Lesson 3.2
Lesson 3.2
Learning Objectives 2
Warm Up 2
Bibliography 17
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
Lesson 3.2
Stages of Mitosis
Introduction
In the previous lesson, you have learned that the cell also undergoes its own life cycle. The
cell cycle describes the different processes that the cell undergoes throughout its
existence. Animals and plants reproduce in order to propagate their species. Cells undergo
a very similar process in order to produce more cells that are similar to them. This process,
known as mitosis, is an essential part of the cell cycle. Without it, our bodies will not be able
to grow and develop properly. What is mitosis and why is it important? What are the stages
of mitosis and how do these stages contribute to the division of the cell?
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 1
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
DepEd Competency
Learning Objectives
Describe the stages of mitosis given
In this lesson, you should be able to do the
2n=6 (STEM_BIO11/12- Id-f-7).
following:
● Enumerate and describe the phases of
mitosis.
Warm Up
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 2
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
Figure A Figure B
Figure C Figure D
Observation Table
Table 3.2.1. Description of Figure A, B, C, D
Description
Figure
Chromosomes Nuclear envelope Centrosomes Spindle fibers
A
B
C
D
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 3
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
Guide Questions
1. What is the final product of the process outlined in the activity?
2. Based on the centrosomes shown in the figures, what role do you think it plays in
mitosis?
3. Based on this activity, how will you define mitosis?
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 4
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
The cell cycle
A cell will only begin the M phase if the conditions are correct and favorable for cell division.
These conditions are largely affected by how the cell is prepared for mitosis by the different
stages of interphase. Recall that the cell cycle checkpoints determine if the cell is prepared
for mitosis or not. If the checkpoint deems the cell prepared, then the process can continue.
If not, then the cell will attempt to fix the errors or it may undergo apoptosis or
programmed cell death.
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 5
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
G1 and G2 Phases’ Preparation for Mitosis
The Gap 1 and Gap 2 phases of interphase are highly similar in that they prepare the cell for
division in multiple ways. These phases involve the growth of the cell and the preparation
of materials for cell division. There are also cell cycle checkpoints that will check for
proper growth after these phases.
Proper growth of the cell before mitosis can occur. This is because cell contents will be
partitioned later on to the daughter cells. If the parent cell does not grow properly or
produce the necessary materials, then the division of cellular materials to be distributed to
the daughter cells will not occur.
S Phase’s Preparation for Mitosis
The S phase, or the synthesis phase, involves the duplication of the cell’s DNA. Since
mitosis aims to produce daughter cells that contain the proper amount of DNA, duplication
of DNA is necessary beforehand.
DNA replication occurs in the S phase.
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 6
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
More specifically, the parent cell aims to produce a similar amount of chromosomes for the
daughter cells in mitosis. Suppose that the parent cell does not double the DNA that it has
before mitosis. If this is the case, then the parent cell will only be able to give the daughter
cells half of the DNA that is required. Doubling the DNA beforehand, however, will result in
the proper amount being given by the parent cell to both daughter cells.
Changes in Chromosome Number during Mitosis
The Chromosome
Recall that a cell’s information is stored in DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is in the
form of chromatin in interphase and it condenses into chromosomes during mitosis.
Fig. 3.2.1. shows the parts of a
chromosome. Each chromosome is
made up of two sister chromatids. The
centromere connects the two halves
of a chromosome, and the
centromeres have accompanying
protein complexes known as
kinetochores. The short arm and the
long arm are the short and long ends
of the chromosome, respectively. It is
in these arms that the genes are found.
Each end of the chromosome is known
as the telomere.
These parts, along with others, play significant roles in mitosis. These will be discussed in
more detail later on in this lesson.
Haploid and Diploid Cells
Since humans are diploid organisms, our cells have 2 pairs of each chromosome in our cells.
The human genome has 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes in each
cell. 23 is the haploid number whereas 46 is the diploid number.
