FIFTH SEMESTER BCA

BCA501T: DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS

UNIT 2 PART1 Data Transmission

Transmission Systems: properties of media and digital transmission Systems – Twisted Pair
, Coaxial Cable, Optical Fibre, Radio Transmission Intrared Light

Error detection and correction – Error detection , Two – dimensional parity checks ,
Internet checksum , Polynomial code; standardized Polynomial codes , Error detecting
capability of a polynomial code,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aNqiTCZ-nko

Multiplexing – frequency – Division , Time – Division , SONET; Wavelength Division

Multiplexing Circuit switches; Telephone network , signalling Traffic and Overload control
in Telephone networks – Concentration, Routing Control, Overload controls Cellular
Telephone Networks, Satellite Cellular networks. [ 12 Hours ]
QUESTIONS
PART1 - Transmission Systems
1. Explain coaxial cable as transmission medium. Mention its advantages and disadv.
5m 19, 16
2. Explain the transmission characteristics of co-axial cable. 3m
3. Explain the characteristics of co-axial cable with neat diagram? What are the
advantages of co-axial over twisted pair? 5m
4. Explain twisted pair cable as transmission medium. 5m 18, 7m 17
5. List any 2 differences between twisted pair and co-axial cable. 2m
6. Explain optical fibre as transmission medium. 5m 18
7.

PART 2 - Error detection and correction

1. Explain types of errors. 5m 16
2. What is hamming code? How is it used for error correction caused in data
transmission?5m 19
3. What is Hamming code? Explain it with a binary data 1001101 5marks
4. Write the algorithm of CRC method of error detection with an example. 7marks 19,16
5. Explain 2D parity check for error detection. 5m 18
6. Illustrate polynomial code with example. 7m 17
7. Explain concept of checksum. 5m 16
8. Why Error Detection & Correction? 3marks

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 9. Explain single bit parity check . 5m
10. Explain the Error correction codes. 5m answer is hamming code.
11. calculate even parity bit for the following group of data bits. 2m
12.

Home

PART-3 Multiplexing
1. What is multiplexing? 2m 19, 16
2. Compare FDMA and TDMA. 5M 19
3. What are different types of multiplexing? Explain any 2 in detail.7m 19
4. What is multiplexing? Explain TDM. 5m 17
5. Explain SONET multiplexing. 5m 17,16
6. Explain SONET multiplexing with frame structure. 5m
7.

PART-2 Error detection and correction

Why Error Detection & Correction? 3marks

Explain types of errors. 5m

What are single bit error and burst error? 2m

 Single bit error - In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is
corrupt.

Multiple bits error - Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.

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Burst error - Frame contains more than1 consecutive bits corrupted.

ERROR DETECTION

There are 4 error detection methods

1. Parity checking
2. Two-dimensional parity checking
3. Checksum
4. Cyclic redundancy check method (CRC)

1. Explain single bit parity check . 5m

Blocks of data from the source are subjected to a check bit or parity bit generator form, where
a parity of :
 1 is added to the block if it contains odd number of 1’s, and
 0 is added if it contains even number of 1’s
This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why it is called even parity checking.

Advantages:

1. it is very low in cost

2. it provides a quick check of the correctness of the data

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Disadvantages:

1. It costs 1 bit for every group of data bits

2. it can indicate only odd number of errors.

Calculate even parity and odd parity for the following data. 2m

For reference

Explain Two-Dimension Parity Checks 5m

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3.Define CHECKSUM. 2m

Explain concept of checksum. 5m 16

Drawbacks: Collisions. It is possible for two different streams to have an identical

checksum. A well designed checksum minimizes this probability for the space being
checksummed.

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4.Explain cyclic redundancy check method for error correction 5m

 Unlike checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on binary division.
 CRC is a different approach to detect if the received frame contains valid data.

 This is powerful and most widely used method in real time situation.
 This technique involves binary division of the data bits being sent.
 The divisor is generated using polynomials.
 The sender performs a division operation on the bits being sent and calculates the
remainder.
 Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds the remainder at the end of the actual
bits.
 Actual data bits plus the remainder is called a codeword.
 The sender transmits data bits as codewords.

