Data Communication and Computer Networks

1.1 Data Communication

The term communication can be defined as the process of transferring messages between
entities. Based on what these two entities are, there are three basic types of
communication:
▪ Human-to-Human
▪ Computer-to-computer
▪ Human-to-Computer

In all the three cases, three basic elements can be identified.

▪ The source (the sender)

▪ The medium (the channel)
▪ The destination(the receiver)

Sender Encoding Transmission Decoding Destination

A message should first be encoded in such a way that it can be transmitted through a
channel (medium), it is then transmitted, and finally, it is decoded into a form that can be
understood by the destination at the other end. This holds true for voice communication,
or data communication.

Data communication involves transporting data from one point to another. This is an
instance of computer-to-computer communication, i.e., both the source and the
destination are computer devices, and the transmission media may be telephone lines,
satellite links, microwave links, etc.

Information is transmitted in the form of analog or digital. Most communication lines are
designed to carry analog signals. Digital transmission a rarely used for telecommunications.
Therefore, a technical must be used to represent a digital signal or an analog carrier
➢ Modulation: Converting digital signals into analog signals.
➢ Demodulation: Converting analog signals back into digital signals.
➢ Modem: Short for modulator/demodulator: A communications device that converts
one form of a signal to another that is suitable for transmission over communication
circuits, typically from digital to analog and then from analog to digital.

1.1.1 Modes of Data Transmission

When data are transmitted from one point to another, three modes of transmission can be
identified:
▪ Simplex
▪ Half Duplex

1
 ▪ Full Duplex

Simplex
In this mode, transmission can take place only in one direction. The device at either end
is either a send-only or receive-only device.

The flow of data is unidirectional.

Simplex
Sender Receiver

Half-Duplex
In this mode, data can be transmitted in both directions, but in only one direction at a
time. This is good for transmissions in which case the receiver has to acknowledge that it
has received the message back to the sender. Thus, a half-duplex line can alternately send
and receive data. Two wires are usually required. Voice communication (E.g. telephone)
is normally an instance of half-duplex mode of transmission.

Half Duplex
Sender Receiver
(receiver) (Sender)

Full-Duplex

Full-duplex transmission mode allows simultaneous transmission in both directions.

When high-speed transmission is required, full-duplex transmission is the ideal choice.
This transmission mode requires four wires.

Sender Full Duplex Receiver

(receiver) (Sender)
Activity:
Select any communication mechanism. Can you classify them as Simplex, half-duplex or
full-duplex

1.1.2 Types of Transmission Media

Transmission Medium is the physical path between transmitter and receiver in a data
communication system. The characteristics and quality of data transmission are
determined both by the characteristics of the medium and characteristics of the signal.
Factors to be considered in selecting data transmission media:
I. Bandwidth – the amount of data that can be transmitted through the medium
II. Transmission impairments: - ability to withstand signal loss (attenuation) and noise
(unwanted signals).

2
 III. Interference: ability to avoid cross talks (cross talks are signal exchanges between
signals at close frequency ranges).
IV. Number of receivers: A guided media can be used to construct a point to point link
or a shared link with multiple attachments. In multiple attachment case, each
attachment introduces some attenuation and distortion and usually the bandwidth
available will be shared among the various attachments.

There are two broad categories of transmission media:

1. Guided Transmission media

Data transmission is through solid medium (wired system). Different types of
cables are used to connect devices
Commonly used cable types are:
• Twisted pair
• Coaxial cable
• Optical fiber

a. Twisted Pair:
• Insulated copper wires arranged in regular spiral pattern
• The oldest, least expensive, and most commonly used media
• Reduce susceptibility to interference than straight pair wires (two straight parallel
wires tend to act as an antenna and pick up extraneous signals when compared to
twisted pairs)
• Highly susceptible to electrical noise, interference, and ‘tapping’ of the signal as
compared to the other guided media
• Arrangement of twisted pairs into group used for high-speed LAN

Types of Twisted pairs

Unshielded twisted pairs (UTP)

• The most commonly used cable types in LANs
• Made up of up to four twisted pairs enclosed in a plastic jacket
• UTP is highly subjected to external electromagnetic interference.
• Different types of UTP cables are used for different purposes. Currently, the
most commonly used UTP cables are Category 5 Cables:

Shielded Twisted Pairs (STP)

