COLEGIO DE SEBASTIAN - PAMPANGA

City of San Fernando, Pampanga

Senior High School

L earning M odule

Grade 11
Statistics and Probability

Prepared by: Hazel T. Genova, LPT

 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Content Overview
Quarter Competencies
Statistics and Probability
 illustrates a random variable (discrete and continuous)\
 distinguishes between a discrete and a continuous random variable
 finds the possible values of a random variable
 illustrates a probability distribution for a discrete random variable and its
properties
 computes probabilities corresponding to a given random variable
 illustrates the mean and variance of a discrete random variable
 calculates and interprets the mean and the variance of a discrete random
variable
 solves problems involving mean and variance of probability distributions
 illustrates a normal random variable and its characteristics
 identifies regions under the normal curve corresponding to different
standard normal values
 converts a normal random variable to a standard normal variable and
vice versa
 computes probabilities and percentiles using the standard normal table
3rd  illustrates random sampling
Quarter  distinguishes between parameter and statistic
 identifies sampling distributions of statistics (sample mean)
 finds the mean and variance of the sampling distribution of the sample
mean
 defines the sampling distribution of the sample mean for normal
population when the variance is: (a) known; (b) unknown
 illustrates the Central Limit Theorem
 defines the sampling distribution of the sample mean using the Central
Limit Theorem
 solves problems involving sampling distributions of the sample mean
 illustrates the t-distribution
 identifies percentiles using the t-table
 identifies the length of a confidence interval
 computes for the length of the confidence interval
 computes for an appropriate sample size using the length of the interval
 solves problems involving sample size determination

 illustrates: (a) null hypothesis; (b) alternative hypothesis; (c) level of

significance; (d) rejection region; and (e) types of errors in hypothesis
4th testing
Quarter  identifies the parameter to be tested given a real life problem
 formulates the appropriate null and alternative hypotheses on a
population mean

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

 identifies the appropriate form of the test-statistic when: (a) the

population variance is assumed to be known; (b) the population variance
is assumed to be unknown; and (c) the Central Limit Theorem is to be
used
 identifies the appropriate rejection region for a given level of
significance when: (a) the population variance is assumed to be known;
(b) the population variance is assumed to be unknown; and (c) the
Central Limit Theorem is to be used
 computes for the test-statistic value (population mean)
 draws conclusion about the population mean based on the test-statistic
value and the rejection region
 solves problems involving test of hypothesis on the population mean
 formulates the appropriate null and alternative hypotheses on a
population proportion
 identifies the appropriate form of the test-statistic when the Central Limit
Theorem is to be used
 identifies the appropriate rejection region for a given level of
significance when the Central Limit Theorem is to be used
 computes for the test-statistic value (population proportion)
 draws conclusion about the population proportion based on the test-
statistic value and the rejection region
 solves problems involving test of hypothesis on the population
proportion

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

U nlocking your P otentials

Welcome to your guide through Grade 11 Statistics and Probability! We are

happy at Colegio de Sebastian-Pampanga as you have been promoted from Grade 10
to Grade 11. You may be feeling great excitement and a little apprehension for this next
level grade and that is usual and normal. Your classmates probably have the same
feeling. As you have been oriented as to how online/modular learning works, we will
further guide you through as to how learn with us during this online distance course.
Read on for more tips on getting your home-schooling adventure off to a good start.

Helpful Tips:

1. Start by clearing your space, this is a mentally and physically setting aside the
tasks that await you for the day. Organizing your table and arranging your
materials will be a good start.
2. Make sure to have patience in repeating and reading lessons. Rehearsal is a key
component to memory.
3. Integrate concepts with physical movement to ease the learning process. You
can use the suggested gestures or even modify them and make your own.
4. Daily lessons may take up 30 minutes to an hour of your day on this subject or
probably one-half day in a week, but these hours/days are well spent for you to
learn the basics of the core subjects in Senior High School and an experience to
see your progress.
5. Your teacher is always online during the scheduled class hour and you may want
to connect with your teacher via the online classes.
6. Make sure to practice academic honesty in doing assignments and projects at
home.
7. Parental/guardian support maybe necessary when understanding other
concepts.
8. Use common values in making decisions and choices.
9. Communicate and establish support system among your classmates and peers.
10. Take breaks and be active when necessary to avoid boredom. It will be essential
to be engaging and to insert active imaginations in lessons.

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Week 1 Statistics and Probability

Learning Objectives:

The student illustrates a random variable (discrete and continuous), distinguishes between a
discrete and a continuous random variable, finds the possible values of a random variable and
illustrates a probability distribution for a discrete random variable and its properties.

Assignment:

1. What is Statistics?
2. What is Probability?
3. What is the importance of studying Statistics and Probability in every aspect of our lives?

Lesson Summary:

Random Variable
A random variable is a variable whose values are determined by chance. In other words,
these are variables associated with probability.

Example1:
a. In rolling a single die, a variable X is used to represent the outcomes. Therefore, X may
take the value 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.
b. Tossing two coins: The variable X may be used to represent the number of heads.
Hence, X may take the value 0, 1, or 2 and the possible outcomes are HH, TH, HT, TT.
c. An experiment consists of studying the number of boys in families with exactly 3
children: The variable X may be used to represent the number of boys and it may take
the value 0, 1, 2 or 3.

Random variables can either be discrete or continuous.

Random Variable

Discrete Continuous
Have values that can be counted Can assume all values in the interval
between any two given values

Figure 1

Continuous random variable are obtained from quantities that can be measured rather than
counted such as height, weight, temperature and time.

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Consider the sample space S of each of the examples below.

Example 2:
a. S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. The possible values of a random discrete variable X for the number of
spots maybe 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.
Probabilities for the number of spots maybe illustrated as:
X 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 1 1 1
P(X)
6 6 6 6 6 6

b. S = {TT, TH, HT, HH}. The possible values of a random discrete variable X for the number
of heads maybe 0, 1, or 2.
Probabilities for the number of heads maybe illustrated as:
Number of
0 1 2
Heads (X)
1 1 1
P(X)
4 2 4

c. S = {BBB, BBG, BGB, GBB, BGG, GBG, GGB, GGG}. The variable X may be used to
represent the number of boys and it may take the value 0, 1, 2 or 3.
Probabilities for the number of boys in the families with exactly 3 children maybe illustrated
as:
Number of
0 1 2 3
Boys (X)
1 3 3 1
P(X) 8
8 8 8

The three tables serve to illustrate what we mean by a probability distribution.

Materials:

N/A

Learning Assessment:

Not yet
General Mathematics Developing Achieved Notes
evident
illustrates a random variable
(discrete and continuous)
distinguishes between a
discrete and a continuous
random variable
finds the possible values of a
random variable
illustrates a probability
distribution for a discrete
random variable and its
properties

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Activity:

A. State whether the variable is discrete or continuous.

_____________1. The speed of a race car.

_____________2. The number of cups of coffee a fast food restaurant serves each day.
_____________3. The number of people who play lotto.
_____________4. The weight of an elephant.
_____________5. The time it takes to complete one round of jog in an oval.
_____________6. The number of students present in the class.
_____________7. The distance travelled between classes.
_____________8. The time it takes to get to school.
_____________9. The number of vowels contained in students’ surname in a class.
____________10. The number of errors found in the student’s compositions.

B. Construct a probability distribution of the data below.

1. The probabilities that a patient will have 0, 1, 2, or 3 medical tests performed on
7 1 4 3
entering a hospital are 15 , 15, 15 , 15 respectively.

2. The probabilities that a customer will purchase 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 books in a bookstore

are 0.15, 0.23, 0.11, 0.31 and 0.20 respectively.

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Week 2 Statistics and Probability

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the learner is expected to construct the probability mass function of a
discrete random variable and its corresponding histogram; compute probabilities corresponding
to a given random variable.

Lesson Summary:

Discrete Probability Distribution

A probability distribution is a correspondence that assigns probabilities to the value of a random

variable X. The probability distribution is discrete if it consists of values a random variable can
assume and the corresponding probabilities of the values; while the probability distribution is
continuous if it consists of probabilities for various intervals of continuous random variable which
cannot be presented in tabular form. In dealing with continuous random variables X, the
probability distribution f(x) is usually called the probability density function or simply the density
function of X.

The set of ordered pairs (x, f(x)) is a probability function, probability mass function or
probability distribution of the discrete random variable X if, for each possible outcome x:

1. f(x) ≥ 0
2. ∑x f(x) = 1
3. P (X = x) = f(x)

The above properties of the discrete probability distribution are illustrated in the succeeding
examples.

Example 1:

1. Two dice are rolled, and the total number of points is recorded.
Solution:
Die 2 (second component)
Die 1 (first component)

1,1) 1,2) 1,3) 1,4) 1,5) 1,6)

2,1) 2,2) 2,3) 2,4) 2,5) 2,6)
3,1) 3,2) 3,3) 3,4) 3,5) 3,6)
4,1) 4,2) 4,3) 4,4) 4,5) 4,6)
5,1) 5,2) 5,3) 5,4) 5,5) 5,6)
6,1) 6,2) 6,3) 6,4) 6,5) 6,6)

Based from the table above Sum = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}. The Discrete
Probability Distribution and its corresponding histogram are shown below:

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Outcome x 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Probability 1 1 1 1 5 1 5 1 1 1 1
P(X) 36 18 12 9 36 6 36 9 12 18 36

Figure 1.1

2. Three coins are tossed, and the total number of tails is noted.\

Solution:
S = { HHH, THH, HTH, HHT, TTH, HTT, THT, TTT } ; number of tails maybe 0, 1, 2 or 3.
The probability distribution and its histogram are:

Number of
0 1 2 3
Tails X
Probability 1 3 3 1
P(X) 8 8 8 8

Figure 1.2

You know that probability talks about the likelihood of winning in a lotto draw, number of
winnings in a gamble, number of heads that come out in a toss of a coin, and other game
of chance can be estimated using probability. But do you know that it is not only for the
game of chance?

We also use this in business, economics, engineering, and other real-life situations. A data
needs to determine the probabilities to make decisions and draw a conclusion. Most of the

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

time, you won't perform actual probability problems, but you'll use probability to make a
judgment and determine the best course of action.

In your previous lesson, you have learned how to illustrate a probability distribution of a
discrete random variable. To understand this lesson, your knowledge of getting the
probability of an event is very important as you have learned from your previous lesson in
Mathematics. To find out if you are ready to learn in this new lesson, determine the
probability of the following.

Find the probability of the following events.

Event (E) Probability P(E)

a. Getting an odd number in a single roll of a die
b. Getting an ace when a card is drawn from a deck
c. Getting a number greater than 2 in a single roll of a
die
d. Getting a red queen when a card is drawn from a
deck
e. Getting doubles when two dice are rolled
f. Getting a sum of 5 or a sum of 9 when two dice are
rolled

The probability for each event will be:

a. The event of getting an odd number has three outcomes: 1, 3, or 5. Since there are 6
3 1
faces in a die, then the probability of getting an odd number is 6 or 2 .
b. The event of getting an ace when a card is drawn from a deck is 4. Since there are 52
4 1
faces in a deck of cards, then the probability of getting an ace is 52 or 13.
c. The event of getting a number greater than 2 in a single roll of a die has four outcomes:
3, 4, 5, and 6. Since there are 6 faces in a die, then the probability of getting a number
4 2
greater than 2 is 6 or 3 .
d. The event of getting a red queen when a card is drawn from a deck is 2. Since there
2 1
are 52 faces in a deck of cards, then the probability of getting a red queen is or .
52 26
e. The event of getting doubles when two dice are rolled has 6 outcomes:
{(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(5,5),(6,6)}. Since there are 36 outcomes in rolling two dice, then
6 1
the probability of getting doubles is or .
36 6
f. The event of getting a sum of 5 when two dice are rolled has 4 outcomes: {(1,4),
4
(4,1),(2,3),(3,2)}.Hence, the probability is 36. The event of getting a sum of 9 when two
4
dice are rolled has 4 outcomes: {(4,5),(5,4),(3,6),(6,3)}. Hence, the probability is 36
.
The probability of getting a sum of 5 or a sum of 9 when two dice are rolled is
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 5 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 9
P(sum of 5 or sum of 9) = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 + 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

4 4 8 𝟐
= 36 + 36
= 36 𝑜𝑟 𝟗

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

In the previous module, you have learned how to illustrate a probability distribution for a discrete
random variable and its properties. Some experiments like tossing a coin, throwing a die, and
other activities consist of one or more outcomes. If each of the outcomes is equally likely to occur,
then the probability is:
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
P(E) = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
Example 2:
Golden’s bakery is known for its famous Filipino delicacies. Among these foods which is a native
delicious food called “kakanin” is a “leche puto”. The bakeshop owner recorded the number of
boxes of “leche puto” that were delivered each day. The number of boxes delivered for 10 days
is shown below.
Day Number of
Boxes (X)
1 35
2 37
3 50
4 45
5 37
6 45
7 40
8 42
9 45
10 42
a. What is the probability that 40 or more boxes will be delivered on a day?
b. What is the probability that the number of boxes delivered will be at least 37 but not
more than 50?
c. What is the probability that at most 40 boxes will be delivered on a particular day?
d. Find P (X ≤ 45)
e. Find P (40) + P (50)

To answer the given question, you have to construct first the probability distribution. Let X the
value of the random variable represented by the number of boxes of “leche puto”. The
probability distribution is shown below.