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ANOTHER EXAMPLE TO PRACTICE

1011011 AND CRC GENERATOR IS 1101

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Illustrate polynomial code with example . 5m 2017

A polynomial code is a linear code having a set of valid code words that comprises
of polynomials divisible by a shorter fixed polynomial is known as generator polynomial.
They are used for error detection and correction during the transmission of data as well as
storage of data.

A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is an error-detecting code commonly used in digital

networks and storage devices to detect accidental changes to raw data. Blocks of data
entering these systems get a short check value attached, based on the remainder of
a polynomial division of their contents

Write above example.

Write the algorithm of CRC method of error detection with an example. 7marks

The algorithm for computing the checksum is as follows:

1. Let r be the degree of G(x). Append r zero bits to the low-order end of the frame so it now
contains m + r bits and corresponds to the polynomial xrM(x).
2. Divide the bit string corresponding to G(x) into the bit string corresponding to xrM(x),
using modulo 2 division.
3. Subtract the remainder (which is always r or fewer bits) from the bit string corresponding
to xrM(x) using modulo 2 subtraction.
The result is the checksummed frame to be transmitted. Call its polynomial T(x).

1010001011 11101

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calculate even parity bit for the following group of data bits. 2m
even parity birt
1010111 - 1
1110111 - 0
Explain the Error correction codes. 5m

Example: Hamming Code.

Write short notes on Hamming code. 5m 19

 Hamming code are error correction codes that are widely used in reliable
communications.
 The code uses a number of parity bits located at certain position in the codeword.

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FINDING PARITY BITS p1,p2,p3

Finding position

What is Hamming code? Explain it with a binary data 1001101 5marks

Follow the above steps to solve.

PART – 1 Data Transmission: Transmission Media:

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List any 2 differences between twisted pair and co-axial cable. 2m
Twisted Pair Co-axial Cable
 cable consists of 2 thin insulated  cable has solid copper conductor at its
copper wires center located co-axially within a
 noise immunity is low cylindrical outer conductor
 cheapest medium  noise immunity is more than twisted
 low bandwidth pair
 moderate expensive medium
 moderately high bandwidth

Transmission media.
The media over which the information between two computer systems is sent, called
transmission media.

Transmission media comes in two forms.

 Guided Media
 Unguided Media

All communication wires/cables are guided media, such as UTP(unshielded twisted pair),
coaxial cables, and fiber Optics. In this media, the sender and receiver are directly connected
and the information is send (guided) through it.
In both communications, communication is in the form of electromagnetic waves. With
guided transmission media, the waves are guided along a physical path; examples of guided
media include phone lines, twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and optical fibers.

Unguided Media:
Wireless or open air space is said to be unguided media, because there is no connectivity
between the sender and receiver. Information is spread over the air, and anyone including the
actual recipient may collect the information.
Unguided media relates to data transmission through the air and is commonly referred to as
wireless. The transmission and reception of data is carried out using antenna. There are two
main ways that antenna work: Directional (in a beam).
Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the
destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or
goes out it is called egress. A communication system may include number of switches and
nodes. At broad level, switching can be divided into two major categories:

Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous

handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.
Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is a need to
pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then forwarded on that

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circuit. After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future use or can be turned
down immediately.

Transmission Medium The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Computers and telecommunication devices use signals to
represent data. These signals are transmitted from a device to another in the form of
electromagnetic energy.

Explain twisted pair cable as transmission medium. 5m 19

Twisted Pair Cable Twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its
own plastic insulation, twisted together. The twisting helps to reduce the interference (noise)
and crosstalk. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used
only as a ground reference.

Twisted pairs can be used for transmitting either analog or digital signals. The bandwidth
depends on the thickness of the wire and the distance traveled, but several megabits/sec can
be achieved for a few kilometers in many cases. Due to their adequate performance and low
cost, twisted pairs are widely used.

