Irony as a principle of structure

INTRO

Cleanth Brooks was an American literary critic and professor. He is

best known for his contributions to New Criticism in the mid-20th
century and for revolutionizing the teaching of poetry in American
higher education. His best-known works, The Well Wrought Urn:
Studies in the Structure of Poetry(1947) and Modern Poetry and the
Tradition (1939), argue for the centrality of ambiguity and paradox
as a way of understanding poetry. With his writing, Brooks helped
to formulate formalist criticism, emphasizing "the interior life of a
poem" (Leitch 2001) and codifying the principles of close reading.
Brooks was also the prominent critic of Southern literature, writing
classic texts on William Faulkner, and co-founder of the influential
journal The Southern Review (Leitch 2001) with Robert Penn
Warren.

In "Irony as a Principle of Structure" Cleanth Brooks makes a lot of

claims about the importance of metaphors and irony in literary
text. He has highlighted the use of irony and its importance in an
impressive way. This essay is an excellent piece that stresses and
underlines the IMPORTANCE OF IRONY IN POETRY and argues that
irony serves as one of the major tools by which meaning can be
embedded in a poetic text.
He also says that metaphor allows poet to show particular thing to
give a more general level of meaning. According to him theme of
poem is a result of coherent structure of elements used in poetry.
He also says that particular statement get different meaning when
used on different context. He defines irony harmony between
contradictory things and creates multiplicity of meaning.
Brooks repeatedly asserts the following in his work:

The entirety of a poem must be considered in order to discover

its meaning
Irony often functions as a significant part of a poem's
fundamental structure.

MAJOR POINTS

The essay points out that Brooks explains that unexpected

contradictions in a text often function as the site of irony that can
be used successfully in uncovering deeper layers of meaning in the
poem. Reading poetry in the casual way that we approach language
and speech in our daily lives is not conducive to a deep
understanding of the text. According to Brooks' critical sensibility,
the consideration of the complex contradictions and paradoxes that
can emerge from even the most seemingly innocent pairing of
conflicting images can be the key to the core meaning of the text.

In this essay, basically, Brooks talks about FOUR MAIN CONCEPTS:

● The concept of METAPHOR

● The concept of ORGANIC RELATIONSHIP
● The concept of CONTEXT
● The concept of IRONY

CONCEPT OF IRONY

Brooks defines irony as 'the obvious wrapping of the statement by

the context'. Irony is created because of the presser of the context.
For instance:

"this is the fine state of affairs"

This statement means quite the opposite of what it purports to say

literally. This is sarcasm, the most obvious kind of irony.

Importance of Irony

● Unimportant or non literary utterance gets a specific meaning

through the use of irony.
● Utterances having some meaning are changed to different or
contrary meaning like 'ripeness is all'.

Irony takes many forms. In irony of situation, the result of an

action is the reverse of what the actor expected. Macbeth murders
his king hoping that in becoming king he will achieve great
happiness. Actually, Macbeth never knows another moment of
peace, and finally is beheaded for his murderous act.
In dramatic irony, the audience knows something that the
characters in the drama do not. For example, the identity of the
murderer in a crime thriller may be known to the audience long
before the mystery is solved. In verbal irony, the contrast is
between the literal meaning of what is said and what is meant. A
character may refer to a plan as brilliant, while actually meaning
that the person thinks the plan is foolish. Sarcasm is a form of
verbal irony.
Modes of Irony

● Tragic Irony
● Self Irony
● Playful
● Arch
 ● Mocking
● Gentle Irony

Irony may be defined as the conflict of two meanings which has a

dramatic structure peculiar to itself: initially, one meaning, the
appearance, presents itself as the obvious truth, but when the
context of this meaning unfolds, in depth or in time, it surprisingly
discloses a conflicting meaning, the reality, measured against
which the first meaning now seems false or limited. By
encompassing this conflict in a single structure, irony resolves it
into harmony or unity.

BrookIn sum, ‘irony’ in the sense of “pressures of the context” is

for Brooks the main way in which a literary object dynamically
develops its own structure, its own “meaning, evaluations, and
interpretations” without the need for aid from ordinary or
‘denotative’ language, history, biography, or other outside sources
of meaning.

s says that the most straightforward irony amounts to the obvious

warping of a statement by the context. But since it is a principle of
structure that makes poetic coherence possible, it must be capable
of somewhat more subtlety. The pressures of the context may not
always be obvious or crude, but still, says Brooks, we are dealing
with the informing principle of irony.