Number of Boxes X Probability P(X)

1
35
10
1
37
5
1
40
10
1
42
5
3
45
10
1
50
10
a. The probability that 40 or more boxes will be sold in a particular day means P (X≥ 40).
This means that you have to add P(X=40), P(X=42), P (X= 45), and (X= 50).
P (X ≥ 40) = P(40) + P(42) + P(45) + P(50)

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

then, substitute its corresponding probability

1 1 3 1
= 10 + 5 + 10 + 10

1 2 3 1
= 10 + 10 + 10 + 10

7
= 10 or 0.7

b. The probability that the number of boxes delivered will be at least 37 but not more than
50 means P (37≤ X< 50).
Hence, the values included are P(37), P(40), P42) and P(45), then substitute its
corresponding probability
P (37≤ X< 50) = P(37) + P(40) +P(42) + P(45),
1 1 1 3
= 5 + 10 + 5 + 10

2 1 2 3
= + + +
10 10 10 10

8 4
= 10 = 5 or 0.8

c. The probability that at most 40 boxes will be delivered in a particular day means
P (X≤ 40) so the values of X are P(40), P(37) and P(35)
P (X≤ 40) = P(40) + P(37) + P(35)
1 1 1
= 10 + 5 + 10

1 2 1
= 10 + 10 + 10

4 2
= = or 0.40
10 5

d. Find P (X≤ 45) = P(45) + P(42) + P(40) + P(37) +P(35)

3 1 1 1 1
= + + + +
10 5 10 5 10

3 2 1 2 1
= 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10

9
= 10 or 0.90

Other solution:
P (X≤ 45) = 1-P(50)
1 9
=1- =
10 10

1 1
e. Find P (40) + P (50) = 10 + 10
2 1
= 10 = 5 or 0.10

Materials:
N/A

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Activity:

1. Number of Cell Phones

The number of cell phones sold per day at Gadgets Zone has the following probability
distribution.

Number of Cell Phones

Probability P(X)
Sold X
0 0.15
1 0.10
2 0.25
3 0.30
4 0.20

Find: (provide complete process of the solution)

a. P(X≥ 2)
b. P(x≤ 3)
c. P(1≤ 𝑋 ≤ 4)
d. P(2) + P(4)

2. In a certain animal species, the probability that a healthy adult female will have no
offspring in a given year is 0.31, while the probabilities of 1, 2, 3, or 4 offspring are 0.21,
0.19, 0.17, and 0.12 respectively. Construct a probability distribution and its
corresponding histogram.

Learning Assessment:

Not yet
General Mathematics Developing Achieved Notes
evident
construct the probability mass
function of a discrete random
variable and its corresponding
histogram;
compute probabilities
corresponding to a given
random variable

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Week 3&4 Statistics and Probability

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to illustrate and calculates Mean and Variance
of Discrete Random Variable, interprets and solves problem involving mean and variance of
probability distribution and illustrates a Normal Random Variable and its Characteristics.

Lesson Summary:

Illustrating Mean and Variance of Discrete Random Variable

The term average is the mean or the expected value or the expectation in probability and
statistics. Once we have calculated the probability distribution for a random variable, we can
illustrate its expected value. The mean of a random variable shows the location or the central
tendency of the random variable.

Suppose you tossed a fair coin twice. Let X be the number of heads that are observed.
a. Construct the probability distribution of X.
b. Find the probability that at least one head is observed.

Solution:
a. The possible values that X can take are 0, 1, and 2. Each of these numbers corresponds
to an event in the sample space S = {HH, HT, TH, TT} of equally likely outcomes for this
experiment:
For X = 0 the corresponding sample space will be {TT};
For X = 1 the corresponding sample space will be {HT, TH} and
For X = 2 to {HH}.

The probability of each of these events, hence of the corresponding value of X, can be found
simply by counting, as it shows in the table of probability distribution below:

X 0 1 2
P(X) 0.25 0.5 0.25

b. At least one head is the event X ≥ 1, which is the union of the mutually exclusive events
X = 1 and X = 2. Thus
P(X≥1) = P(1) + P(2) = 0.50 + 0.25 = 0.75
Therefore, the probability that at least one head is 0.75

Let’s Roll a Die!

Read and analyze the situation given below:

During Town Fiesta, people used to go to Carnival that most folks call it “Perya”. Mang
Ben used to play “Beto–beto” hoping that he would win. While he is thinking about what possible
outcomes in every roll would be, he is always hoping that his bet is right.

Let us help Mang Ben to know the probabilities of each outcome by filling the table below.

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

X 1 2 3 4 5 6
P(X) 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6

Based on the data above, observe, analyze, and answer the following questions:
1. Is the probability of x lies between 0 and 1?
________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the sum of all probabilities of X?
________________________________________________________________________
3. Is there a negative probability? Is it possible to have a negative probability?
________________________________________________________________________
4. How will you illustrate the average or mean of the probabilities of discrete random variable?
________________________________________________________________________
5. Can you show a process where you can illustrate the variance and the standard deviation of
the probability?
________________________________________________________________________

Answer:
1. Yes, the probability of X lies between 0 and 1.
2. The sum of all probabilities of X is exactly 1.
3. No negative probabilities because it is impossible to have it based on the characteristic of
the probability of discrete random variables.
4. The mean is 3.5
5.

If you are wondering how we came up with the answer for questions 4 and 5, you will understand
everything as we go on in our discussion.

If you roll a fair die several times, what will be the average outcome? Imagine rolling it 6000 times.
You would expect to roll about 1000 ones, 1000 twos, and so on: about 1000 occurrences of each
possible outcome. What would be the average value of the outcomes obtained? Approximately,
the mean or expected value would be;

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

(1000 ∗ 1) + (1000 ∗ 2) + ⋯ + (1000 ∗ 6) 21000

= = 3.5
6000 6000
It only implies that the weighted average of the six possible outcomes 1, 2,…,6 with weights
provided by the relative frequencies. Remember that 3.5 isn’t a value that we can observe if we
will do the experiment.

By similarity with information and relative frequencies, we can characterize the mean of a discrete
random variable by utilizing probabilities from its dispersion, as follows.
1. The mean is considered as a measure of the `central location' of a random variable. It is
the weighted average of the values that random variable X can take, with weights provided
by the probability distribution.
2. The Expected Value or Mean Value of a discrete random variable x is can be computed
by first multiplying each possible x value by the probability of observing that value and
then adding the resulting quantities. Symbolically,
(𝑿) = 𝝁x = 𝑋1 ∗ (𝑋1) + 𝑋2 ∗ 𝑃(𝑋2) + ⋯ + 𝑋n ∗ 𝑃(𝑋n) = ∑𝑿 ∗ 𝑷(𝑿)

Example 1: Suppose a random variable X that has the discrete uniform distribution with possible
values 1, 2,…, n. The mean or expected value is presented by

6+1 7
Since the possible values are 1, 2,…, n when rolling a die a fair of die the mean is 2 = 2 = 3.5.
This 3.5 is the expectation only. That’s the reason why in question 4, we come up to 3.5 as its
mean value.

So, doing the experiment which is rolling a single die several times and getting average or mean
of the total possible outcomes, we, therefore, conclude that the average tends to be close to 3.5.
This also implies that the more rolls we do, the closer the average will be to 3.5.

Example 2:

From the figure above, it shows the probability distribution for the possible outcome in rolling a
fair die. Notice that they have equal probabilities or chances to occur. This distribution is

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

symmetric and the mean is 3.5 which found in the middle of the distribution, it is in the axis of
symmetry.

We have noticed that the mean of a random variable X is a measure of the central location of the
distribution of X. If we are summarizing highlights of the distribution of X, it is evident that location
is not the only significant aspect

If the example above complicated you, a simpler one is provided for you.

Example 3: Suppose you want to find the average number of apples sold in any five grocery
stores as indicated by the figure below

Analyzing the illustration above, then the mean or expected value is 11. If you are wondering why
this happens you may also follow with these processes:
1. Separate 8 elements on the left side of the mean then get the average of those (3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10) which is equal to 6.5
2. Do the same on the right side of mean (12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19) which is equal
to 15.5
3. Get the average value of the numbers 6.5, 11, and 15.5. It will be equal to 11 also

As a whole, we can generate a physical representation and interpretation of the discrete

random variable X with its probability P(X). Assume that the x-axis is an unbounded see-saw in
both directions, and we put weights corresponds to probability P(X) at each associated value(x)
of random variable X. Therefore, the mean (𝝁𝒙) is the point where the see-saw balance. In other
words, it is the center of weights of the observation.

In the off chance, that value of X close to its mean 𝜇𝑥 are likely and values further away from
𝜇𝑥 have small probability, at that point, the distribution of X will be firmly concentrated around 𝜇𝑥.
For this situation, the spread of the distribution of X is little. On the contrary, if the expected value
of X some distance from its mean 𝜇𝑥 are likely, the spread of the distribution of X will be sizeable.

These concepts lead the way to the most important measure of spread, the variance, and a
closely related measure of variability, the standard deviation. You probably have met the
concepts of variance and standard deviation when summarizing data in your Junior High School
Mathematics. These were the sample variance and the sample standard deviation. The difference
here is that we are referring to properties of the distribution of a discrete random variable.

The variance of a random variable displays the variability or the dispersions of the random
variables. It shows the distance of a random variable from its mean.

The Variance of a Discrete Random Variable X, denoted by 𝝈𝒙𝟐 is computed by first

subtracting the mean from each possible x value to obtain the deviations, then squaring each
deviation and multiplying the result by the probability of the corresponding x value, and then finally
adding these quantities.
Definition: If X is a random variable with mean (𝑋) = µ𝑥, then the variance of X is defined by,

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Remember that if the value of the variance is small, then the values of the random variable are
close to the mean.

The Standard Deviation of x, denoted by 𝝈𝒙, is the square root of the Variance. In symbol,

Example 4: Let us consider the same histogram above. Illustrate the variance and standard
deviation.
To be able to determine the element spread away from the mean, we can do this by adding
this procedure in the illustration given

Since we are comparing two elements this time (1 and 3 on the left side of the mean and 4 and 6
in the right), the 𝜇𝑥 3.5 will be doubled which became 7. Adding 1 and 3 elements gives us 4,
similarly on the right side adding 4 and 6 gives us 10. Get the average value of 4 and 10 which
resulted in 7 which is our new 𝜇𝑥. Subtract 7 by 4 which is 3, likewise subtract 10 by 7 which
resulted in 3. This implies that the distance of the element from the mean in either direction is 3
which describes the spread of the elements in the observation.

