Module 3:

Elements of quantum mechanics

Lecture Hours 6

Need for Quantum Mechanics: Idea of Quantization

(Planck and Einstein) - Compton effect (Qualitative) –
de Broglie hypothesis - justification of Bohr postulate -
Davisson-Germer experiment - Wave function and
probability interpretation - Heisenberg uncertainty
principle - Gedanken experiment (Heisenberg’s
microscope) - Schrödinger wave equation (time
dependent and time independent).
Text books to be followed:
H. D. Young and R. A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics,
2020, 15th Edition, Pearson, USA
Quantum theory is the current ‘standard
model’ for describing the behaviour of matter
energy at the smallest scales (photons, atoms,
nuclei, quarks, gluons, leptons, etc.).
The research leading to an understanding of
the nature of light and the emission and
absorption processes has been of paramount
importance. It led from a beginning in 1900 to
the development of quantum physics, reaching
a high peak in the 1920s and a fulfilment
towards the mid-century years with the
completion of the very successful Quantum
Electro Dynamic (QED) theory.
• Not so modern.
• It was realized in late nineteenth century that the
traditional classical Physics can not explain many
of the observed phenomena.
• Specifically there were two clear dark area.

Cloud 1:. Failure of Maxwell-Boltzmann doctrine

regarding Equipartition of Energy
Cloud 2: The motion of Earth in Ether.
Thought to be necessary as a transmission medium for the propagation of
electromagnetic or gravitational forces
Until the early 20th century physicists used to explain the phenomena in the
physical world around them using theories such a mechanics,
electromagnetism, thermodynamics and statistical physics that are now
known as classical theories.

At the turn of the 19th century more and more experiments did show effects
that could not be explained by these classical theories. This indicated a need
for a new theory that we now know as quantum mechanics.

Set of early experiments indicating the need for a new theory:

Particle properties of light

• photoelectric effect, Compton effect, x-ray generation

Emission of light from atoms

• discrete line spectra - energy levels, Franck-Hertz experiment
First electrical measurement to clearly
show the quantum nature of atoms
Wave properties of particles
Max Planck, in 1901, accurately described
the radiation by assuming that
electromagnetic radiation was emitted in
discrete packets (or quanta). Planck's
quantum hypothesis is a pioneering work,
heralding advent of a new era of modern
physics and quantum theory.
Explaining the properties of black-body radiation was a major challenge in
theoretical physics during the late nineteenth century. Predictions based on
classical theories failed to explain black body spectra observed
experimentally, especially at shorter wavelength.
The puzzle was solved in 1901 by Max Planck in the formalism now known
as Planck's law of black-body radiation. Contrary to the common belief that
electromagnetic radiation can take continuous values of energy, Planck
introduced a radical concept that electromagnetic radiation was emitted in
discrete packets (or quanta) of energy.

Planck's law may be written:

where B is the spectral radiance of the
surface of the black body
T is its absolute temperature
λ is wavelength of the radiation
kB is the Boltzmann constant
h is the Planck constant and
c is the speed of light.
Planck's quantum hypothesis is one of the breakthroughs in the modern
physics. It is not a surprise that he introduced Planck constant

or the first time in his derivation of the Planck's law.

Note that the spectral radiance depends on two variables, wavelength and
temperature. The radiation has a specific spectrum and intensity that depends
only on the temperature of the body. Planck's law describes radiation
properties of objects (e.g. our body, planets, stars) reasonably well.
 Ultraviolet catastrophe is the
error at short wavelengths in the
Rayleigh-Jeans law (depicted as
"classical theory" in the graph)
for the energy emitted by an
ideal black-body. The error,
much more pronounced for short
wavelengths, is the difference
between the black curve (as
classically predicted by
the Rayleigh-Jeans) and the blue
curve (the measured curve as
predicted by Planck’s law).

Typical spectrum from a black body at different temperatures (shown in blue,

green and red curves). As the temperature decreases, the peak of the black-
body radiation curve moves to lower intensities and longer wavelengths.
Black line is a prediction of a classical theory for an object at 5,000K,
showing catastropic discrepancy at shorter wavelength.
Coherent Scattering
Let us consider a photon of
energy hv collide elastically with
a free electron in the scattering
substance as shown in Fig.

During this elastic collisions, the

incident photon transfers some
of its energy to the free electron
S.

Due to this energy transfer, the

electron acquires kinetic energy
and recoils with a velocity v. The
scattered photon come out with
reduced energy hv’ or increased
wavelength.
The Compton shift dλ is found to vary
with the angle according to the
relation

The first peak is due to the scattering

of the incident radiation from the
tightly bound inner electrons of the
atom. The second peak represent
the radiation scattered from the
loosely bound, nearly free outer
electrons.
de Broglie Wave [Matter Waves]
According to de Broglie, waves behave some time as particle and
conversely the particle can have wave-like characteristic properties.
Therefore, the particles like electron, proton, neutron, atom or molecule will
have a associated wave with them known as matte waves or pilot waves or
de Broglie waves. A variable quantity known as wave function is used to
characterise the de Broglie waves. The wave function is denoted by the
symbol ψ (psi).
 Construction
1. A collimated beam of
electrons is produced using an
electron gun.
2. This beam is incident on a
target of nickel crystal.
3. The electrons are scattered
in all directions by the atoms of
the target.
4. The intensity of the scattered
electrons in a given direction is
measured by allowing it to
enter in a collector, which can
be moved along a circular
scale.
Principle
If the material particles have a wave character, they are expected
to show the interference and diffraction phenomena. Davisson
and Germer experimentally demonstrated the diffraction of
electron beam.
Dr RDE Presentation
To conclude, Compton effect is very much insignificant in the microwave and visible
regions of EM spectrum. On the other hand, Compton shift is significant in the case
of X ray region and very much significant in the the gamma ray range.
Dr RDE Presentation