures of taxes being the people's contribution to the
government must be prorated proportionally to the different provinces, municipalities and cities
in terms of infrastructure projects and not just be concentrated in specific place. Under that
principle, progress of the country would be very slow considering the meager amount each
province will get, and the infrastructure it will accomplish. Hence, borrowing from foreign banks
is the ultimate solutions of the government to deliver impact infrastructure projects to boost the
economy and move quickly forward.

Arguments of those who Favors Borrowings are:

I. The need is immediate to have instant infrastructures.

2. No impact project will be seen because the "pay as you go fund is scattered throughout the
entire road system where the situation is most critical.

3.Borrowings encourage investors because of fast progress.

Counter Arguments of those Against Financing Infrastructures through Borrowing:

I. Borrowing may impair the credit rating of government agencies obstructing other more
important improvements.
2. If future income is committed to pay past improvements, no more funds available to maintain
the existing system.
3.With much amount available temptation is there to over build and recklessly spend
extravagantly.
4. Interest of the loan is a big waste of public funds.

1-9 Computation and Survey

Early engineering approach to highway and transportation problems were based on the results
of their computations with the aid of slide rule and replaced by calculator machine. This method
is time consuming and was totally discarded in the advent of computers and its appurtenances.

Today, most of the agencies have their own data processing and reporting is done through
computer networks. Engineering approach to highway and transportation problems are done
through computer output from the simple to complex matters.

Computers can do processing data for many problems like:

1. Projections and statistical studies of traffic and transit passengers

2.Economic analysis.
3.Financial programming.
4.Geometric.
5.Bridges.
6.Pavement design and maintenance.
7. Pavement management.
8.Scheduling for design and construction.
9.Computation of earthworks and other quantities both for planning and payment of contractors.

Computers are provided with stereo plotter for map making and location identification. The
computer base interactive graphics could present problems into the screen, focused on
technical matters and management decisions making data. Various computer programs are
abundantly available to solve the repetitive highway and transportation problems

The computer graphics display a motorist view of the highway so that the engineer could make
appropriate treatment of certain portion as transition from cut to fils, route, location, traffic, and
transportation planning and accident analysis.

The interactive graphics is used without computer, referred to as environmental simulation. A

remote controlled television camera passes through small scales physical module of the area or
route. The passage is recorded in the tape and the playback will show impression similar to that
of the walker on the road or the vehicle driver.
With the aid of sophisticated computers and its appurte nances, engıneermg practice today is
not as difficult as the time of slide rule era. Computers are less prone to computational error if
correctly programmed. On the other hand, too much reliance on this machine might be a trap for
the uninformed to assume that the program inputs are absolutely correct. Deeper analysis and
professional attention to computer program is the key to accurate results that could be the basis
for good deciSions.

1-10 Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is otherwise called Photogrammetry. It is the science and art of obtaining
measurements by means of photography. Photogrammetry is based on aerial photographs for
engineers working data on:

1. Locations.
2. Planning.
3. Geometric design.
4 Right of way.
5. Traffic studies.
6. Drainage.
7. Soil classifications and identifications.
8. Earthwork measurements
9 Material location.
10. Pavement condition survey

1-11 Photogrammetric Mapping

A vertical aerial photograph taken by a camera pointed almost straight downward is the most
useful mapping for highway purposes. The area to be covered is photographed in parallel runs
with the individual pictures lapped in the direction of the flight (end lap) and between successive
runs (side lap). For stereoscopic uses, the following must be considered:

1. End lap must be greater than one half the picture width specified not less than 55% nor more
than 65% in order that the center of one picture is included in both adjacent photograph.

2. Side lap should average at 25% with less than 15. More than 35% is unacceptable.

3. For making map purposes, the variable includes the focal length of the aerial camera, the
desired combination of map scale and contour interval, and the ratio of map scale to photograph
scale.
Instruments used in converting data from aerial photographs into maps are:

1.The Kelsh and Balplex stereoscopic plotters

2.The wild autograph
3 The Kern PG2
4.The Zeiss Stereoplanigraph

Features that cannot be identified on the photographs are located by ground measurements.
Any important points to be included on the ground surveys are marked for easy identification on
the photograph, Accuracy of the ground control triangulation network is when scaled with the
aerial photographs. The third order triangulation is acceptable in rural areas, and the second
order triangulation for urban locations wherein the maximum errors in distance are 1 to 5000
and 1 to 10,000 respectively. An accurate angular triangulation measurement is easily obtained
by the use of Modern Theodolites. The distance measurement is carried out by an electronic
distant measuring device (EDM) that employ infra red light beams, microwave or laser light.

The Photogrammetric technique coupled with digitizer, produces digital terrain models. The
horizontal and vertical positions of the ground surface, and other photographic features are
directly transferred from the matched aerial photograph to a computer data bank.

The information is recalled and the computer is programmed to develop showing the following:

1. Profiles
2.Cross sections
3. Cut and fill earthwork quantities
4. The motorist view of the road

With photographs and computer record data, a separate map could be plotted easily like:

1. The highways
2. The drainage
3.Housing
4. Land use and zoning
5. Property assessment

The ground field survey is done only as supplemental in completing the details of those that
could not be produced in the photographs.
 1-12 Orthophotographs

Orthophotographs is an aerial photograph corrected for scale and tilt. When the center portion
are skillfully matched and copied, they appear to be a single photograph that shows far more
detail than maps. The uncorrected or partially corrected photographs are combined to form a
mosaic, considered better for engineering accuracy and right of way purposes.