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Example 5: Consider this figure.

a. Illustrate the mean.

b. Compare the variance and standard deviation.
Solution:
a. Since the data is symmetric along the x-axis, so the mean 𝜇𝑥 is equal to 6. (You may verify
the 𝜇𝑥 value using the 3 steps provided in the previous example)
b. To illustrate the variance and standard deviation without having computation, study the
diagram below.

Since we are comparing two elements this time 2 and 5 on the left side of the mean and 7 and 10
in the right, the 𝜇𝑥 is doubled which became 12. Adding 2 and 5 elements gives us 7, similarly on
the right side adding 7 and 10 gives us 17. Get the average value of 7 and 17 which resulted in
12 which is our new 𝜇𝑥. Subtract 12 by 7 which is 5, likewise subtract 17 by 12 which also resulted

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in 5. This implies that the distance of the element from the mean in either direction is 5 which
describes the spread of the elements in the observation.

Example 6: Compare the variance and standard deviation of this distribution.

Following the same procedure just like in example 4, for figure A, the 𝜇𝑥 is 6.
Now let’s compare 3 and 5 on the left side of the mean and 7 and 9 in the right.
Adding 3 and 5 which is 8 and on the right side add 7 and 9 which results in 16. The average of
8 and 16 is 12 which happens to be our new mean. Subtract 8 from 12 which is 4, similarly subtract
12 from 1 wherein the result is also 4. This shows that the distance of the element from the mean
in either direction is 4 which expresses the spread of the elements in the observation.

Example 7. Analyze and observe the figure below

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Again, since we are comparing two elements this time (2 and 4 on the left side of the mean and
8 and 10 in the right, the 𝜇𝑥 is doubled which became 12. Adding 2 and 4 elements give us 6,
similarly, on the right side adding 8 and 10 gives us 17.

Get the average of 6 and 18 which also results in 12 which is our new 𝜇𝑥. Subtract 12 by 6 which
is 6, likewise subtract 18 by 12 which also results in 6. This suggests that the distance of the
element from the mean in either direction is 6 which describes the spread of the elements in the
observation.

This time let us compare the variance and standard deviation of the three given illustrations.
Because Figure A has a spread value of 5, Figure B has 4 and Figure C has spread value of 6 in
either direction then we can have this comparison;
𝜎𝐵 < 𝜎𝐴 < 𝜎C

Which illustrations show less spread out? Then we can easily answer it by simply observing the
figure we generated. Figure B is less dispersion since it spread by 4 in either direction. Moreover,
which illustrations shows the farthest spread out? Looking back to the three illustrations we have,
then the farthest spread out is Figure C since the element dispersed 6 away from the mean.

In general, unlike the mean, there is no simple direct interpretation of the variance or standard
deviation. The variance is undifferentiated to the moment of inertia in physics, but that is not
necessarily widely understood by students. What is important to understand is that, in relative
terms:
 a small value of standard deviation (or variance) means that the dispersion of the random
variable is narrowly concentrated around the mean.
 a large value of standard deviation (or variance) means that the distribution is spread out,
with some possibility of observing values at some distance from the mean.

Calculating Mean and Variance of Discrete Random Variable

The term average is the mean or the expected value or the expectation in probability and statistics.
Once we have calculated the probability distribution for a random variable, we can calculate its
expected value. The mean of a random variable shows the location or the central tendency of the
random variable.

Read and analyze the situation given below:

Mr. Umali, a Mathematics teacher, regularly gives a formative assessment composed of 5
multiple-choice items. After the assessment, he used to check the probability distribution of the
correct responses, and the data is presented below:
Test Item X Probability P(X)
0 0.03
1 0.05
2 0.12
3 0.30
4 0.28
5 0.22
Based on the data above, observe, analyze and answer the following questions:
1. What is the summation of the probabilities of the given random variable?
2. Why is it that the probability of random variable x less than 1 but nonnegative value?

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3. What is the average or mean of the given probability distribution?

4. What are the values of the variance and the standard deviation of the probability
distribution?

Answer:
1. The summation of the probabilities of the given random variable is equal to 1.
2. The probability of the discrete random variable X lies between 0 and 1, so it is impossible
to have a negative probability.
3. 𝐸(𝑋) = 𝜇𝑥 = 3.41
4. 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = 𝜎2𝑥 = 1.5819

Expected Value or Mean Value is the sum of the products of each possible value of a random
variable and that value’s probability. In symbol,

So, in what way can we use the concept of expected value to calculate the mean and variance of
a probability distribution?

Using the previously given data, multiply each x value by its probability and add the results to get
the mean (𝜇x) or expected value ((𝑿)).
Test Item, Probability, X * P(X)
X P(X)
0 0.03 0
1 0.05 0.05
2 0.12 0.24
3 0.30 0.9
4 0.28 1.12
5 0.22 1.1

So, the answer to question 3 can now be stated. It indicates that the expected value or mean of
the random variable is 3.41.

Now that you have calculated the mean or the average marks in the five tests of Mathematics. It
will be convenient this time to determine the difference in the score of each item from the mean
or expected value. This difference in marks shows the variability of the possible values of the
random variable.

Let’s recall the formula in finding the variance of a discrete random variable x,

Remember that if the value of the variance is small, then the values of the random variable are
close to the mean.

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The Standard Deviation of x, denoted by 𝝈𝒙, is the square root of the Variance. In symbol,

Again, let’s use the same data above, variance and standard deviation of the given random
variable can be presented in this manner. The formula for 𝑉(𝑋) says to take a weighted average
of the squared distance to the mean. By squaring, remember that we are averaging only non-
negative values so that the spread to the right of the mean won’t cancel that to the left. By using
expected value, we are weighting high probability values more than low probability values. So,
the table will now look like this.

Test Item, Probability, x * P(X) 𝒙−𝜇 (𝒙 – 𝜇)2 (𝒙 – 𝜇)2 * P(X)

X P(X)
0 0.03 0 -3.41 11.6281 0.3488
1 0.05 0.05 -2.41 5.8081 0.2904
2 0.12 0.24 -1.41 1.9881 0.2386
3 0.30 0.9 -0.41 0.1681 0.0504
4 0.28 1.12 0.59 0.3481 0.0975
5 0.22 1.1 1.59 2.5281 0.5562
𝑬(𝑿) = 𝜇x = 3.41 ∑(𝑥 − 𝛍)2 ∗ 𝑃(𝑋)
= 1.5819

We can also do this process.

Therefore, the correct answers for question 4 are 1.5819 and 1.26 respectively.

For uniformity of the answers, expected value or mean and standard deviation are both expressed
into two decimal places while variance is up to four decimal places to lessen rounding error.

Take note on units:

1. 𝜎𝑥 has the same units as X.
2. 𝑉(𝑋) or 𝝈𝟐𝒙 has the same units as the square of X. So, if X is in meters, then 𝑉(𝑋) is in
meters squared.

Since 𝜎𝑥 and X have the same units, the standard deviation is a natural measure of spread. In
some ways, the standard deviation is the more tangible of the two measures, since it is in the
same units as X.

Let us take this example,

Suppose that a coin is tossed twice so that the sample space is S = {𝐻𝐻, 𝑇𝐻, 𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝑇}. Let X
represent the “number of heads that can come up”, Based on the prepared discrete probability
distributions of the random variable X below, calculate the mean, variance, and standard
deviation.

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Outcome or Sample HH HT TH TT
Point
𝒙 2 1 1 0

Applying the concepts from the activity given above, let us complete the table below.

𝒙 P(X) 𝒙 ∙ P(X) 𝒙−𝜇 (𝒙 – 𝜇)2 (𝒙 – 𝜇)2 ∙ P(X)

0 ¼ or 0.25 0 -1 1 0.25
1 ½ or 0.5 0.5 0 0 0
2 ¼ or 0.25 0.5 1 1 0.25

𝝁𝒙 = ∑ 𝒙 ∙ (𝑿) = 1 ∑(𝒙 − 𝝁)𝟐 ∙ 𝑷(𝑿) = 𝟎. 50

The expected value or mean is 1.

The Variance is 0.50, and
The Standard Deviation is √0.50, and it is equivalent to 𝝈 = 0.71.

We have discovered that the Expected Value E(X) is only the average or mean (µ𝑥) of random
variable X. It's occasionally called a "weighted average" because more frequent values of X are
weighted more highly in the average. It is additionally how we anticipate that X should behave on-
average as time goes on. The mean of a random variable X is a measurement of the central
location of the distribution of X.

If we are summarizing features of the distribution of X, it is clear that location is not the only
relevant feature. The second most important component is the spread of the distribution.

Again, the variance of a discrete random variable X is defined by

where the sum is taken over all values of x for which P(x) > 0 but less than 1. So, the variance of
X is the weighted average of the squared deviations from the mean μ, where the weights are
given by the probability function P(x) of X.

Because of this definition, the variance of X is often denoted by σ2x.

In another way around, the standard deviation is the more tangible of the two measures, since it
is in the same units as X. For example, if X is a random variable measuring length in cm, then the
standard deviation is in centimetre (𝑐𝑚), while the variance is in 𝑐𝑚2.

Remember that with respect on units:

1. σ has the same units as X.
2. Var(X) has the same units as the square of X. So, if X is in meters, then Var(X) is in meters
squared. Because σ and X have the same units, the standard deviation is a natural
measure of spread.

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Always remember that the variance cannot be negative, because it is an average of squared
quantities. This is appropriate, as a negative spread for distribution does not make sense. Hence,
𝝈𝟐𝒙 ≥ 𝟎 and 𝝈𝒙 (𝑿) ≥ 𝟎.

Interpreting the Mean and Variance of a Probability Distribution

Decision-making is an important skill that each individual should acquire. It is a must that
you should be wise when making decisions. In real life, we always encounter situations where we
have to choose the best option to arrive with the right decision. Thinking critically and logically will
help you to decide on things wisely. Considering that you might become a CEO of a company, a
professional, a father or a mother, surely this lesson will help you to decide on future financial
situations. Interpreting the mean and variance of probability distributions will give you the idea on
how to weigh things, for you to choose the right option.

An Unfair Die

Suppose an unfair die is rolled and let X be the random variable representing the number of dots
that would appear with a probability distribution below.

Outcome
1 2 3 4 5 6
(X)
Probability
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1
P(X)

Questions:
1. What will be the average number of dots that would appear?
2. How does the assumed value of the outcome vary from the average number of dots that
would appear?
3. Will you join in a game of chance using an unfair die?

Recall that in your previous lesson, you learn how to calculate the mean, variance, and standard
deviation of a discrete random variable. So, with those skills, you will be able to answer the
questions in the previous activity.

First, let us find the mean of the probability distribution using the formula.

Therefore, the mean of the probability distribution is 3.7. Since the mean is equal to 3.7, we can
say that the average number of dots that would appear is a number near to 3.7 which is 4. If we
will repeat the experiment over and over, there is a higher possibility the 4 dots will always
appear since the average number of dots that would appear is 4.

To determine the variability of the assumed values from the mean, use the formulas for finding
variance and standard deviation. But first, construct a table like the one below:

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Then use the formulas, thus

Therefore, the variance of the random variable X (the number of dots appeared) is equal to 1.81
while the standard deviation is equal to 1.35. Take note that, small variance or standard deviation
means that the assumed values or data points tend to be very close to the mean, while higher
variance or standard deviation means that the assumed values or data points are spread out from
the mean.

Specifically, the variance and standard deviation measures or describes how far a set of data
(assumed values of random variables) is spread out. Since the value of the standard deviation is
1.35, we can say that the assumed values of each outcome are somewhat close to the mean for
about 1.35 units from the mean.

Knowing this information, you may now decide whether you will join a game using an unfair die.
Make sure you will think more critically and logically before you make a decision and remember
being fair and just is a virtue.

Bear in mind that the mean of a discrete random variable is just the average value of a random
variable over repeated trials of experiment and in the next lesson it will be discussed further and
its application to the real-life situation.

