WOLAITA SODDO UNIVERSITY

GRADUATE STUDIES DIRECTORATE

EVALUATING HYDRAULIC PERFORMANCE OF WATER SUPPLY

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM; (IN CASE OF LASHO TOWN, WOLAITA,
ETHIOPIA)

BY; YEMISRACH OYCHA

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE

ENGINEERING

HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING (MSC REGULAR)

ADVISOR; Dr. Mudesir N.

March, 2022

Wolaita Sodo; Ethiopia

Table of content
Contents
Table of content.........................................................................................................................ii

LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................................iv

LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................v

ACRONYMS...........................................................................................................................vi

1.1. Background....................................................................................................................1

1.2. Statement of the Problem.............................................................................................3

1.3. Objectives.......................................................................................................................4

1.3.1. Main Objective........................................................................................................4

1.3.2. Specific Objective....................................................................................................4

1.4. Research Question.........................................................................................................4

1.5 Significance of the Study................................................................................................4

1.6 Scope of the Study..........................................................................................................5

2. LITREATURE REVIEW....................................................................................................6

2.1. General Concept of Water Supply...............................................................................6

2.2. Element of Water Distribution System........................................................................6

2.3. Methods of Water Supply System................................................................................7

2.3.2. Intermittent System................................................................................................7

2.4. Methods of Water Distribution....................................................................................7

2.4.1. Gravity System........................................................................................................7

2.4.2. Pumping System......................................................................................................8

2.4.3. Combined System...................................................................................................8

2.5. Water Losses in Distribution System...........................................................................8

2.6. Layouts of Pipe Networks.............................................................................................8

2.6.1. Branching or Dean End System............................................................................9

2.6.2. Looped System........................................................................................................9

2.7. Design of Hydraulic Network.......................................................................................9

ii
 2.7.1. Estimation of Water Demand................................................................................9

2.7.3. Base (Nodal) Demand...........................................................................................14

2.7.4. Water Supply Service Coverage..........................................................................14

2.7.5. Hydraulic Parameters..........................................................................................15

2.7.6. Reservoirs..............................................................................................................16

2.7.7. Power Supply and Pumps....................................................................................17

2.7.8. Operation and Maintenance................................................................................17

2.8. Hydraulic Analysis of Water Distribution System...................................................17

2.8.1. Conventional Method...........................................................................................18

2.8.2. Hydraulic Network Modelling Software.............................................................18

2.8.3. Selection of Hydraulic Modelling software........................................................19

2.8.4. Hydraulic Modelling of Water Distribution Network.......................................19

3. Method and Materials........................................................................................................20

3.1 Study area......................................................................................................................20

3.2. Material........................................................................................................................21

3.3. Methodology.................................................................................................................21

3.4 Time and Work plan....................................................................................................23

3.5 Budget............................................................................................................................24

Reference.................................................................................................................................26

iii
LIST OF TABLES

iv
Table 2.1: Demand Factor …………………………………………….…………………. 11
Table 2.2: Water Losses Percentage each Design Period …………………. 13
Table 3.1 Work plan …………………………………………………………………… 23

Table 3.2 budget …...…………………………………………………………………….24

LIST OF FIGURES

v
Fig.3.2: Flow Chart of Activities to Evaluating Hydraulic Performance ………………...25

ACRONYMS
ADSWE Amhara Design Supervise and Water Work Enterprise

vi
AWRDB Amhara Water Resource and Development Biro
AWWA American Water Works Association
CSA Central Statistics Agency
MoWIE Ministry of Water Irrigation and Electric

WDS Water Distribution System

WHO World Health Organization

vii
 INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background
A safe, reliable, affordable, and easily accessible water supply is essential for good health
and development (WHO, 2009; Hunter et al., 2010; WHO, 2011; WHO & UNICEF, 2012).
To transport potable water a good water distribution system is needed. Then water supply
systems are the most important public utility (Swammee et al., 2008; Elsheikh et al., 2013).
The practice of transporting water for human consumption has been went several millennia.
The most extensive water distribution systems in ancient times were the roman aqueducts
which built in 312 B.C, and pressure pipe built 3,500 years ago, those conveyed water long
distances with gravity through a collection of open and closed conduits (Walski et al., 2003
and Josi et al. 2014).