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 7
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
Haploid is often represented as n. A numerical
coefficient is often attached to n to denote the
number of copies of chromosomes that a cell or an
organism has. For example, diploid cells are
represented as 2n since they have double the
amount of chromosomes compared to haploid
cells. Triploid cells are 3n, tetraploid cells are 4n,
and so on. Therefore if a 2n cell has 6
chromosomes, its haploid would have 3
chromosomes. The number of sets of
chromosomes that a cell or an organism has is
known as ploidy.
Different organisms have different levels of ploidy.
Humans, as was mentioned earlier, normally have diploid cells. Water bears as shown in
Fig. 3.2.2. are triploid. Salmons are tetraploid. Some species of frogs are dodecaploid with
twelve sets of chromosomes.
The Phases of Mitosis
After the cell has grown and manufactured the necessary components, mitosis can begin.
Mitosis aims to divide the parent cell into two identical daughter cells. These daughter cells
should have the exact same amount of chromosomes as the parent cell. The daughter cell
should also be able to receive the cytoplasm, organelles, and other components from the
parent cell. In order for these to occur, the process of mitosis is made up of steps and
subprocesses that allow the proper division of the many components that the daughter
cells need.
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 8
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
Much like interphase, the process of mitosis is also divided into multiple phases. These
phases are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Each phase
performs a crucial role that contributes to the process of cell division.
The stages of mitosis
Prophase
The first stage of mitosis (shown in Fig. 3.2.3.) is a phase known as prophase. In interphase,
the cell’s genetic material is still in the form of chromatin. Once prophase begins, however,
the chromatin will start to condense into compact structures known as the chromosomes.
This process of condensation is important because DNA is normally a very long molecule.
When it condenses, the resulting product is a small and compact chromosome that can
easily be divided during mitosis.
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 9
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
While the condensation of genetic material occurs, other events also take place in the cell
during prophase. One such event is the shrinkage and eventual disappearance of the cell’s
nucleolus.
Fig. 3.2.3. A cell in prophase
Another important occurrence is the formation of the mitotic spindle in the cytoplasm. The
mitotic spindle is made up of proteins called microtubules and will be used for separating
the chromatids later on in mitosis. This process of spindle formation occurs in the area of
the cell known as the centrosomes, of which the cell has two. Each centrosome further
contains a pair of centrioles and these help with the formation of the mitotic spindle.
Prometaphase
Prometaphase is shown in Fig. 3.2.4.. It begins after the nuclear envelope, or the
membrane that surrounds the nucleus breaks down. The two centrosomes, along with the
accompanying centrioles and developing spindles, will move toward opposite sides of the
cell resulting in one centrosome on each side. Each side is known as a pole. The spindles
then start growing to the middle of the cell.
It is also during this phase that the chromosome’s kinetochores at the centromeres become
apparent. This is important for the next phase of mitosis.
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 10
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
Fig. 3.2.4. The centrosomes at the cell’s poles
Metaphase
During metaphase, the microtubules of the mitotic spindle attach and interact with the
kinetochores of the chromosomes. This causes the chromosomes to align at the center of
the cell in an area known as the metaphase plate (shown in Fig. 3.2.5.).
Metaphase ends once the proper alignment of the chromosomes is achieved. This
alignment is when the sister chromatids of each chromosome face the opposite poles of the
cell.
Fig. 3.2.5. A cell in metaphase
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 11
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
Anaphase
In anaphase, the mitotic spindle pulls and separates the sister chromatids apart. As shown
in Fig. 3.2.6., the chromatids, now called daughter chromatids, are then pulled toward the
opposite poles. The movement will stop once the daughter chromatids completely reach the
opposite poles.
Fig. 3.2.6. A cell in anaphase
Telophase
The final phase of mitosis which is known as telophase is shown in Fig. 3.2.7.. After the
daughter chromatids reach the opposite poles at the end of anaphase, they will start to
decondense. The form that the genetic material will take returns to the one similar to
anaphase. The nucleolus will also start to reappear. The nuclear envelopes will also reform.