To understand more the concept of the variance and standard deviation, the following are
examples that will give you a deeper idea about the concept of variance and standard deviation.

The first data in the following examples is somewhat expected to have a higher variance and
standard deviation or variability compare to the other data.

Example 1:
The population size of 100 different countries around the world compare to the population of 10
countries belong to the first world countries.

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Due to a large number of samples (100 different countries) and other factors such as land area,
economic status, etc., you may say that most likely you will get a higher variance and standard
deviation compared to the population of 10 countries belong to the first world countries.

Example 2:
The number of students in different universities compares to the number of students in a class in
a particular school.

Considering different universities with different size and course offerings, you may say that the
difference between their enrolments will be much higher than the difference of each class size in
a particular school.

Solving Problems Involving Mean and Variance of Probability Distribution

GAME OF CHANCE
Read the conversation below and answer the questions that follow.

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Questions:
1. If you are Cardo, would you buy a raffle ticket? Why?
2. If Cardo decided to buy five tickets, what is the probability that he would win the prize if
1000 tickets were sold?
3. How much money will Cardo gain if he wins the prize?
4. How much money will be wasted if he will not win the prize and he buy one ticket?
5. What if 1000 tickets were purchased by different individuals, what is the expected value
of buying one ticket?
6. How would you describe Romulo as a friend?

To answer question 1 in the previous activity, you have to understand first the consequences of
buying a ticket, will it give you advantages and disadvantages? Can you afford to spend extra
money to buy a ticket?

Look at this way, if you will buy a ticket you will have a chance to win the prize worth ₱15,000.00
if you are lucky enough it is good for you. But on the other hand, what if you are not lucky, then
you will lose ₱500.00 for buying the five tickets. Considering this amount (₱500.00), you are aware
that you can buy more essential needs like foods, school and medical supplies, and other
miscellaneous needs with this amount rather than using it to buy tickets. However, if you allocated
extra money for other unexpected expenses, buying a ticket is not bad at all. The point of making
the right decision is not difficult if you know how to consider what is more important.

If you are Cardo, you need to understand the given details on the situation for you to make the
right decision. If you will win the prize, your net gain is ₱15,000.00 less ₱500.00 (amount spend
for buying 5 tickets) or ₱14,500.00. The probability that you will win the prize is five out of one
5
thousand tickets or 1000. But if you decide to buy one ticket only, then your net gain is ₱15,000.00
less ₱100.00 (amount spend for buying 1 ticket) or ₱14,900.00 and the probability that you will
1
win the prize is one out of one thousand tickets or 1000. The more tickets you buy, the more
chances of winning. However, your chance of losing is higher than your chance of winning
because it is equal to 1 less than the probability of winning if you buy five tickets the probability
995 999
that you will not win the prize is 1000 or 0.995 while if you buy one ticketonly, the probability is 1000
or 0.999.

What if 1000 tickets were purchased by different individuals, what is the expected value of buying
one ticket? To answer this question, you need to apply the formula for the mean or expected value
of the discrete probability distributions which is equal to 𝐄(X) = µ𝑥 = ∑[𝐱𝐢 ∙ 𝐏(𝐱𝐢)]. The expected
value is also defined as the average value of a random variable over numerous trials of an
experiment. The table below is the probability distribution of the given situation.

Using the formula of expected value,

𝐄(𝐱) = (𝟏𝟒, 𝟗𝟎𝟎)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏) + (−𝟏𝟎𝟎)(𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗)
(𝐱) = −𝟖5

The negative value means that one loses money on the average. In particular, someone who
buy tickets, and although has a chance to win losses ₱85.00 per ticket purchased.

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Having this knowledge, you can now make a wise decision, but remember important things should
be prioritized, if you can afford to buy tickets without sacrificing your essential needs it is okay to
take a chance sometimes. You should also consider saving money for future use, because not
every day you have enough funds, having extra money would be a great help in times of need.

Meanwhile, having a friend like Romulo who are ready to help you or to advise you in time of need
is a precious one. He is a kind of friend who does not insist on what he wants but let his friend
decide on his own after giving a piece of advice. You are blessed if you will find a true friend that
you can rely on. Having a true friend is wealth.

Illustrating the Normal Random Variable and its Characteristics

Normal Probability Distribution is a probability distribution of continuous random variables. It

shows graphical representations of random variables obtained through measurement like the
height and weight of the students, the percentile ranks of the A&E (Accreditation and Equivalency)
Test result of the Alternative Learning System students, or any data with infinite values.

It is used to describe the characteristics of populations and help us visualize the inferences we
make about the population. It also used to determine the probabilities and percentile of the
continuous random variables in the distribution.

For example, your grades in Mathematics is one of the scores in the distribution, you can predict
the location of that score in the distribution and interpret it with regards to the mean and standard
deviation.

Properties of Normal Curve

The graphical representation of the normal distribution is popularly known as a normal curve. The
normal curve is described clearly by the following characteristics:
1. The normal curve is bell-shaped
2. The curve is symmetrical about its center. This means that, if we draw a segment from the
peak of the curve down to the horizontal axis, the segment divides the normal curve into
two equal parts or areas.
3. The mean, median, and mode coincide at the center. This also means that in a normal
distribution, or a distribution described by a normal curve, the mean, median, and mode
are equal.
4. The width of the curve is determined by the standard deviation of the distribution.
5. The tails of the curve are plotted in both directions and flatten out indefinitely along the
horizontal axis. The tails are thus asymptotic to the baseline. A portion of the graph that is
asymptotic to a reference axis or another graph is called an asymptote, always
approaching another but never touching it.
6. The total area under a normal curve is 1. This means that the normal curve represents the
probability, or the proportion, or the percentage associated with specific sets of
measurement values.

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To visualize and understand the properties/characteristics of a normal curve, please refer to

figure:

Figure 1: Graph of a Normal Curve

A normally distributed random variable with a mean µ = 0 and standard deviation ơ = 1 is called
a standard normal variable. It is presented using standard normal distribution where the center of
the curve is zero, which is mean and added one unit from the center to the right and subtract one
unit from the center to the left. This is shown below in figure 2.

Figure 2: Standard Normal Distribution

The shape of a normal curve is based on the two given parameters, the mean and the standard
deviation of the distribution. When comparing two distributions each described by the normal
curve, the following are the three situations based on the said parameters.

a. When the means are not equal, but the standard deviations are equal. (µ1 ≠ µ2 ; ơ1 = ơ2),
the curves have a similar shape but centered at different points, as shown in figure 3.

Figure 3: The Mean are Not Equal, but the Standard Deviation are Equal

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b. When the means are equal, but the standard deviations are not equal. (µ1 = µ2 ; ơ1 ≠ ơ2),
the curves are centered at the same point but they have different height and spreads as
shown in figure 4.

Figure 4: The Mean are Equal, but the Standard Deviations are Not Equal

c. When the means are different and the standard deviations are also different
(µ1 ≠ µ2 ; ơ1 ≠ ơ2), the curves are centered at different points and vary in shapes, as
shown in figure 5.

Figure 5: The Means are different and the Standard Deviation are also Different

EMPIRICAL RULE

You can easily understand the functions of normal probability distribution in our real-life world
using the empirical rule. Because this rule is used to roughly test the distribution’s normality, if
many data of a random variable fall outside the lower and upper limits of the three-standard
deviation, this means that the distribution is not normal.

The empirical rule is better known as 68% - 95% - 99.70% rule. This rule states that the data in
the distribution lies within one (1), two (2), and three (3) of the standard deviation from the mean
are approximately 68%, 95%, and 99.70%, respectively. Since the area of a normal curve is equal
to 1 or 100% as stated on its characteristics, there are only a few data which is 0.30% falls outside
the 3-standard deviation from the mean. For instance, the distribution of the grades of the Senior
High School students in Statistics and Probability for the Third Quarter is shown below.

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Most of the students’ grades

fall close to the mean

Fewer of the students’ Fewer of the students’

grades is far below mean grades is far below mean

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

75 79 83 87 91 95 99

Figure 6: Distribution of the Grades of the SHS Students in Statistics and Probability for the
Third Quarter

Using the empirical rule, you can say that the distribution of the grades of the Senior High School
in Statistics and Probability are distributed normally because the shape of the graph is bell-shaped
and symmetric about its mean, which is 87. This also indicates that most of the students’ grades
fall close to the mean and fewer of them are far below and/or above the mean.

It can summarize the distribution in the following percentage:

 68% of data lies within 1 standard deviation from the mean have a grade of 83 to 91
 95% of data lies within 2 standard deviations from the mean have a grade of 79 to 95
 99.70% of data lies within 3 standard deviations from the mean have a grade of 75 to 99

Example 1:
The scores of the Senior High School students in their Statistics and Probability quarterly
examination are normally distributed with a mean of 35 and a standard deviation of 5.
a. What percent of the scores are between 30 and 40?
b. What scores fall within 95% of the distribution?

Solution:
Draw a standard normal curve and plot the mean at the center. Then, add the standard deviation
to the mean once and mark it to the right of the mean. Add twice the standard deviation to the
mean and put it to the right of the first sum. Then, add thrice the standard deviation to the mean
and mark it to the right of the second sum. Do the same to the left. This time, instead of adding,
subtract the standard deviation from the mean. An illustration is provided below in figure 7:

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Figure 7: Distribution of Scores of Senior High School Students

Answer:
a. The scores 30 to 40 falls within the first standard deviation from the mean. Therefore, the
scores that fall between 30 and 40 is approximately 68% of the distribution.
b. Since 95% of the distribution lies within 2 standard deviations from the mean, then the
scores corresponding to this area of the distribution are scores from 25 up to 45

Example 2:
The district nurse of Candelaria East needs to measure the BMI (Body Mass Index) of the
Alternative Learning System students. She found out that the heights of male students are
normally distributed with a mean of 160 cm and a standard deviation of 7 cm. Find the percentage
of male students whose height is within 153 cm to 174 cm.

Figure 8: Distribution of BMI of the Alternative Learning System Students

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Solution:
The mean of this problem is 160, it is subtracted by 7 to the left (e.g. 160 - 7 = 153; 153-7 = 146;
146 – 7 = 139) and add 7 to the right. (e.g. 160 + 7 = 167; 167 + 7 = 174 + 7 = 181).

As stated in figure 8, 153 cm falls at 1 standard deviation from the mean to the left and the height
of 174 cm falls at 2 standard deviations from the mean to the right. Therefore, it covers the whole
68% and 13.5% of the distribution and the sum of it is 81.5%.

Therefore, 81.5% of the male students have a height between 153 cm to 174 cm.

Materials:

N/A

Learning Assessment:

Not yet
Statistics and Probability Developing Achieved Notes
evident
Illustrate and calculates Mean
and Variance of Discrete
Random Variable
Interprets and solves
problems involving mean and
variance of probability
distribution
Illustrates a Normal Random
Variable and its
Characteristics

References:

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Name: __________________________________________ Date: ___________________

Grade, Section & Strand:________________________ Score:____________________

Activity:
A.

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B.

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D.

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E.

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Week 5 Statistics and Probability

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to identify regions under normal curve
corresponds to different standard normal values, converts a normal random variable to a standard
normal variable and vice versa, and computes probabilities and percentiles using the standard
normal table.

Lesson Summary:

Identifying Regions under Normal Curve Corresponds to Different Standard Normal Values

In the previous module, we discussed the properties of the normal probability distribution, and
one of the things that you learned is that the total area under the curve is equal to one. Since the
standard normal distribution is defined as normally distributed random variable having a mean of
zero (µ= 0) and standard deviation of one (ơ = 1), the fifty (50) percent of the region under the
curve is below the mean and the other 50% is above the mean. Figure 1, as shown below illustrate
the standard normal curve.

You can easily identify the area of the regions under the normal curve by using the Table of Areas
under the Normal Curve which is also known as z-Table (see attachment at the last page of this
module). This table gives the area of any value of z from -3.99 to 3.99. The value from this table
will describe the area of the specific region of the curve to the left of the given z-value.