• Are similar to UTP except the extra shield applied to the cables. The shield is
used to reduce external electrical interference and is suitable to be used in
large industries where there is a high level of electrical interference

b. Coaxial Cable
• Most versatile medium used in LANs, Cable TV, VCR-to-TV connections
• Noise immunity is better than twisted pair

3
 • Less susceptible to interference and cross talk but there still is attenuation and
thermal noise problem
• Can go up to 185m or 500m without the need for an amplifier/repeater

c. Optical Fiber cables

• Flexible, thin, made of very pure glass / plastic fiber capable of conducting optical
(light) rays
• Extremely high bandwidth. They are used for high data transmission rate
• Very high noise immunity, resistant to electromagnetic interference
• Does not radiate energy/cause interference
• Very difficult to tap
• Better security but multipoint not easy
• Need optical-electrical interface (more expensive than electrical interface) Fiber
• There are two types of fiber optic cables:

Multimode Fiber optic cable

• Fiber optic cable where the light signal travels dispersed through the core
• Core is usually 50-62m in diameter
• Maximum distance signal travels without a repeater is 500m

Single Mode fiber

• Fiber optic cable where the light signal travels in a single mode through the core
• Maximum distance signal travels without a repeater is 10km (with the appropriate
modulation up to 100km)

2. Unguided Transmission media (Wireless transmission)

Data transmission through air /space (i.e wireless system)

In unguided media transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna.

There are two types of configuration for wireless transmission namely, directional and
omni directional.
Wireless transmission can of the following types
• Terrestrial Microwave
• Satellite Microwave
• Infrared

a. Terrestrial Microwave
• Typically used where laying a cable is not practical
• Parabolic dish shaped antenna for directional and bar-like antenna for omni
directional transmission
• Transmits/receives electromagnetic waves in the 2-40 GHz range
• Travels in a straight line (line-of-sight propagation)
• High data rates: 100’s Mbps
• Repeaters spaced 10 - 100 km apart

4
 • Applications : telephone and data transmission- wireless LANs

b. Satellite Microwave
• Uses satellite in geostationary (geosynchronous) 36,000 km)
• Source transmits signal to satellite which amplifies or repeats it, and retransmits
down to destinations
• Optimum transmission in 1 - 10 GHz range
• Bandwidth of 100’s MHz
• 270ms Significant propagation delay about
• VSAT ( Very small Aperture Terminal) :- High speed data transmission using
satellite

c. Infrared Transmission
• For short-range communication
o Remote controls for TVs, VCRs, and stereos
o Indoor wireless LANs
• Do not pass through solid walls
o Better security and no interference (with a similar system in adjacent
rooms)
• No government license is needed
• Cannot be used outdoors (due to the sunshine)

1.2 Computer Networks

When a computer system is processing data all by itself, without any interaction or
interconnection with any other computer system, it is called a stand-alone computer
system. A Network System is a system of two or more computers that are connected to
each other for the purpose of data communication and sharing of resources.

A network also consists of communication channels that are responsible for connecting
devices with each other and transmitting information.

Some of the most important advantages of a computer network system are:

Data sharing between different users of computers with certain amount of data
security and access control.
Sharing of software application systems – software applications installed on
remote computers can be used from any other computer on the network
Distribution of computing load – a task that has to be processed will be divided
among different computers to reduce the load of a single computer.
Sharing of high power computing resources situated at a central location on a
need basis.
Sharing of costly special devices by several computer users.

5
1.2.1 Components of Computer Networks
The components required to operate a network can be divided into two major categories -
Hardware and Software

Hardware
The hardware components of a network consist of the following five items
Server
Workstation
Cabling
Network Interface Cards (NIC)
Other Networking Devices

The Server
High capacity computers that function as the central repository of
resources/services the network provides.
Usually the server is also responsible for controlling which users on which
computers in the network are granted access to a service.