1-13 Colored Photographs

Acrial colored photograph presents a more detailed and precise information on traffic and
parking studies. It gives clear information of the geological conditions, land use, source of
materials, surfaces and sub-surface drainage. An oblique photograph is used for special studies
particularly, where the ground condition is almost flat or where cliffs are so steep that a black
and white photograph could not give sufficient details.

1-14 Location of the Proposed Highway

Early roads started from trails. Movements of people and the use of motor vehicles prompted
road agencies to improve road alignment minimizing sharp curves. Road width was
standardized and grades were flattened.

New highway locations are blended with curvature grades and other roadway elements to offer,
comfortable easy driving, free flowing traffic arteries, comply with the rules on safety standards.

To improve the highways, there should be tentative plan as to the control, and minimum design
specd, roadway cross sections, and maxımum slope with the following considerations:

1. Reliable cost estimate.

2 Character and hourly distribution of traffic.
3. Economic and community benefit factor.
4. Availability of funds.

Location surveys in the rural areas are divided into 4 stages.

1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between the terminal points.

2.Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.
3. Preliminary survey of the best route.
4. Location survey, staking of the right of way, the highway and the structure for construction.
Activities

Under stage 1 Reconnaissance survey of the entire area

1. Stereoscopic examination of smali scaled aerial photographs of the area supplemented by

available maps.
2.Determination control of photography and land use.
3.Location of feasible routes based on photographs and maps

Under stage II Reconnaissance survey of feasible route:

1.Stereoscopic examination of large-scale aeriał photographs of each route.

2 Determination of the detailed control of photography and land use.
3 Preparation of route maps by Photogrammetric methods
4. Location and comparison of feasible routes on photographs and maps.
5. Selection of the best route.

Stage IlI Preliminary Survey of the best route.

1. Preparation of large scale topographic mapss using the route photograph and
Photogrammetric methods or prepa ration of large scale topographic maps by ground survey
guided by best route location made on photographs in the second stage
2. Design of the preliminary location

Stage IV Location Survey

Staking of the right of way and the highway and structures for construction.

1-15 Location of Bridges

Highways and Bridges have but one purpose To convey traffic. The location and position of a
bridge is subordinate to the general alignment and grade. But sometimes, favorable alignment
has to be sacrificed, only to provide a right angle crossing to small creek. Lately however, the
general policy for minor roads is to determine the proper highway location, then provide the
structures. A skewed bridge is comparatively more expensive than the right angle bridge. The
horizontal and vertical curvature shape of large bridge presents serious design and construction
problem, but the finished product may result to a better roadway. Foundation design of piers and
abutments has large effect on costs, but cost is not always the determining factor in design.

The cost of a bridge and its full approach combined before the crossing site should be
determined. Bridge survey report should be accompanied with accurate data on the waterway
and the historical behavior of the water. The bridge survey data shall include the foundation
conditions, stream characteristics, and the adjacent structure on the stream more particularly,
their waterway openıng.
When the location of the bridge is approximately determined, the following requirements must
be considered:

1.A complete data report and special survey of the site.

2. Prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles.
3. The survey report must contain accurate data of the waterway for all behavior of water.
4. There must be a complete report on the foundation condition and the stream characteristics.
5.A complete data of the adjacent structures particularly the waterway opening.
6. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided.

1-16 Highway Plans and Specifications

Plans and specifications are set of documents of instructions and conditions under which
highways and bridges are built. The plan contains engineering drawings of the project, whereas,
the specifications is a written instructions and conditions considered as integral part of the
contract between the contractor and highway agency classified as legal documents.

The complete detailed scheme for the road which are incorporated in the geometric designš are:

1. Traffic
2 Drainage.
3. Roadside development
4 Structure
5.Erosion control
6.Soils
7.Pavement

Presentation of a Road Plan

1. The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view showing the horizontal alignment, right of
way takings, drainage arrangement and other features.
2. The lower half is allotted to the profile where the original elevation of the ground surface is
plotted. The roadway centerline and the vertical alignment or grade line for the road is indicated.
3. The vertical scale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly enlarged from five to ten times
precise detail.
4. The profile and other details of the drainage, channels or connecting roads including ramps
are also presented.
5. The estimated earthwork quantities for every 50 meters station or other intervals are indicated
along the bottom of each sheet along with the estimated overhead. This will serve the engineer
and the contractor.
6.The roadway cross sections for every situation in the whole project stretch is indicated on
another sheet of the plan.
7. Another sheet of drawings showing all structures and roadway appurtenances is included.
8. The standard size of the drawing sheet is 55 cmx 90 cm.

.Partial list of subjects covered by the standard drawing:

1.Pipe culverts.
2. Concrete box culverts.
3.Guard rail and parapet.
4.Curbs.
5.Gutters
6.Curb structures
7. Sidewalks
8.Drainage inlet and outlet structures of numerous types.
9.Manholes.
10. Rip-rap and other devices used for bank protection
11. Fences and right of way.
12. Other survey markers.

The Specifications

Specifications writing is generally different and a delicate work requiring knowledge of the law of
contracts as well as highway practices and experiences. Specifications that are carelessly
written and loosely worded may result in the use of substandard materials and poor
workmanship. Mostly, it involves extra cost to the owner or the contractor and sometimes landed
in court litigations. On the other hand, specifications that are too restrictive are very costly.

Highway Specifications is Divided into Two:

1. Standard Specifications applics to project implemented

by administration which treat the subject that repeatedly OCcurs in the agency work.

2. Special Provisions covers peculiar item of the project in question that include additional
modification to standard specifications. This includes copies of all documents required in
securing competitive bids and contracts. Specifications are also subdivided into two:

a.) The general clause that deals with the bidding price
dures and award execution and control of work and
other legal matters.

b.)Specifying detail regarding the materials, manner of

work execution and how pay quantities are to be
measured.