How to use the Table of Areas under the Normal Curve?

Example: Find the area to the left of -1.69
Solution: First, split the given z-value into hundredths. We can find the whole number and the
tenths digit (-1.6) at the left side of the table while the hundredths (0.09) located at the

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

uppermost of the table. Then the intersection of these numbers will be the area of the normal
curve to the left of the z-value.

STEPS ON HOW TO FIND THE AREA THAT CORRESPONDS TO Z –VALUE

1. Draw/sketch a normal curve and locate the given z-value on the normal curve
2. Shade the region of the curve according to the condition of z-value whether it is below,
above, or between.
3. Use the table of the area under the normal curve to find the corresponding area.
4. Choose the appropriate operation based on step 2 and 3
 When the z-value is to the left or any related terms (e.g. below, less than) just
write the value we obtained in step 3
 When the z-value is to the right or any related terms (e.g. above, greater than),
subtract 1 by the obtained value in step 3
 When the shaded region is in between of the two z-value, subtract the biggest by
the smallest value obtained in step 3
5. Label the shaded region and draw a conclusion

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Example 1: Find the area that corresponds below z = -1.35

Solution:
Step 1. Draw/sketch a normal curve and locate the given z-value.

Step 2: Shade the region of the curve according to the condition of z-value whether it is below,
above, or between.

Step 3. Use the table of the area under the normal curve to find the corresponding area

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

The intersection between -1.3 and 0.05 is 0.0885

Step 4. Choose the appropriate operation based on step 2 and 3

4.1 When the z-value is to the left or any related terms (e.g. below, less than) just write
the value we obtained in step 3
Since the shaded region of the curve is to the left of the z= -1.35 and the intersection
between -1.3 and 0.05 is 0.0885. Therefore, the area of the shaded region is 0.0885

Step 5. Label the shaded region and draw a conclusion.

Therefore, the area that corresponds below z = -1.35 is 0.0885.

Example 2: Find the area to the right of z = -1.35

Step 3: The value that corresponds to z= -1.35 is 0.0885

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

0.9115

0.9115

Therefore, the area to the right of z = -1.35 is 0.9115

Example 3: Find the area between z = -1.30 and z = 2

Step 3: The value that corresponds to z= -1.3 is 0.0968 and z= 2 is 0.9772.

0.9772

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Converting a Normal Random Variable to a Standard Normal Variable and Vice-versa

In solving real-life problems involving the normal curve, it is particularly important to convert a
random variable x to a standard normal variable or z-score. This procedure is known as
“standardizing” or “standardization” of a random variable, where a standardized value is called a
z-score. A z-score is a measure of the number of standard deviations (σ) a particular data value
is away from the mean (μ).

Suppose your score on a test in Probability and Statistics is 39 and the scores are normally
distributed with a mean of 33 and standard deviation of 3, then your score is exactly 2 standard
deviations above the mean. If you scored 30, then it is exactly 1 standard deviation below the
mean. All values that are above the mean have positive z-scores and all values that are below
the mean have negative z-scores. If you obtained a z-score of -3, this means that your score is 3
standard deviations below the mean, that is, 33 – 3(3) = 33 – 9 = 24.

Given any value x from a normal distribution with mean μ and standard deviation σ, to convert x
to a z-score (standard normal score), you need to;
(a) Subtract the mean μ from x.
(b) Divide this quantity, 𝑥 – 𝜇, by the standard deviation σ.
The formula used in converting a random variable x to a standard normal variable z is:

where: 𝑧 – standard normal score or z – score

𝑥 – any data value in a normal distribution
𝜇 - mean
𝜎 - standard deviation
Example 1.
Suppose IQ scores are normally distributed with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 10. If
your IQ is 85, what is your z-score? (Round off your answer to the nearest hundredths)
Solution:
The z-score can be computed using the formula;

Example 2.
On a nationwide placement test that is normally distributed, the mean was 125 and standard
deviation was 15. If you scored 149, what was your z-score? (Round off your answer to the
nearest hundredths)
Solution:
Using the formula

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Computing Probabilities and Percentiles Using the Standard Normal Table

A normal distribution curve can be used as a probability distribution curve for normally distributed
variables. The area under the standard normal distribution curve can also be thought of as a
probability. That is, if it's possible to select any 𝑧 value at random, the probability of choosing one,
say, below 1.45 would be the same as the area under the curve at the left of 1.45. In this case,
the area is 0.9265.

Therefore, the probability of randomly selecting a 𝑧 value below of 1.45 is 0.9265 or 92.65%. The
problems involving probabilities and percentiles are solved in the same manner as finding the
areas under a normal curve.

In finding probabilities, the following notations will be used:

a) 𝑃(𝑍 < 𝑧) – probability at the left of 𝑧
b) 𝑃(𝑍 > 𝑧) = 1 – 𝑃(𝑍 < 𝑧) – probability at the right of 𝑧
c) 𝑃(𝑎 < 𝑧 < 𝑏) – the probability of 𝑧 that is in between two other 𝑧 values, say 𝑎 and 𝑏
d) 𝑃(𝑧 < 𝑎 ) ∪ 𝑃(𝑧 > 𝑏 ) – the probability of 𝑧 is in the opposite direction of two values, say 𝑎
and 𝑏
e) 𝑃(𝑋 < 𝑥) – probability at the left of a normal random variable 𝑥
f) 𝑃(𝑋 > 𝑥) – probability at the right of a normal random variable 𝑥
g) 𝑃(𝑎 < 𝑋 < 𝑏) – the probability of a normal random variable 𝑋 that is in between two other
normal random variables, say 𝑎 and 𝑏.
h) 𝑃(𝑋 < 𝑎 ) ∪ 𝑃(𝑋 > 𝑏 ) – the probability of 𝑋 is in the opposite direction of two values, say 𝑎
and 𝑏

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Example 1.
Find the probabilities for each of the following.
(a) 𝑃(𝑍 < 1.32)
(b) 𝑃(𝑍 < −1.05)
(c) 𝑃(−0.75 < 𝑍 < 1.56)
(d) 𝑃(𝑍 > −0.88)
Solution:
(a) The probability (𝑍 < 1.32) means to find the area under the normal curve at the left of 𝑧 =
1.32. From the table, find the intersection on row 1.3 and column 0.02. Thus, the
probability is 0.9066 or 90.66%.

(b) The probability (𝑍 < −1.05) is the same as the area under the normal curve at the left of 𝑧
= −1.05. From the table, the area is 0.1469. Thus, the probability is 0.1469 or 14.69%.

(c) The probability (−0.75 < 𝑍 < 1.56) is the same as the area under the normal curve
between 𝑧 values -0.75 and 1.56. To get the area, subtract the area of 𝑧 = −0.75 from
the area of 𝑧 = 1.56. Thus, (−0.75 < 𝑍 < 1.56) = 𝑃(𝑍 < 1.56)– 𝑃(𝑍 < −0.75) = 0.9406 –
0.2266 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝑜𝑟 𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝟎%.

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(d) The probability (𝑍 > −0.88) is the same as the area under the normal curve at the right of
𝑧 = −0.88. To get the area, subtract the area of 𝑧 = −0.88 from 1. Thus, (𝑍 > −0.88) = 1 –
𝑃(𝑍 < −0.88) = 1 – 0.1894 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑜𝑟 𝟖𝟏. 𝟎𝟔%.

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Example 4:
Each month, a Filipino household generates an average of 28 pounds of newspaper for garbage
or recycling. Assume that the distribution is normal with a standard deviation of 2 pounds. If a
household is selected at random, find the probability of its generating
a. between 27 and 31 pounds per month.
b. more than 30.2 pounds per month.
Solution:

Materials:
1 whole paper

Learning Assessment:

Not yet
Statistics and Probability Developing Achieved Notes
evident
identify regions under normal
curve corresponds to different
standard normal values
converts a normal random
variable to a standard normal
variable and vice versa
computes probabilities and
percentiles using the standard
normal table

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Name:______________________________________ Date:_____________________
Section & Strand:___________________________ Score:____________________

Activity 1:
Find the area or region that corresponds to each of the following z values. Sketch and label
each curve.
1. to the right of z = 2.18
2. below z= -1.40
3. above z= 0.57
4. between z = -2.34 and z = 1.57
5. between z = 0.32 and z = 2.42

Activity 2:
A. Supply the needed information by solving the missing value.
1. x = 25, µ= 40, σ = 6, z = ?
2. z = -2.25, µ= 218, σ = 36, x = ?
3. x = 39, µ= 30, σ = 3, z = ?
4. x = 125, µ= 105, σ = 8, z = ?
5. z = 1.11, µ= 145, σ = 20, x =?

B. Solve the following problems.

1. The mean number of hours a Filipino worker spends on the computer is 3.1 hours per
workday. Assume the standard deviation is 0.5 hour and is normally distributed, how long
does a worker spend on the computer if his z-score is 1.2?

2. Each month, a Filipino household generates an average of 28 pounds of newspaper for

garbage or recycling. Assume the standard deviation is 2 pounds. Determine the z-score
of a household that generates 22 pounds of newspaper.

Activity 3:
Use the Table of Standard Normal distribution to determine corresponding probabilities of the
following:
1. 𝑃(𝑍 < −1.45)
2. 𝑃(0.5 < 𝑍 < 2.33)
3. 𝑃(𝑍 > 1.78)

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Appendix A

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Week 6 Statistics and Probability

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to illustrate random sampling and distinguish
between parameter and statistic.

Lesson Summary:

Random Sampling
In research, collecting data can either be done in the entire population or the subset of this
population called sample. If a researcher opts to use sample rather than a population, he must
take considerations on the number of samples and how these samples can be chosen out of his
target population.

A population includes all of its elements from a set of data. The size of the population is the
number of observations in the population. For example, if ABSCBN network has 11,000
employees having the required blood type in a certain study, then we have a population of size
11,000.

Sample consists of one or more data drawn from the population. It is a subset, or an incomplete
set taken from a population of objects or observations. Taking samples instead of the population
is less time-consuming and cost-effective. Although sampling has advantages, it can also be a
source of bias and inaccuracy.

Random Sampling is a sampling method of choosing representatives from the population

wherein every sample has an equal chance of being selected. Accurate data can be collected
using random sampling techniques.

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Different Types of Random Sampling

a. A Simple Random Sampling technique is the most basic random sampling wherein
each element in the population has an equal probability of being selected. They are
usually represented by a unique identification number that is written on equal-sized
and shaped papers and then selection of samples is possible through the lottery
method. Random numbers selected to decide which elements are included as the
sample. The drawing number of paper is based on the desired number of samples.

b. Systematic Random Sampling is a random sampling that uses a list of all the
elements in the population and then elements are being selected based on the kth consistent
intervals. To get the kth interval, divide the population size by the sample size.

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c. Stratified Random Sampling is a random sampling wherein the population is

divided into different strata or divisions. The number of samples will be
proportionately picked in each stratum that is why all strata are represented in the
samples.

d. Cluster Sampling is a random sampling wherein population is divided into clusters

or groups and then the clusters are randomly selected. All elements of the clusters
randomly selected are considered the samples of the study

The sampling techniques that involve random selection are called Probability Sampling.
Likewise, simple random, systematic, and stratified and cluster sampling are all
probability sampling techniques.

There are also sampling techniques that do not involve random selection of data. They
are called Non-Probability Sampling. An example of this is convenience sampling
wherein the researcher gathers data from nearby sources of information exerting minimal
effort. Convenience is being used by persons giving questionnaires on the streets to ask
the passers-by.

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Purposive sampling is also not considered a random sampling since the respondents are
being selected based on the goal of the studies of the researcher. If the study is about
the students who are children of OFW, the researcher will get samples who are children
of OFW. This excludes other students from being a sample.