Workstations
A place where the services of the server are used (This is where the user is working)
Any computer where the user will be working at. It does not have to be a high
capacity computer

Cabling
Cables that interconnect the different devices on the network.
There are various types of cables, including coaxial cable, twisted-pair cable and
fiber-optic cables.
Wireless networks do not require physical cables

Network interface card (NIC)

The NIC is located in every workstation on the network as well as in the servers.
It is a card that plugs into one of the expansion slots on the motherboard of a
network device, thereby providing a connector on the back to connect the device to
the network
It acts as a “transmitter” and “receiver” and therefore can be referred to as
transceiver

Other Networking Devices

In modern networks, special purpose devices are required to connect workstations
and servers on the network. These devices are called networking devices.
1. Hubs: devices that connect devices (workstations, servers, printers, etc) to
each other. It is suitable for small networks ( <16 devices on the
network)
2. Switches: have the same function as hubs. But they are faster and more
expensive than Hubs. They are used in large networks

6
 3. Bridge: is hardware and a software combination used to connect the
similar type of networks.
4. Router: is a special computer that directs communicating messages when
several networks are connected together. High speed routers can
serve as part of internet backbones, a transmission path, handling the
major data traffic.
5. Gateway: is an interface that enables dissimilar networks to
communicate, such as a LAN with a WAN or two LANs based on
different topologies or network operating systems.

Software

The Network Operating System

The network operating system is the software that resides on the server. The
network operating system, or NOS, controls virtually all the activity on the
network.
The NOS manages access to the resource on the server and handles security of the
resource on the server.
It provides true multi-user capabilities and is probably the most important part of
the network.

The workstation operating system

The operating system software for each workstation is loaded at the workstation.
This software is essential for the workstation to operate, even if that workstation
is not part of a network

The server software

Usually loaded on the server
provides an interface through the service is given to clients
Most popular ones are web server, mail server, print server, file server, database
server, etc.
The client software
Used to access the service given by the server software on the server
Capable of interfacing with server software
e.g. web browsers, e-mail clients etc

1.2.2 Types of Networks

Based on the geographic span of coverage, computer networks are broadly classified into
three major categories.
• Local Area Network
• Metropolitan Network
• Wide Area Network
1.2.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)
• LAN is a computer network that connects computers and other devices
located within close physical proximity (like in a building).

7
 • Since all equipment is located within a single establishment, LAN’s are
normally installed and maintained by an organization. Hence, they are also
referred to as private data networks.
• Example: The computer network installed in Poly campus

1.2.2.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):-is a communication network covering a

geographical area such as the size of city or sub-urban.

1.2.2.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

• WAN covers a large geographical area. The devices could exist in different
sites and even different continents. The connection could be through
telephone lines, microwaves, and satellites.
• May span a country, a continent or the entire globe.
• Example: The Internet

Types of LAN

Local area networks are two principal types: client/server and peer-to-peer.
1. Client/server LANs: consists of requesting microcomputers, called clients, and
supplying devices that provide a service called server. The server is a relatively
powerful computer that manages shared devices, computers or dump terminal and
shared files. Here in Client/server network the server is more powerful and has more
privilege than clients (connected computers) over the network.
2. Peer-to-peer: Is one in which all computers on the network communicate directly
with one another with out relying on a server. Here in this case each and every
component (microcomputers) connected on the network has equal power and
privilege on the network.

1.2.3 Network Topology

The way in which devices on the network are connected is called the topology of the
network. Network topology specifically refers to the physical layout of the network,
especially the locations of the devices and how the cable is run between them. It is
important to select the right topology for how the network will be used. Each topology
has its own strengths and weaknesses. Four of the most common topologies are bus, star
and ring.

1.2.3.1 The Star Topology

The Star type topology has a controller (hub) at its centre that is connected in a star shape to
stations via dedicated transmission lines. The controller or hub is the focal point of the
star, and all network traffic must pass through the hub as the centre controls all
communications between stations. Accordingly, as and when the central controller fails, the
entire network communication will be disabled.

Advantages:
1. Cable layouts are easy to modify

8
 2. Workstations can be added to the network easily
3. Centralized control/problem diagnosis resulting from defective
communication lines is easily identified.
Disadvantages:
1. Large amounts of cable are required
2. More cable means greater expense
3. A centralized hub means a single point for potential for network failure

Workstation

Workstation

Central Server

Hub Workstation
Workstation

Workstation Workstation

Workstation

Star Topology Network

1.2.3.2 The Ring Topology

The ring type consists of a network configuration that connects nodes at certain intervals on
a ring-shaped, high-speed data transmission line. All nodes share the ring - the ring is
connected separately to the transmitting and receiving sections of each node. Data placed
on the ring by a station makes its round on the ring. Each node receives the data and checks
to see if the data is addressed to it. When the data is received by the node to which it is
addressed, the node accepts and responds accordingly. Otherwise, the node reproduces and
repeats the data for transmission to the next node.
Workstation