Twisted-pair cable comes in two forms:

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair
(STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering that enhances each pair of
insulated conductors. The metal casing prevents the penetration of electromagnetic noise.
Materials and STP is costly than UTP but less susceptible to noise.

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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) UTP cable is the most common type of Telecommunication
medium in use today. The range is suitable for transmitting both data and video. UTP is
cheap, flexible, and easy to install.

Coaxial Cable

Explain coaxial cable as transmission medium. Mention its advantages and disadv.
5m 19

Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable. Two kinds of
coaxial cable are widely used. One kind, 50-ohm cable, is commonly used when it is intended
for digital transmission from the start. The other kind, 75-ohm cable, is commonly used for
analog transmission and cable television but is becoming more important with the advent of
Internet over cable. A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by
an insulating material. The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a closely-
woven braided mesh. The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.

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The construction and shielding of the coaxial cable give it a good combination of high
bandwidth and excellent noise immunity. The bandwidth possible depends on the cable
quality, length, and signal-to-noise ratio of the data signal. Modern cables have a bandwidth
of close to 1 GHz.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COAXIAL CABLE - 3m

Low cost
Easy to install
Up to 10Mbps capacity
Medium immunity form EMI
Medium of attenuation

ADVANTAGES COAXIAL CABLE

Inexpensive
Easy to wire
Easy to expand
Moderate level of EMI immunity

DISADVANTAGE COAXIAL CABLE

Single cable failure can take down an entire network

Optical Fiber Cable 5m

Explain optical fibre as transmission medium. 5m 18

Metal cables transmit signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is made of glass or
plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. Light, a form of electromagnetic energy,
travels at 300,000 Kilometers/second in a vacuum. The speed of the light depends on the
density of the medium through which it is traveling ( the higher density, the slower the
speed).

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An optical transmission system has three key components: the light source, the transmission
medium, and the detector. Conventionally, a pulse of light indicates a 1 bit and the absence of
light indicates a 0 bit. The transmission medium is an ultra-thin fiber of glass. The detector
generates an electrical pulse when light falls on it. By attaching a light source to one end of
an optical fiber and a detector to the other, we have a unidirectional data transmission system
that accepts an electrical signal, converts and transmits it by light pulses, and then reconverts
the output to an electrical signal at the receiving end. Optical fibers use reflection to guide
light through a channel.

Types of Optical Fiber There are two basic types of fiber: multimode fiber and single-mode
fiber. Multimode fiber is best designed for short transmission distances, and is suited for use
in LAN systems and video surveillance. Single-mode fiber is best designed for longer
transmission distances, making it suitable for long-distance telephony and multichannel
television broadcast systems. Advantages of Optical Fiber The major advantages offered by
fiber-optic cable over twisted-pair and coaxial cable are noise resistance, less signal
attenuation, and higher bandwidth.
• Noise Resistance: Because fiber-optic transmission uses light rather than electricity, noise
is not a factor. External light, the only possible interference, is blocked from the channel by
the outer jacket.

• Less signal attenuation: Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that
of other guided media. A signal can run for miles without requiring regeneration.

• Higher bandwidth: Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic cable
are limited not by the medium but by the signal generation and reception technology
available.

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Disadvantages of Optical Fiber The main disadvantages of fiber optics are cost,
installation/maintenance, and fragility.
• Cost. Fiber-optic cable is expensive. Also, a laser light source can cost thousands of dollars,
compared to hundreds of dollars for electrical signal generators.

• Installation/maintenance

• Fragility. Glass fiber is more easily broken than wire, making it less useful for applications
where hardware portability is required.

Radio Transmission Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances, and can
penetrate buildings easily, so they are widely used for communication, both indoors and
outdoors. Radio waves also are omni directional, meaning that they travel in all directions
from the source, so the transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully aligned
physically. The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent. At low frequencies, radio
waves pass through obstacles well, but the power falls off sharply with distance from the
source, roughly as 1/r2 in air. At high frequencies, radio waves tend to travel in straight lines
and bounce off obstacles. They are also absorbed by rain. At all frequencies, radio waves are
subject to interference from motors and other electrical equipment.
Due to radio's ability to travel long distances, interference between users is a problem. For
this reason, all governments tightly license the use of radio transmitters. In the VLF, LF, and
MF bands, radio waves follow the ground, as illustrated in Fig-(a). These waves can be
detected for perhaps 1000 km at the lower frequencies, less at the higher ones. Radio waves
in these bands pass through buildings easily, which is why portable radios work indoors. The
main problem with using these bands for data communication is their low bandwidth.