Once this is complete, there will be two entire nuclei with one found on each pole.
In animal cells, some of the events of the division of the cytoplasm will ensue even as
telophase occurs. This process continues further in cytokinesis to become the cleavage
furrow. In plants, on the other hand, golgi vesicles will start to accumulate to where the
metaphase plate used to be. This accumulation will allow the vesicles to fuse and form the
cell plate, which becomes the cell plate. Both the cleavage furrow of animals and cell plate
of plants become the new “boundaries” of the daughter cells.
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 12
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
Fig. 3.2.7. A cell in telophase
Tips
When trying to differentiate between the appearance of cells in the
different phases of mitosis, remember that the first letter of the
phase shares the first letter of what the cell looks like in that phase.
In Prophase, the cell’s genetic material resembles Polka dots or
strings.
In Metaphase, the chromosomes Migrate to the Middle of the cell.
In Anaphase, the chromosomes move Away from each other.
In Telophase, the parent cell starts to form Two new cells.
Cytokinesis
After telophase, cytokinesis will divide the cell into two. Cytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis
but is closely related to it. Recall from the previous lesson that each of the two daughter
cells will inherit a nucleus, similar genetic material, organelles, and more.
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 13
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
Ploidy in Mitosis
In humans, the number of chromosomes in somatic cells is 46 (two sets of chromosome)
while sex cells have 23 (one set of chromosome). Fusion (fertilization) of egg and sperm
cells, each having 23 chromosomes, restore the number of an individual which is 46.
Therefore, if a cell before the S phase has 3 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 6 (or 2n=6),
there is a total of six chromatids. The six chromatids become 12 after DNA replication in the
S phase. Do not be confused with chromatids and chromosomes. Refer to Fig. 3.2.8. to
visualize the number of chromosomes and chromatids before mitosis, after replication, and
after mitotic division. This is the reason why the daughter cells have the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell when it undergoes mitotic division.
Fig. 3.2.8. The number of chromosomes before and after mitosis
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 14
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
Key Points
___________________________________________________________________________________________
● DNA is in the form of chromatin in interphase and it condenses into chromosomes
during mitosis.
● These phases are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase. Each phase performs a crucial role that contributes to the process of cell
division.
○ Chromosome condensation happens in prophase. Spindle formation also
begins.
○ Prometaphase begins after the completion of the breakdown of the nuclear
envelope.
○ Metaphase involves the alignment of the chromosomes in the metaphase
plate.
○ The sister chromatids move to the opposite poles of the cell in anaphase.
○ Telophase ends when two nuclei are formed in the cell.
The stages of mitosis
___________________________________________________________________________________________
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 15
Unit 3: Cell Cycle
A. Identify the phase of mitosis that the following events belong to.
B. Sequence the following events based on when they happen in the
cell, starting from the interphase. Write A for the earliest event and J
for the latest.
1. G2 phase
2. G1 phase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Cytokinesis
6. Telophase
7. Metaphase checkpoint
8. G1 checkpoint
9. G2 checkpoint
10. Prophase
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 16
Challenge Yourself
Photo Credits
Waterbear by Bob Goldstein and Vicky Madden, is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.
Mitosis in yellow onion cells by Pixelmaniac pictures, is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.
Bibliography
Boyer, Rodney F. Concepts in Biochemistry. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006.
Hickman, Cleveland P. Integrated Principles of Zoology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2011.
Miller, Stephen A., and John P. Harley. Zoology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2010.
Russell, Peter J. Biology: the Dynamic Science. Student Ed. Belmont, CA:
Thomson/Brooks/Cole, 2008.
Starr, Cecie, Ralph Taggart, Christine A. Evers, and Lisa Starr. Biology: the Unity and Diversity
of Life. Boston, MA: Cengage, 2019.
3.2. Stages of Mitosis 17