Computing for the Parameter and Statistic

In Statistics, it is sometimes impossible to gather data from the entire population but through
sampling, researchers get a clearer picture of the whole group being studied. One can draw
inferences about a certain population by carefully selecting random samples and using those data
to make interpretations about the entire population. Most of the researches need numerical values
to easily interpret the results of the study. Those values are computed based on all the elements
of the population or from the randomly selected samples that were taken. The values can be
classified into parameters and statistics. Parameter and statistics are usually computed through
different measures of central tendency and variability.

A Parameter is a measure that is used to describe the population while Statistic is a measure
that is used to describe the sample.

PARAMETER
Below are grades in Statistics of Grade 11 students during the third quarter.
94 85 88 79 78
75 89 91 84 77

Let us compute the population mean, population variance, and population standard deviation.

POPULATION MEAN
The mean is the sum of the data divided by the number of data. The mean is used to describe
where the set of data tends to concentrate at a certain point. Population mean is the mean
computed based on the elements of the population or data. The symbol µ (read as “mu”) is used
to represent population mean. To compute for the population mean, we simply add all the data
(X) and then, divide it by the number of elements in the population (N). We apply the formula:

where: µ = the population mean

∑x = the summation of x (sum of the measures)
𝑁 = number of elements in the population

Grades in Statistics of Grade 11 Students during the Third Quarter

Student’s Number Grade (X)
1 94
2 85
3 88
4 79
5 78
6 75
7 89

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8 91
9 84
10 77
N = 10 ∑x = 840

In our case, adding all the 10 grades will give us a sum of 840.

We substitute the values obtained to the formula , therefore,

Our computed population mean µ is 84.

POPULATION VARIANCE AND POPULATION STANDARD DEVIATION

Variance and standard deviation determine how to spread or to scatter each data on the set from
the mean. Standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance.

Population variance is the computed variance of the elements of the population. The symbol 𝜎2
(read as “sigma squared”) is used to represent population variance.

To compute for the population variance, we apply the formula:

where: X = given data

µ = the population mean
𝑁 = number of elements in the population

Population standard deviation is the computed standard deviation of the elements of the
population. The symbol 𝜎 (read as “sigma”) is used to represent population standard deviation.

To compute for the population standard deviation, we use the formula:

where: X = given data

µ = the population mean
𝑁 = number of elements in the population

Consider the data given above, to solve for the population variance and population standard
deviation, we have this table:

Student’s Number Grade (X) X−µ (X − µ)2

1 94 94 – 84 = 10 102 = 100
2 85 85 – 84 = 1 12 = 1
3 88 88 – 84 = 4 42 = 16
4 79 79 – 84 = – 5 (-5)2 = 25
5 78 78 – 84 = – 6 (-6)2 = 36
6 75 75 – 84 = – 9 (-9)2 = 81
7 89 89 – 84 = 5 52 = 25
8 91 91 – 84 = 7 72 = 49
9 84 84 – 84 = 0 02 = 0
10 77 77 – 84 = – 7 (-7)2 = 49
N = 10 ∑x = 840 ∑(X − µ)2 = 382

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The third column is computed through subtracting the mean to the scores, while the fourth column
is computed by squaring the third column. Since there is a symbol ∑ or summation in the formula,
we need to add the computed values in the fourth column.

Again, for the population mean,

For the population variance, we substitute the computed values to our formula, thus

For the population standard deviation, we can also substitute the computed values to the formula,
or we can simply get the square root of the variance.

STATISTIC

From the previous data of the population, suppose that we randomly select only 7 data out of the
total 10 data in the population.

Compute the sample mean, sample variance, and sample standard deviation. Here is the result:

SAMPLE MEAN
The sample mean is the average of all the data of the samples. The symbol 𝑥̅ (read as “x bar”) is
used to represent the sample mean. To compute for the sample mean, we simply add all the data
and divide it by the number of elements in the sample (n). We apply the formula:

where: 𝑥̅= the sample mean

∑x = the summation of x (sum of the measures)
𝑛 = number of elements in the sample

Grades in Statistics of Grade 11 Students during the Third Quarter

Student’s Number Population Sample
(Student’s Grades) (Student’s Grades)
1 94 94
2 85
3 88 88
4 79 79
5 78
6 75
7 89 89
8 91 91
9 84 84

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10 77 77
N = 10 ∑x = 840 ∑x = 602

In our case, adding the 7 samples will give us a sum of 602.

We substitute to the formula , therefore,

Our computed sample mean 𝑥̅ is 86.

In this example, there is a slight difference between the population mean and the sample mean.
But notice that there is no difference regarding the method in determining the value of the
population mean and the sample mean. For the divisor, the population mean µ uses N (population
size) while sample mean x applies n (sample size).

SAMPLE VARIANCE AND SAMPLE STANDARD DEVIATION

Sample variance is the computed variance of the elements of the sample. s2 is used to represent
sample variance.

To compute for the sample variance, we apply the formula:

where: x = given data
𝑥̅= the sample mean
𝑛 = number of elements in the sample

Sample standard deviation is the computed standard deviation of the elements of the sample.
s is used to represent sample standard deviation.
To compute for the sample standard deviation, we use the formula:
where: x = given data
𝑥̅= the sample mean
𝑛 = number of elements in the sample
As you would notice, the sample standard deviation is also the square root of the sample variance.

Population Sample
Student’s
(Student’s (Student’s x − 𝑥̅ (x − 𝑥̅)2
Number
Grades) Grades)
1 94 94 94 – 86 = 8 82 = 64
2 85
3 88 88 88 – 86 = 2 22 = 4
4 79 79 79 – 86 = – 7 (–7)2 = 49
5 78
6 75
7 89 89 89 – 86 = 3 32 = 9
8 91 91 91 – 86 = 5 52 = 25
9 84 84 84 – 86 = – 2 (– 2)2 = 4
10 77 77 77 – 86 = – 9 (– 9)2 = 81
N = 10 ∑x = 840 ∑x = 602 ∑(x − 𝑥̅)2 = 236
The fourth column is computed by subtracting the mean to the grades, while the last column is
computed by squaring the third column. Since there is a symbol ∑ or summation, we need to add
the computed values.

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Again, the sample mean is

For the sample variance, that is

For the sample standard deviation, we have

Materials:

N/A

Learning Assessment:

Not yet
Statistics and Probability Developing Achieved Notes
evident
illustrate random sampling
distinguish between
parameter and statistic

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Name:______________________________________ Date:_____________________
Section & Strand:___________________________ Score:____________________

Activity 1:
Identify whether the following illustrates Simple, Systematic, Stratified or Cluster random
sampling. Write your answer before the number.
____________1. A researcher surveys all students from 3 randomly selected classes out of 7
classes.
____________2. A researcher separates the list of boys and girls, then draws 7 names by
gender.
____________3. A researcher tells the class to count and then selects those students who
count a multiple of 7 numbers.
____________4. A researcher selects every 7th student from a random list.
____________5. A researcher writes the name of each student on a piece of paper, mixes the
papers in a bowl, and draws 7 pieces of paper.

Activity 2:
I. The following are the scores of ten ABM students in their fourth-quarter examination:

Complete the table and compute for the population mean, population variance, and population
standard deviation.

Student’s Number Scores (X) X−µ (X − µ)2

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
N = 10 ∑x = ∑(X − µ)2 =

Write your computations here:

population mean population variance population standard deviation

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II. The scores of the 5 randomly selected HUMSS students are given below:
26, 45, 31, 34, 44

Complete the table and compute for the sample mean, sample variance, and sample standard
deviation.

Student’s Number Scores (X) x − 𝑥̅ (x − 𝑥̅)2

1
2
3
4
5
n = 10 ∑x = ∑(x − 𝑥̅)2 =

Write your computations here:

sample mean sample variance sample standard deviation

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Week 7 Statistics and Probability

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to identify sampling distributions of statistics
(sample mean), finds the mean and variance of the sampling distribution of the sample mean and
defines the sampling distribution of the sample mean for normal population when the variance is:
(a) known; (b) unknown

Lesson Summary:

Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

In almost all fields of study, we gather data. These data are used to estimate things about the
nature of human beings, phenomena, and even our world. If the number of elements in the
population is too many, it will be extremely hard for the researchers to collect all data from the
group. In some cases, we need to use random sampling to get the appropriate statistic from the
samples to draw conclusions that would represent the population. However, there can be
numerous different sets of possible samples of the same size that can be drawn from a given
population. If we gather another set of a random sample, wouldn’t be the sample mean become
different? How can we be sure that one set of random samples can represent the entire
population? How can we tell that our statistic is accurate?

During your junior high school classes, you already discussed frequency distribution and on the
earlier part of this course, you also tackled the probability distribution. In this module, we will
discuss another distribution, the sampling distribution of the mean. Sampling distribution shows
all the possible samples, in a given population, together with their mean. It describes the
probability of the mean of all sets of samples with the same sample size n. The idea of sampling
distribution helps us to recognize how we use one random sample to conclude for the population.
It defines the entire possible statistic we could conclude up with.

The sampling distribution is a significant idea in Statistics. It is considered to be a foundation and

essential to learn. We could have better knowledge about the population using statistical
inference.

Sampling distribution of the sample means is a frequency distribution using the computed
sample mean from all the possible random samples of a particular sample size taken from the
given population.

Steps to follow in making a sampling distribution of the sample mean:

1. Determine the number of sets of all possible random samples that can be drawn from the
given population by using the formula, NCn, where N is the population size and n is the
sample size.
Example: Given the a population of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 and sample size of 3, therefore we have

2. List all the possible random samples and solve for the sample mean of each set of
samples.

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Sample Mean
1, 2, 3 2
1, 2, 4 2.33
1, 2, 5 2.67
1, 3, 4 2.67
1, 3, 5 3
1, 4, 5 3.33
2, 3, 4 3
2, 3, 5 3.33
2, 4, 5 3.67
3, 4, 5 4

3. Construct a frequency and probability distribution table of the sample means indicating
its number of occurrence or the frequency and probability.

Sample Means Frequency Probability P(x)

2 1 1⁄ or 0.10
10
2.33 1 1⁄ or 0.10
10
2.67 2 2⁄ or 0.20
10
3 2 2⁄ or 0.20
10
3.33 2 2⁄ or 0.20
10
3.67 1 1⁄ or 0.10
10
4 1 1⁄ or 0.10
10

Mean and Variance of the Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

Statisticians do not just define the discrepancy of the individual data values about the mean of
the population. They are also concerned to know how the means of the samples of the same size
taken from the same group vary about the population mean. In this lesson, you will learn how to
describe the sampling distribution of the sample mean by computing its mean and variance.

The mean of the population is equal to the sample mean. This happens because all samples
obtained of n size came from the same population. The variance of the population is greater than
the variance of the sample means since a sample of n is less than the population N then the data
vary by a small amount as compared to the population.

Mean of the Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

Variance of the Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

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Example:
Direction: Perform what is being asked. Follow the steps indicated in the first column of the table
to complete the activity. In the second column, write your solution on the spaces provided.

Situation: Mark is conducting a survey on grade 12 students of Colegio de Sebastian. He found

out that there are only few students who knew about the makers of the Philippine flag consisting
of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 SHS students from 5 sections. Suppose that the sample size of 2 sections
were drawn from this population (without replacement), describe the sampling distribution of the
sample means.

1. What is the mean and variance of the sampling distribution of the sample means?
2. Compare these values to the mean and variance of the population

Steps Illustration/Solution
1. Compute the (1) µ = 𝛴𝑥/𝑁
mean of the µ = (1+2+3+4+5) / 5
population µ. µ = 3.00

2. Compute the
variance of
the population
σ2

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a. Subtract each (2)

measurement
by the
computed
population
mean (x- µ)
b. Square the
results
obtained in (a)
then add. σ2 = Σ(X- µ)2 / N
Divide the
σ2 = 10 / 5
sum by the
frequency of σ2 = 2
measurement
s to get the So, the varia nce of the population is 2.
value of the
population
variance.
Σ(x- µ)2 / N
3. Determine the
number of (3) Use the formula . Here N=5 and n=2.
possible 5C2 = 10
samples of So, there are 10 possible samples of size 2 that can be drawn.
size n = 2.
4. List all (4)
possible
samples and
their
corresponding
means

5. Construct the (5)

sampling
distribution of
the sample
means.