Figure (a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth. (b)
In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere. In the HF and VHF bands, the ground waves
tend to be absorbed by the earth. However, the waves that reach the ionosphere, a layer of
charged particles circling the earth at a height of 100 to 500 km, are refracted by it and sent
back to earth, as shown in Fig-(b). Under certain atmospheric conditions, the signals can
bounce several times. Amateur radio operators (hams) use these bands to talk long distance.
The military also communicate in the HF and VHF bands. The terms VLF, LF, MF, and HF
refer to very low, low, medium, and high frequency, respectively.
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Infra red Light Unguided infrared waves are widely used for short-range communication.
The remote controls used on televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use infrared communication.
They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build but have a major drawback: they do
not pass through solid objects (try standing between your remote control and your television
and see if it still works). In general, as we go from long-wave radio toward visible light, the
waves behave more and more like light and less and less like radio.

On the other hand, the fact that infrared waves do not pass through solid walls well is also a
plus. It means that an infrared system in one room of a building will not interfere with a
similar system in adjacent rooms or buildings: you cannot control your neighbor's television
with your remote control. Furthermore, security of infrared systems against eavesdropping is
better than that of radio systems precisely for this reason. Therefore, no government license is
needed to operate an infrared system, in contrast to radio systems, which must be licensed
outside the ISM bands. Infrared communication has a limited use on the desktop, for
example, connecting notebook computers and printers, but it is not a major player in the
communication game.

Explanation for CHECKSUM

PART3 - MULTIPLEXING
Define multiplexing. 2m

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Multiplexer(many to one) is a device that can accept n different inputs and sends out one
single output. The output can be transmitted over a link or medium to its destination, where
original input can be recovered. This is done by demultiplexer (one to many).

 It is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of transmission can be

simultaneously processed over a shared link.
 Multiplexing divides the high capacity medium into low capacity logical medium
which is then shared by different streams.

Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a physical media (cable), and
light (optical fiber). All mediums are capable of multiplexing.

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When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called Multiplexer divides
the physical channel and allocates one to each. On the other end of communication, a De-
multiplexer receives data from a single medium, identifies each, and sends to different
receivers.

TELEMETRY, TELEPHONE AND SATELLITE COMMUNICATION.

In applns like telephone large no of users are involved. It is not possible to provide separate
wires for each subscriber. Very expensive and practically impossible. By using the principle
of multiplexing, we can use commn channel such as co-axial cable, optical fiber to carry
telephone signals from no of subscribers.

Types of Multiplexing - What are different types of multiplexing? Explain any 2 in

detail.7m 19

Frequency Division Multiplexing:

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  FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.

 Frequency spectrum is divided into several non-overlapping frequency bands.

 Each user uses a unique band.

 If there are N users, the bandwidth is divided up into N equal sized portions, each user
being assigned one portion.

 Since each user has his own private frequency to use, there is no interference between
users.

 It is the basis for broadcast radio.

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  Several stations can transmit simultaneously without interfering with each other
provided they use separate carrier frequencies ( separate channels).

 In data communications FDM is implemented by sending multiple carrier waves over

the same copper wire.

 At the receiver‘s end, demultiplexing is performed by filtering out the frequencies

other than the one carrying the expected transmission.

 Channels are separated from each other by guard bands to make sure there is no
interference among the channels.

Example: Cable TV where 10-15 TV channels share the same coaxial cable medium
without interfering with each other.

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
 WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.

 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate

capability of fiber-optic cable.

 The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable.

 Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth.

 Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one.

 WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.

 The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of different frequencies.

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  The difference is that the frequencies are very high.