However some other readers may consider it false. If we try to prove

it we will only end up rising very perplexing philosophical
questions. This will lead us away from the poem. For, the lines are
justified in the poem in terms of its context. The speaker is standing
with his beloved and looking out of the window at the sea. The
moonlight has thrown a deceptively white sheet of colour over
everything. Listening to the roar of the waves as they ebb and flow
the speaker makes this philosophical observation. This is the only
way that the statement can be validated. The brunt of the statement
cannot be validated by a committee of experts in sociology as
physical scientists or philosophers.

Brooks lists out a number of reasons for the use of irony in modern
poetry:

· There is a general breakdown in belief and to the modern mind

does not accept universal statements of truth.

· There is a depletion and corruption of language itself.

· The growing consumption of popular arts has corrupted both

belief and taste.

· The modern poet is burdened with the task of rehabilitating a

drained and tired language.

· The task of qualifying and modifying a language is burdened

upon the poet.

Brooks contains the critic to remember that the modern poet is

addressing a public who have already developed a taste for popular
and commercial art. So by using irony the modern poet succeeds in
bringing both clarity and passion into his evoke of art or the poem.
Here Brooks gives the example of Randall Jarell’s poem ‘English Air
Force’ as an example of success of this sort. This poem is full of
many possible meanings. Each meaning is voted and no one
meaning cancels out another meaning. This poem which is about
the Air Force men holds apposing meanings in the context of the
poem. On the one hand the poet talks about the essential justness of
man and on the other he uses the image of Pontius Pilate who
washes hands in blood:

“…Shall I say that man \ Is not as men he said a wolf to man?\ Men
wash their hands, in blood, as best they can: \ I find no fault in this
just man.” The poem dramatizes the situation of the fighters
during the ever so accurately, both as puppies and woolens as
stanza show that the poem goes behind the eloquent presentation
by the poet to the very matrix or source from where all our
understanding and beliefs begin. This function is in Brooks opinion,
what good poetry does.

Finding its proper symbol, defined and redefined by the

participating metaphors, the theme becomes a part of the reality in
which we live, an insight growing out of a concrete experience.
Without making any abstract generalization the poem makes a
statement of truth.

So we may conclude that statements in poetry qualified by the

context in which they occur. In poetry, therefore statements get
their viable by virtue of their context.

Application of irony to the poems:

My last duchess:
Robert browning's poem "my last duchess" is a splendid example
of the irony that a poet can achieve within the format of the
dramatic monologue, a poetic form in which there is only one
speaker. When there is only one speaker, we necessarily have to
weigh carefully what he or she is telling us, and we often have to
"read between the lines" in keeping an objective perspective on the
story or incidents that the speaker describes to us. We can gather
from this poem's setting, "ferrara," a town in italy, as well as from
the speaker's reference to his "last duchess," that the speaker in
this poem is the duke of ferrara.

In ‘my last duchess’ verbal irony is demonstrated when the duke

says to this guest, ‘even i had skill, in speech – (which i have not)’.
The duke is not a modest man, nut him making this seemingly
humble statement in the midst of all his power stricken remarks
establishes situational irony. Dramatic monologue can make that
an unappreciated irony, with this ‘dramatic’ surrounding that
totally attracts the reader’s attention and so we can appreciate how
the duke’s monologue appears on the surface to be about his late
wife, a close reading will shown that the mention of his last duchess
is merely a side note in his self-important speech. In ‘my last
duchess’ he shows the reader how the duke need to control and
have completely power and he causes a weariness to overcome the
reader through irony, browning shows us the controlling, jealous
and arrogant traits the dramatic monologue his desired haunting
effect.

Finally we get to the heart of the duke's problem with his former
wife. She thanked a person who pleased her, which was all well and
good in theory, but she thanked them all with equal affection, "as if
she ranked / my gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name / with
anybody's gift." the duke seems to have been offended that she did
not single him out among the others who pleased her, and
underrated his gift of a well-established name and proud family
heritage. She smiled, he says, whenever he passed her, "but who
passed without / much the same smile?" and how did the duke react
to this? "who'd stoop to blame / this sort of trifling?" he asks his
auditor. The whole business is beneath him. Even if he had "skill /
in speech," it would be stooping to address such a situation, and he
tells his listener that he indeed does not have skill in speech. This
statement is ironic, for the duke actually seems to be quite a
polished speaker, although he may be telling us a great deal about
his personality and history that he may not have intended to reveal.
So what became of this seemingly kind and happy lady, who
evidently enjoyed whatever she experienced? "i gave commands,"
the duke says, "then all smiles stopped together." he says for a
second time, "there she stands / as if alive," suggesting that the
lady is no more. And yet, strangely, he shows no compunction for
his actions.