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

6. Compute the (6)

mean of the
sampling
distribution of
the sample
means.

Follow these
steps:
a. Multiply the
sample mean
by the
corresponding
probability.
b. Add the
results.
7. Compute the
variance of
the sampling
distribution of
the sample
mean.
Follow these steps:
a. Subtract the
population
mean from
each sample
mean.
b. Square the
difference.
c. Multiply the
results by the
corresponding
probability.
d. Add the
results.

Defining Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean for Normal Population

As stated from the previous lessons, one of the most important uses of statistics is to arise a valid
generalization of the population based on statistics of the sample. Since many samples can be
chosen from the same population, each sample having its own statistics- the mean, variance etc.-
quite different from those of other samples, the variation poses a problem regarding the reliability
of the characteristics of the population estimated from one sample. However, if the samples are
probability samples, the reliability of the results can be measured and at the same time, the
parameters can be estimated with a high degree of confidence. This lesson is intended to define
those statistical techniques designed to meet these ends.

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Sample Situations:
1. Because of Inclusive Education, learners with disabilities are also part of the normal
students. Consider a population of the PWD learners consisting of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Samples of size 2 are drawn from this population.
 Population Variance is Known
 This is a population data. Although the value of the variance is not given, you can
still determine the population mean and population variance of the data using the
∑X
formulas 𝜇 = 𝑁 , 𝜎2 = 𝛴(𝑥 − µ)2 / 𝑁 respectively. So, this situation is an example of
the sampling distribution when the variance is known.
σ
 Since the population variance can be calculated, used 𝜎𝑥̅ = √n in the computation
of the standard error of the mean.

2. Given 𝜇 = 15, 𝑠 = 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 16

 Population Variance is Unknown
 The given values are the population mean 𝜇 = 15, the sample standard deviation
𝑠 = 6, and the sample size 𝑛 = 16.
s
 Use the formula 𝑠𝑥̅ = √n for the standard error of the mean.

3. IQ scores are normally distributed with standard deviation 𝜎 = 15 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠. You wish to
determine the 𝜇 IQ of all students in Matiyaga High School by taking a random sample of
16 students.
 Population Variance is Known
 The population variance is given with the value of the square of the standard
deviation 𝜎2 = 152.
σ
 Apply the formula 𝜎𝑥̅ = √n in computing for the standard error of the mean.

4. The general weighted average (GWA) of the Grade 7 applicants for admission over the
past 7 years has been consistently 𝜇 = 92.78. This year a sample data of the applicant’s
GWA are 98, 89, 92, 95, 96, 90, 91, 92, 97 and 93
 Population Variance is Unknown
 The only given values are the population mean 𝜇 = 92.78 and the sample size 𝑛 =
10.
s
 Use the formula 𝑠𝑥̅ = √n for the standard error of the mean.

5. A finite population composed of six items whose values are 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, and 10. Samples
of 3 items are drawn at random without replacement.
 Population Variance is Known
 This is a population data. Although the value of the variance is not given, you can
still determine the population mean and population variance of the data using the
∑X
formulas 𝜇 = 𝑁 , 𝜎2 = 𝛴(𝑥 − µ)2 / 𝑁
 So, this situation is an example of the sampling distribution where the population
variance can be computed.
σ
 Apply the formula 𝜎𝑥̅ = √n to solve for the standard error of the mean.

You can easily find out if the given problem provides the value of the population variance or if the
population variance is unknown. Also, when the population variance is known, the standard

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

σ
deviation of the sampling distribution of the mean is computed using the formula 𝜎𝑥̅ = √n
, while
s
the formula 𝑠𝑥̅ = √n is used to estimate the standard error of the mean when the population variance
is unknown.

Distribution of the Sample Mean for Normal Population

1. Population variance 𝜎2 is known
The population has a mean μ and variance of 𝜎2, the distribution of the sample
σ
mean is (at least approximately) normal and standard error of the mean 𝜎𝑥̅ = √n, where σ
is the population standard deviation and 𝑛 is the sample size. To determine the probability
of a certain event, we can use the 𝑧 − 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 by transforming the mean of the sample
x̅−μ
data to an approximately normal variable 𝑧, using the relation 𝑧 = σ . This distribution is
√n
best applied for large sample sizes, say 𝑛 ≥ 30.

2. Population variance 𝜎2 is unknown

s
The standard error of the mean becomes 𝑠𝑥̅ = , 𝑠 is the point estimate of 𝜎
√n
(population standard deviation) or the sample standard deviation and 𝑛 is the sample size.
To estimate the population parameters, we can use the 𝑡 − 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 by using the
x̅−μ
formula 𝑡 = s . Remember that as n the sample size is very large, the standard deviation
√n
𝑠 is almost indistinguishable from the population standard deviation 𝜎 and therefore 𝑡 and
𝑧 distributions are essentially identical. Remember that, we use the 𝑡 − 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 for
small sample size, say 𝑛 < 30.

Materials:
1 whole paper

Learning Assessment:

Not yet
Statistics and Probability Developing Achieved Notes
evident
identify sampling distributions
of statistics (sample mean),
finds the mean and variance
of the sampling distribution of
the sample mean and
defines the sampling
distribution of the sample
mean for normal population
when the variance is: (a)
known; (b) unknown

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Week 8 Statistics and Probability

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to illustrates the Central Limit Theorem, defines
the sampling distribution of the sample mean using the Central Limit Theorem, solves problems
involving sampling distributions of the sample mean, illustrates the t-distribution, and identifies
percentiles using the t-table.

Assignment:
Browse the internet and look for a site, a program or software that easily computes for t-values
and areas under the t-distribution. Answer the following questions using the t-table then
compare your answer using the software.
1. What is the area to the right of 1.5 under the t-distribution with 14 degrees of freedom?
2. What is the area to the right of 2.75 under the t-distribution with 28 degrees of freedom?
3. What is the area to the left of 2.8 under the t-distribution with 5 degrees of freedom?
4. If the degree of freedom is 20, what is the 96th percentile of the t-distribution?
5. In a t-distribution with 13 degrees of freedom, what is the 38th percentile?

Lesson Summary:

Illustrating the Central Limit Theorem

Many statistics have distributions that are approximately normal for large sample sizes, even
when we are sampling from a distribution that is not normal. This means that we can develop
statistical inference procedures that are based on the normal distribution, even if we are sampling
from a population that is not normal, provided we have a large sample size.

Let us illustrate this through this example:

Suppose that the average age of the people living in a Barangay is 34 with a standard deviation
of 4. If 100 residents of a certain Barangay decided to take summer outing after COVID-19
pandemic and Enhanced Community Quarantine has been lifted for bonding and relaxation,
what is the probability that the average age of these residents is less than 35?

Solution:
It is not given that the population is normally distributed but since n > 30, then you can assume
that the sampling distribution of the mean ages of 100 barangay residents is normal according
to the Central Limit Theorem.

The Central Limit Theorem describes the normality of the distribution of the sample mean taken
from a population that is not normally distributed.

Step 1: Write the given data.

𝜇 = 34, 𝜎 = 4, 𝑋̅ = 35, 𝑛 = 100

Step 2: Convert the raw score to the standard score using the formula

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Step 3: Use the Z table to find P (Z < 2.5).

( 𝑍 < 2.5) = 0.9938

Therefore, the probability that the random sample of 100 persons has an average of fewer than
35 years is 0.9938 or 99.38%.

Consider the illustrations below for a better understanding of the Central Limit Theorem. Still refer
to our previous example:

Suppose that the average age of the people living in a Barangay is 34 with a standard deviation
of 4. One hundred (100) residents of a certain Barangay decided to take summer outing after
COVID-19 pandemic and Enhanced Community Quarantine has been lifted for bonding and
relaxation.

If we make a relative histogram of samples with various sample sizes, it would look like the
histograms below.

Calculate the sample mean, the histogram of the illustration comes to be normally distributed
and that is where the Central Limit Theorem is used to make better inferences.

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Solving Problems Involving Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

The concept of the standard error of the mean is very significant, since it measures the degree of
accuracy of the sample mean as an estimate of population mean. There is a good estimate if the
standard error is small or close to zero and a poor estimate if it is large. The value of the standard
error depends mainly on the sample size n. Specifically, as n increases, 𝜎𝑥̅ decreases. The most
remarkable theorem in statistical inference is the Central Limit Theorem which assures that no
matter what the shape of the population distribution is, the sampling distribution of the mean is
closely normally distributed whenever n is large. This fact holds true for sample sizes greater than
or equal to 30.

A sampling distribution of the sample mean is a frequency distribution of the sample mean
computed from all possible random samples of a specific size n taken from a population. The
probability distribution of the sample mean is also called the sampling distribution of the sample
mean. The standard distribution of the sampling distribution of the sample mean is also known as
the standard error of the mean.

Example: Probable Time

The mean time it takes a group of senior high students to complete a certain examination is 50.6
minutes. The standard deviation is 6 minutes. Assume that the variable is normally distributed.

1. What is the probability that a randomly selected senior high school student will complete
the examination in less than 48 minutes?

To answer the problem, follow the steps:

Step 1. Identify the given information:

𝜇 = 50.6
𝜎=6
X = 48

Step 2. Identify what is asked for:

P(X ˂ 48)

Step 3. Identify the formula to be used:

The problem is dealing with an individual data obtained from the population so the formula to be
X−μ
used is z = σ to convert 48 to standard score.

Step 4. Compute for the Probability:

X−μ
z= σ

48−50.6
z= 6

z = - 0.43

Find P(X< 48) by getting the area under the normal curve.
P(X˂ 48) = P(z ˂ -0.43) = 0.3336

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Therefore, the probability that a randomly selected college student will complete the
examination in less than 48 minutes is 0.3336 or 33.36%.

2. If 49 randomly selected senior high school students take the examination, what is the
probability that the mean time it takes the group to complete the test will be less than 48
minutes?

Step 1. Identify the given information:

𝜇 = 50.6
𝜎=6
X = 48
𝑛 = 49

Step 2: Identify what is asked.

P(𝑋̅ ˂ 48)

Step 3: Identify the formula to be used.

The problem is dealing with data about the sample mean or n observations, so the
x̅̅−μ
formula to be used to standardize 48 is 𝑧 = σ
√n

Step 4: Compute for the Probability:

Find P(𝑋̅ ˂ 48) by getting the area under the normal curve.
P(𝑋̅ ˂ 48) = P(z ˂ -3.03) = 0.0012

The probability that 49 randomly selected senior high school students will complete the
test in less than 48 minutes is 0.0012 or 0.12%

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Illustrating the t-Distribution

The Student’s t-distribution is a probability distribution that is used to estimate population

parameters when the sample size is small (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 < 30) and/or when the population
variance is unknown. It was developed by William Sealy Gosset in 1908. He used the pseudonym
or pen name “Student” when he published his paper which describes the distribution. That is why
it is called “Student’s t-distribution”. He worked at a brewery and was interested in the problems
of small samples, for example, the chemical properties of barley. In the problem he analyzed, the
sample size might be as low as three.

Suppose you are about to draw a random sample of n observations from a normally distributed
population, you previously learned that,

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

You have here a plot of standard normal distribution in black and t-distributions with 3, 5, 20, and
30 degrees of freedom in red, green, violet, and blue respectively. You can see that both the z-
distribution and t-distributions are symmetric about 0 and bell-shaped. But the t-distributions have
heavier tails (more area in the tails) and lower peaks.

The exact shape of the t-distribution depends on the degrees of freedom. The figure above tells
you that as the degrees of freedom increase, the t-distribution tends toward the standard normal
distribution. At 30 degrees of freedom, the blue curve might look very close to the normal curve.
But if you look very closely, you would see that the t-distribution still has slightly heavier tails and
slightly lower peak. But if you let those degrees of freedom continue to increase, the t-distribution
is going to get closer and closer to the standard normal distribution.