 With light, different frequencies correspond to different colors. Several transmissions

can be send over the same fiber by using different light colors, and combining into a
single light stream. Prisms are used as multiplexors and demultiplexors.

Time Division Multiplexing: 5m

 TDM is applied primarily on digital signals.

 In TDM the shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot.

 Each user can transmit data within the provided time slot only. Digital signals are
divided in frames, equivalent to time slot i.e. frame of an optimal size which can be
transmitted in given time slot.

 All senders use the same frequency but at different points in time.

 Precise synchronization is needed. – All senders have precise clocks and scheduling.

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  – Receivers have to listen to the right frequency at exactly the right points in time.

 To overcome TDM , ATM(Asynchronous Time uses asynchronous time-division

multiplexing
 Also called Asynchronous Transfer Mode—to multiplex cells coming from
different channels.
 It uses fixed-size slots the size of a cell.
 ATM multiplexers fill a slot with a cell from any input channel that has a cell;
 the slot is empty if none of the channels has a cell to send.

The below fig shows, how cells from three inputs are multiplexed. At the first tick of the
clock, channel 2 has no cell (empty input slot), so the multiplexer fills the slot with a cell
from the third channel. When all the cells from all the channels are multiplexed, the output
slots are empty.

The GSM telephone system((Global System for Mobile communication)

Difference between FDMA and TDMA :5m

SR.

NO. FDMA TDMA

FDMA stands for Frequency TDMA stands for Time Division

1. Division Multiple Access. Multiple Access.

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 SR.

NO. FDMA TDMA

Overall bandwidth is shared among Time sharing of satellite

2. number of stations. transponder takes place.

Guard bands between adjacent Guard time between adjacent slots

3. channels is necessary. is necessary.

4. Synchronization is not required. Synchronization is necessary.

5. Power efficiency is less. Power efficiency is high.

It requires stability of high carrier It does not require stability of high

6. efficiency. carrier efficiency.

It is basically used in GSM and It is basically used in advanced

7. PDC. mobile phone systems.

SONET Multiplexing
Explain SONET multiplexing with frame structure. 5m

 SONET stands for ―Synchronous Optical Network‖, and is a method for

communicating digital information using laser or LED‘s
 The high bandwidths of fiber-optic cable are suitable for today‘s highest data rate
technologies (such as video conferencing) and for carrying large numbers of lower-
rate technologies at the same time.
 ANSI created a set of standards called Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) to
handle the use of fiber-optic cables.
 It is used to transmit high-speed data. It can be used to deliver text, audio, and video.

SONET first defines a set of electrical signals called synchronous transport signals (STSs).
It then converts these signals to optical signals called optical carriers (OCs). The optical
signals are transmitted at 8000 frames per second.
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FRAME STRUCTURE

Diagram

 Known as STS-1 (synchronous transport signals) level.

 It consists of 9 rows of 90 bytes. Total 810 bytes
 It is transmitted from left to right. And top to bottom
 2D is just for convenience
 Left most byte (MSB) in the top row is transmitted then 2nd byte in the first row and
so on till 90th byte
 First 3 columns of SONET frame is called TOH(Transport overhead – information
about sections and lines).
 Remaining 87 columns are called SPE(Synchronous payload envelope)
 First column of SPE is called payload overhead(POH – used to control and monitor
the path).
 Every SONET frame repeats 125 μs/frame
 Frame rate works at 8000 frames/second

FOR REFERENCE…..

Optical carriers - OC
CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access) is a channel access method used by various radio
communication technologies. It is a form of multiplexing, which allows numerous signals to
occupy a single transmission channel, optimizing the use of available bandwidth. The
technology is used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems in the 800-MHz
and 1.9-GHz bands.

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CDMA employs analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) in combination with spread spectrum
technology. Audio input is first digitized into binary elements. The frequency of the
transmitted signal is then made to vary according to a defined pattern (code), so it can be
intercepted only by a receiver whose frequency response is programmed with the same code,
so it follows exactly along with the transmitter frequency. There are trillions of possible
frequency-sequencing codes, which enhances privacy and makes cloning difficult.

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