The chimney sweepers:

The poem ‘the chimney sweeper’ is written by william blake. This

poem is a poignant depiction the wretchedness and abject misery of
young and innocent children forced to lives of extreme suffering
and hardship as chimney sweepers. There are many instances of
irony in this poem.
In the first stanza poet presents contrast between the behaviour of
father and mother. Father is symbol of slavery, cruel man and
mother is symbol of security and freedom.

‘could scarcely cry, “weep! Weep! Weep!”

So your chimneys i sweep and in soot i sleep’

Form this lines poet wants to say that children are so young that
they lisp ‘weep’. Ironically poet portrays the innocence and misery
of the children.

Tom’s dream is also ironical-as everything as joys and they are free
to leap and frolic yet he still wake up to the world of oppression. He
goes to work feeling ‘happy and warm’ when it is a job that will
essentially would kill him.

The statement ‘so if all do their duty they need not fear harm’
suggest that if the young boys do work as chimney sweepers they
should fear harm because they will die from illness associated with
work.
In the poem poet skilfully portrays contrast through innocence and
experience. Innocence suggests the naturalistic world of childhood
and experience suggests adult world of corruption and restraint.

Thus this poem reveals multiplicity of meaning through ironic

statement. Poet expresses the psychological condition. The poems
also reflects the poet’s zeal for social reform and the challenging
stance that he adopted towards authority.

Conclusion:
Thus the interpretation of this poem help to built a compelling case
for irony as a major principle of structure in poetry. We can say that
irony is the only term available to point out general and important
aspect of poetry through which readers can understand and
experience poem from more than 3d (three dimensional) view.

METAPHOR

He states that the poet can legitimately step out into the
"universal" only by first going through the narrow door of the
"particular". It means by using metaphor in modern poetry, the
poet can deal with universal things in the world. Metaphor helps to
give a more general and universal level of meaning. For instance:

"a red red rose"

Rose is a particular flower which gives fragrance but with the help
of this, the poet suggests the universal thing that is love.

According to Brooks a poet should take this kind of risk of saying

something particularly and obscurely because he can not make
direct statements. If a poet makes direct statements, poetry will be
full of abstractions and threatens and it will not be poetry at all.

Meaning of metaphor:
Metaphor is rediscovery of modern poetic techniques. By using
metaphor in modern poetry poet can deal with universal things in
the world. Metaphor allows poet to point out particular objects,
events, or experience. It helps to give a more general or universal
level of meaning e.g. ‘a red red rose’ in this poem ‘rose’ is a
particular flower which gives fragrance. But with the help of this
poet suggest universal thing that is ‘love’.

Poet’s intention of using metaphor:

By using metaphor poetry takes risk of saying something

particularly and obscurely of not saying anything at all. The poet
has to take this risk because he can’t make direct statements. If a
poet makes direct statements, poetry will be full of abstraction and
threatens. It will not be poetry at all.

ORGANIC RELATIONSHIP

Brooks says that metaphor implies a principle of organic

relationship. That means poetry consist of different elements like
words, phrases, images, symbols, figure of speech, rhyme, rhythm,
meter etc. All of them contribute in generating meaning of a poem,
all these part are interdependent and all are connected to the main
theme. Thus poetry has coherent structure. To define this organic
relationship, It is like a kite or a plant or a drama where different
parts contribute to make total effect.. As a plant contains roots,
stem, branches, flowers etc. The tail of the kite seems to navigate
the kite’s function. It weights the kite down, it paradoxically is a
necessity that allows the kite to rise, and a plant too, is compassed
of several parts that allow the plant to grow as a whole. All of these
elements contribute in generating meaning of poem. The total
effect proceeds from all the elements in the drama and in a good
poem as in a good drama, there is no waste motion and there are no
superfluous parts. Thus small things are important to form a big
complete.
CONTEXT
Context means relationship of words with each other and with the
main theme that poetry generates. All great poems have poetic
qualities because of particular context.
All great poems have poetic qualities because of particular context.
Meaning of a particular utterance becomes something different
because of the context. Poetic statement gain new meaning of
unexpected references because of context and not in isolation.
When particular sentence is used for particular context the
meaning has modified or changed. Simple statement gets a
different meaning in literary context.
MEANING OF A PARTICULAR UTTERANCE BECOMES SOMETHING
DIFFERENT JUST BECAUSE OF CONTEXT. The common word
"NEVER" repeated five times in King Lear becomes one of the most
poignant lines just because of specific context. The statements like
"two plus two equals four" or "the square on the hypotenuse of a
right angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the two
sides" are equally true in any possible context while poetic
statements give new meaning to unexpected references because of
context and not in isolation.