Laser printer

Token-ring

Workstation Server

ASCII Printer

Workstation

Ring Topology Network

Token ring access method can be described as follows:

• An idle token rotates around the ring
• A sending computer takes the token and attaches the message to be sent on it
• The token passes to the neighboring computer and so forth

9
 • The receiving computer takes the token and copies the message and leaves the
token to rotate
• The sender again takes the token and removes the massage from the token to
make the token empty

The token ring technology creates opportunity for acknowledging receipt of messages by
the receivers.
Advantages:
1. The overall cable length is short
2. The shorter cable means lower cabling costs
3. No wiring closet space is required
Disadvantages:
1. A single node failure causes network failure
2. It is more difficult to diagnose faults
3. Network modifications/recognition is more difficult and disrupts network
operation.

1.2.3.3 Bus Topology

The bus type topology is a network configuration that has a single high-speed data
transmission line (called a bus) shared by nodes and stations. In this type of network, data
transmitted by a station through its node is "broadcast" bi-directionally. All nodes receive
the signals. One of the nodes, recognizing that the signal is addressed to it, accepts the data
and forwards it to the station attached. All signals set bi-directionally are properly
terminated at both ends of the bus, and one failed node will not affect the communication
capability of other stations. Unlike the ring topology, the data travels by the nodes and
does not have to go through each node.

Workstation Workstation Workstation

Workstation Workstation

Bus Topology Network

Advantages:
1. It uses the least amount of cable
2. The wiring layout is simple

10
 3. It has a resilient architecture; its simplicity makes it very reliable
4. It is very easy to extend
Disadvantages:
1. Fault diagnosis and isolation is difficult

By modifying and combining some of the characteristics of these “pure” network

topologies, “hybrid” topologies result that can often provide greater efficiency.

1.3 The Internet

❖ The Internet is a term used to describe a worldwide network of computer networks

connecting millions of computers around the world.
❖ The Internet is one of the largest, most widely used networks (in fact, a network of
networks) that has evolved and grown overtime. It is a group of two or more networks
that are
o Interconnected physically
o Capable of communicating and sharing data with each other
o Able to act together as a single network.
❖ The Internet connects millions of computers globally and provides worldwide
communications to businesses, homes, schools, and governments.

1.3.1 Advantages of the Internet

The Internet helps in various ways:

To get information
You could get information about people, products, organizations, research data, electronic
versions of the printed media, etc. from the Internet. You can get easy access to a wealth of
information and entertainment. As such it is often described as the prototype for a world
wide information "superhighway".

To provide information
Most of what you want to provide could be considered global advertising. The best and
most inexpensive way to let people know who you are, what you are doing/have done, and
how
Publishing: including full test articles, reports, abstracts, computer programs, and
demonstrations
Teaching: The possibilities here include both distance learning and assistance for
students
Sharing/ exchanging information with the outside world.

Ability to communicate

11
 The Internet gives people the ability to communicate with other connected
computer users through electronic mail and real time typed conversations (bulletin
boards, databases, and discussion groups). Users will be able to use electronic mails
to transmit messages, announcements and document/file attachments to other users
within the Intranet or over the Internet.

1.3.2 Internet Connectivity

You can connect to the Internet in one of two basic ways, dialing into an Internet
service provider’s (ISP) computer, or with a direct connection to an Internet service
provider. The difference is mainly in the speed and cost. In most cases, you connect to
your ISP using a telephone line modem. This type of connection is called the Dial-up
connection. Sometimes you go in for a direct connection.

Dial-up Connection: is type of Internet connection that is made by connecting a plain

old telephone line to the phone jack at the back of a computer which, in turn connects to
the internal modem of the computer, and allows the user to dial a phone number of a
service provider and connect to the Internet.

Direct Connection: is a permanent connection between your computer system and the
Internet. This is sometimes referred to as a leased-line connection because the line is
leased from the telephone company.

You can also get a direct connection to your ISP, where you have a fixed cable or a
dedicated phone line to the ISP. Often the dedicated line is an ISDN (Integrated Services
Digital Network) line that is a higher speed version of the standard phone line.