Properties of t-distribution
1. The t-distribution is symmetrical about 0. That means if you draw a segment from the peak
of the curve down to the 0 mark on the horizontal axis, the curve is divided into two equal
parts or areas. The t- scores on the horizontal axis will be divided also with half of the t-
scores being positive and half negative.

2. The t-distribution is bell-shaped like the normal distribution but has heavier tails. That
means it is more prone to producing values that fall far from the mean. The tails are
asymptotic to the horizontal axis. (Each tail approaches the horizontal axis but never
touches it.)

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

3. The mean, median, and mode of the t-distribution are all equal to zero.
v
4. The variance is always greater than 1. It is equal to 𝑣−2 where 𝑣 is the number of degrees
of freedom. As the number of degrees of freedom increases and approaches infinity, the
variance approaches 1. Using the formula, if the number of degrees of freedom is 10, the
10 10
variance is 10−2 = 8 = 1.25
5. As the degrees of freedom increase, the t-distribution curve looks more and more like the
normal distribution. With infinite degrees of freedom, t-distribution is the same as the
normal distribution.

6. The standard deviation of the t-distribution varies with the sample size. It is always greater
than 1. Unlike the normal distribution, which has a standard deviation of 1.
7. The total area under a t-distribution curve is 1 or 100%. One can say that the area under
the t-distribution curve represents the probability or the percentage associated with
specific sets of t-values.

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Identifying Percentiles Using the t-Table

In finding the areas and percentiles for a t-distribution you need to familiarize yourself with the t-
table. You are going to use a table that is different from the z-table you used in finding the area
under the normal curve.

Below is an example of a t-table. It is a right-tailed t-table because the given areas in this table
are areas on the right tail of the t-distribution. Some t-tables are slightly different in format. Look
at the t-table below. In the first column in the left most part, you have the degrees of freedom. It
ranges from 1 down to ∞. While the first row in the upper part of the t-table represents the area
under the right tail of the t-distribution. Some of the given areas are from 0.25 down to 0.0005.
The rest of the entries in the body of the table are the values of the variable t (t-values).

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Grade 11 – Learning Module

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Identifying Percentiles Using the t-Table

A percentile is a value on a t-distribution that is less than the probability in the given percentage.
For example, the 90th percentile of the t-distribution is that t-value whose left tail probability is
90% and whose right-tail probability is 10%. Since the area under the t-distribution curve also
represents the probability, the 90th percentile of the t-distribution is the t-value whose area on its
left tail is 0.90 and whose area on its right tail is 0.10.

Illustrative Example 1:
Find the 95th percentile of a t-distribution with 6 degrees of freedom.
You can plot in a t-distribution and draw what you are looking for. The 95th percentile is the value
of the variable t that has an area of 95% or 0.95 to the left.
That value is somewhere roughly near the t-value of 2. You don’t need to get exactly where it is
on t-distribution when you are drawing it at this point, you are just looking for the rough idea where
it is.

And since the area of the entire curve is 1, this implies that the area to the right of the 95th
percentile is 0.05. Hence, the 95th percentile is the value of the variable t that has an area of
0.05 to the right. That means finding the 95th percentile is looking for the t-value with an area to
the right of 0.05 under a t-distribution with 6 degrees of freedom. So, you are going to focus on
the 6 degrees of freedom row, and in the column containing the area to the right of 0.05. (The
appropriate row and column were highlighted).

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

From the figure above, you can see that the value that you need is 1.943. Hence the 95th
percentile is 1.943. That means the t-value of 1.943 has 95% of the area to the left of it, or 0.95.
Also, you can say that the t-value of 1.943 has an area of 0.05 to its right. And so, using the t-
table, you will find that the 95th percentile is 1.943.

Illustrative Example 2:
Find the 5th percentile of a t-distribution with 6 degrees of freedom.
The 5th percentile is the value of the variable t that has an area of 5% or 0.05 to the left. And
since the area of the entire curve is 1, you are convinced that the area to the right of the 5th
percentile is 0.95. Hence, the 5th percentile is the value of the variable t that has an area of 0.95
to the right. Therefore, finding the 5th percentile is the same as finding for the t-value with an area
to the right of 0.95 under a t-distribution with 6 degrees of freedom.

But if you look at the given areas in the first row of the t table, there is no entry for an area of 0.95.
There is no way you can find an area of 0.95 because your table is a right-tailed t table. That
means it is set to display only the areas under the right tail of the t distribution.

Also, if you look at your illustration of the 5th percentile below you will realize that the t-value that
you are looking for lies between -1 and -2. Hence its value should be a negative number. But if

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

you observe the body of the table where t-values are located, you cannot find any negative t-
value. The table gives only positive values of t.

At this point, you need to recall one of the properties of the t-distribution that it is symmetric about
zero. That means the right tail of the distribution is exactly the mirror image of its left tail. So, you
can easily find the values in the left tail by relying on this “symmetry–about–zero” property. Hence,
if you are going to find the value of t such that the area to the left of it is 0.05, recall that the area
to the right of 1.943 is also 0.05 (See Illustrative Example 1).

Therefore, you can say that since the t-distribution is symmetric about 0, the t-value with an area
to the left of 0.05 must be -1.943. So, you will find that the 5th percentile is –1.943.

Illustrative Example 3:
What is the area to the right of 2.4 under a t-distribution with 7 degrees of freedom?

Remember that in the previous example, you found t-values using the given areas under the t-
distribution curve. But in this example, you will be doing the opposite because in this problem you
are given a t-value and you need to find the area to the right of the t-distribution with 7 degrees of
freedom.

You can illustrate the problem with the figure shown below. The t-value of 2.4 is somewhere
between 2 and 3, and you are going to find the area to the right of it.

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

So, looking back at the table, you need to focus on the 7 degrees of freedom line. You will
observe that the t-value of 2.4 cannot be found in this row but you do find these two values
2.365 and 2.517 that surround 2.4 (The t-value 2.4 is between 2.365 and 2.517).

The table tells you that the area to the right of 2.365 is 0.025 and the area to the right of 2.517 is
0.02. You figure out earlier that our t-value of 2.4 falls in between two values 2.365 and 2.517
and it tends to reason then, that the area to the right of 2.4 must be between those two values
0.025 and 0.02.

So, using the table you found that the area to the right of 2.4 under the t-distribution with 7
degrees of freedom lies somewhere between 0.02 and 0.025.

If you need to get the exact value, you need to use software that easily calculates the area
under the t-distribution curve with the given t-value and number of degrees of freedom. Using
such software, you could find that the area to five decimal places is 0.02373.

What if you needed to use the t-table to find the area to the left of 2.4?
Since the area under the entire curve is 1, the area to the left of 2.4 is equal to 1 minus the area
to the right of 2.4. So, based on the table the area to the left of 2.4 under the t distribution with 7
degrees of freedom must lie somewhere between 0.98 and 0.975 (1 – 0.02 = 0.98 and
1 – 0.025 = 0.975).

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

But since you already knew that the area to the right of 2.4 is 0.02373, you could find the exact
area to the left of 2.4 to five decimal places as 1 minus 0.02373 or 0.97627.

Materials:
1 whole paper

Learning Assessment:

Not yet
Statistics and Probability Developing Achieved Notes
evident
illustrates the Central Limit
Theorem
defines the sampling
distribution of the sample
mean using the Central Limit
Theorem
solves problems involving
sampling distributions of the
sample mean
illustrates the t-distribution
identifies percentiles using
the t-table

88
 Grade 11 – Learning Module

Name:______________________________________ Date:_____________________
Section & Strand:___________________________ Score:____________________

Activity:
A. Choose from the pool of words/mathematical formulas inside the box to complete
the following paragraph on the important properties of the Sampling Distribution of
the Sample Mean. Then write the corresponding words below each term to
complete the sentence. Recall on the Properties of the Sampling Distribution of
Sample Mean

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 Grade 11 – Learning Module

B. Probable Time
The mean time it takes a group of senior high students to complete a certain examination
is 50.6 minutes. The standard deviation is 6 minutes. Assume that the variable is normally
distributed. (Follow the step by step procedure discussed)

1. If 49 randomly selected senior high school students take the examination, what is the
probability that the mean time it takes the group to complete the test will be more than
51 minutes?
2. If 49 randomly selected senior high school students take the examination, what is the
probability that the mean time it takes the group to complete the test is between 47.8
and 53 minutes?

Make a Venn diagram showing the comparison of the t-distribution and normal distribution. List
down the characteristics or properties of the two distributions on the spaces provided.

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3/3/2021 Week 7 Activity - Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

Week 7 Activity - Sampling Distribution of

the Sample Mean
* Required

1. Email address *

2. This distribution is used to determine the probability of an event by transforming

the mean of the sample to an approximately standard normal variable when the
population variance is given. *

Mark only one oval.

t-Distribution

z-Distribution

Chi-Square Distribution

Pearson Correlation Coefficient

3. It is the distribution used to estimate the population parameters for small sample
size and when the population variance is unknown. *

Mark only one oval.

t-Distribution

z-Distribution

Chi-Square Distribution

Pearson Correlation Coefficient

https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1fv-tacjJDWacKLPe-eUzcDNvnHjRPd29gOSSChvGHso/edit 1/5
3/3/2021 Week 7 Activity - Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

4. A population consists 11, 19, 22, 2, 8, 9, and 15. Suppose samples of 2 are drawn from
this population. This situation is an example of the sampling distribution of the
sample mean for a normal population with population variance is__________. *

Mark only one oval.

unknown

known

large

small

5. A researcher used to develop a problem-solving test to randomly selected 100

Grade 11 students. From this sample, the mean and standard deviation is 90 and 4
respectively. The mean of the population is 88. The researcher is in a situation of the
sampling distribution of the sample mean wherein the population variance is
__________. *

Mark only one oval.

unknown

known

large

small

https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1fv-tacjJDWacKLPe-eUzcDNvnHjRPd29gOSSChvGHso/edit 2/5
3/3/2021 Week 7 Activity - Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

6. The Department of Health has the following data of the number of infected persons
of Covid-19 in five high-risk areas in the country, 51, 89, 129, 215, and 297. Suppose
samples of size 2high-risk areas are drawn from this population, what example of
the sampling distribution of the sample mean for normal population portrays the
situation? *

Mark only one oval.

unknown

known

large

small

7. A population of a certain LGBTQ+ community is consists of six (6) measurements 2,

3, 6, 9, 11, and 5. What is the mean of the population? *

Mark only one oval.

10

8. A population of a certain LGBTQ+ community is consists of six (6) measurements 2,

3, 6, 9, 11, and 5. What is the variance of the population? *

Mark only one oval.

10

https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1fv-tacjJDWacKLPe-eUzcDNvnHjRPd29gOSSChvGHso/edit 3/5
3/3/2021 Week 7 Activity - Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

9. A population of a certain LGBTQ+ community is consists of six (6) measurements 2,

3, 6, 9, 11, and 5. How many different samples of size n= 4 can be drawn from the
population? *

Mark only one oval.

20

15

10. A population of a certain LGBTQ+ community is consists of six (6) measurements

2, 3, 6, 9, 11, and 5. What is the mean of the sampling distribution of the sample
mean? *

Mark only one oval.

11. A population of a certain LGBTQ+ community is consists of six (6) measurements

2, 3, 6, 9, 11, and 5. What is the variance of the sampling distribution of the sample
mean? *

Mark only one oval.

https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1fv-tacjJDWacKLPe-eUzcDNvnHjRPd29gOSSChvGHso/edit 4/5
3/3/2021 Week 7 Activity - Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

12. Which of the following measures the dispersion of the sampling distribution of the
sample mean and is calculated using the relation *

Mark only one oval.

mean of the sampling distribution of sample mean

variance of the sampling distribution of the sample mean

standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the sample mean

average deviation of the sampling distribution of the sample mean

13. A population consists of five (5) measurements 2, 3, 6, 5,and 7. What is the mean of
the population? *

Mark only one oval.

3.44

4.60

4.92

5.20

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