1.3.3 Applications and Services on the Internet

The Internet is actually very boring since it is nothing more than hardware connections. It
is the Internet applications and services that make the Internet come alive.
Internet applications include
World Wide Web (WWW),
Electronic mail,
File Transfer
Discussion Groups
Usenet (News Group),
Internet Relay Chat,
Search Services

World Wide Web

In simpler terms, the Web is an Internet-based computer network that allows users on one
computer to access information stored on another through the worldwide network.
The WWW is an Internet service that provides a network of interactive documents and
the software to access them. It is based on documents called web pages that combine
text, pictures, forms, sound, animation and hypertext links called hyperlinks. To navigate

12
the WWW, users “Surf” from one page to another by pointing and clicking on the
hyperlinks in text or graphics.

E-Mail
E-Mail is the ability to write a message to someone, using a mail program, and use
the Internet as a means of delivering that message. Email is not a free service. The
cost of your email is covered in your service charge to your provider.
E-mail is the most popular application of computer communication system. For the purpose
of our discussion, we shall adopt the simplest definition of E-mail as follows:
Email (Electronic mail) refers to a computer-based system allowing two or more people to
communicate through the transmission of character coded or graphic information by
electronic means. Electronic mail, or e-mail, allows computer users locally and worldwide
to exchange messages. Each user of e-mail has a mailbox address to which messages are
sent. Messages sent through e-mail can arrive within a matter of seconds.

Usenet
Usenet is Internet-based bulletin board that allows reading and posting of "news" in
various "newsgroups." There are thousands of newsgroups covering a myriad of topics.

FTP
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. This is both a program and the method used to
transfer files between computers. Anonymous FTP is an option that allows users to
transfer files from thousands of host computers on the Internet to their personal computer
account. FTP sites contain books, articles, software, games, images, sounds, multimedia,
course work, data sets, and more.

1.3.4 Internet Protocols

Internet protocols are sets of rules that allow for inter-machine communication on the
Internet.
One of the few requirements of a computer connected to the Internet is that it must speak
a common language (or protocol). This protocol, called Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), is what enables small desktop personal computers to converse
with huge super-computers across this entanglement of network connections.
All computers on the Internet communicate with one another using the Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol suite, abbreviated to TCP/IP. Computers on the
Internet use client/server architecture. This means that the remote server machine
provides files and services to the user's local client machine. Software can be installed on
a client computer to take advantage of the latest access technology.
Internet connectivity is impossible without the communications standard TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. This universal standard allows
different types of computers to communicate with each other, regardless of their make,
model, or operating system.
Some major protocols accessible on the Internet:

13
•• E-mail (Simple Mail Transport Protocol or SMTP) - distributes electronic
messages and files to one or more electronic mailboxes
•• Telnet (Telnet Protocol) - facilitates login to a computer host to execute
•• FTP (File Transfer Protocol) - Transfers text or binary files between an FTP server
and client

1.3.5 Internet addressing

Very similar to the postal address system, Internet addressing is a systematic way to
identify people, computer and the Internet resources. On the Internet, the term “address”
is used loosely. Address can mean many different things from an electronic mail address
to a URL.

When a new site is put online it has a specific network address that looks something like
207.70.128.240. In order to make the site easier to remember, a unique name is correlated
with the number.

IP Address An IP address is a unique number that identifies computers on the

Internet; every computer directly connected to the Internet has one.
An IP address consists of four numbers separated by periods. Each
number must be between 0 and 255.
Domain Name Most computers on the Internet have a domain name. A domain
name is the text name corresponding to the numeric IP address of a
computer on the Internet. A domain name must be unique. Internet
users access your website using your domain name.

A domain name always contains two or more components separated by periods, called
“dots”. Some examples of domain names are: ibm.com, nasa.gov, ju.edu.et etc. Once a
domain name has been established, “sub-domains” can be created within the domain. For
example, the domain name for a large company could be “vni.com” and within this
domain, sub-domains can be created for each of the company’s regional offices.
The portion of a domain name after the dot describes the type of organization holding
that name. The major categories are:
• Com – commercial entities
• Edu – educational institutions
• Net – organizations directly involved in the Internet operations, such as network
providers and network information centers.
• Org – miscellaneous organizations that do not fit any other category, such as non-
profit groups
• Gov – united states federal government entities
• Mil – united states military
Country codes – a two-letter abbreviation for a particular country for example et for
Ethiopia, uk for united kingdom, or fr for france

14