A water distribution system is a pipe network, which delivers water from single or multiple
supply sources to consumers. A water distribution system consists of complex interconnected
elements such as pipes, nodes, pumps, control valves, storage tanks, and reservoirs (Rossman,
2000). Additionally, water distribution system has three main components, which are water
sources and intake works, treatment works and storage, transmission and distribution
(Swammee et al., 2008). Depending upon the methods of distribution, the distribution system
is classified gravity system, pumping system and dual system (Leirens et al., 2010; Ramesh et
al., 2012).

In Ethiopia, the first pipeline was lay from Entot Mountain to the old palace or MenelikII
palace to distribute the developed spring water by storing in the reservoir and distributed it by
gravitational force to the palace and higher royal official’s residence. After Geffersa and
Legadadi dams built to distribute potable water to Addis Ababa city, the system of pumping
water is by relay method from water plant to different parts. After 1971, pipe water system
used throughout the country towns (Behailu, 2012).

The main objective of water supply system is deliver potable water to satisfy combination of
domestic, commercial, industrial, and fire fighting demands at required time with sufficient
hydraulic performance (Zyoud, 2003; M. & Babelb, 2014). However many of the developing
countries, drinking water supplies are inadequate to meet consumers’ demands because of
water schemes designed to continuous supply but they operated as intermittent systems
(Gottipati & Nanduri, 2014). This was due to the rapid increase in population, urbanization,
high pressure on the existing infrastructure, erratic power supply that hampers continued
operation of the water supply system, which usually results in infrastructural decay; there by
disrupted the efficient water distribution system(Bello & Tuna, 2014). Moreover, water
supply networks regularly experience pressure drops and interruptions of water supply when
there is an unexpected increase in water demand and transport potable water over vast
geographical areas to millions of consumers (Leirens et al., 2010; Ehlers et al., 2006).
Therefore, Computation of flows and pressures is crucial to provide water to the consumers
and has paramount importance in designing a new water distribution network or expanding
the existing one (Saminu & Sagir, 2013).

Modelling the water flows, pressure heads and quality in urban water distribution system was
a challenging exercises hydraulic complexity and stochastic inputs to the system. Increasing
hydraulic complexities associated with water distribution systems necessitated precise
estimation of flows and pressures in various parts of the system. Because of solution of single
pipe flow problem was no longer adequate. Therefore, analyzing the all most entire water
distribution network was gave birth to water distribution network (Oyelowo, 2013; Henshaw
& Nwaogazie, 2015).

In this study the Hydraulic, model EPANET version 2.0 was used for evaluating the
hydraulic performance of urban water supply system to the studied area. Because EPANET
was open-structured, economical free accessible, simple operation, worldwide computer
modelling program and due to its hydraulic and quality capability that performs steady and
extended period simulation of hydraulic and water quality behavior within pressurized pipe
networks. A network consists of pipes, nodes (pipe junctions), pumps, valves and storage
tanks or reservoirs. EPANET tracks the flow of water in each pipe, the pressure at each node,
the height of water in each tank, and the concentration of a chemical species throughout the
network during a simulation period comprised of multiple time steps (Rossman, 2000;
Ramesh et al., 2012).

The hydraulic network modelling process involved data collection, system operation and
monitoring, network schematization, assign parameters model building, model testing, the
analysis of the problem and recommended solution. Generally adopting computer models to
design water distribution networks such as EPANET, one will have enough results including
number of graphs, tables, and caparison figures as well for most favorable decision-making
(Walski et al., 2003; Ramesh et al., 2012; Umar et al., 2012).

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The provision of adequate supplies of potable water for use in urban areas in developing
countries is crucial for the well-being of the people. The demand for such supplies in the
developing countries has been increased over time as a result of rising standards of living that
occur with economic progress and population increase resulting from natural growth, and
rural urban migration and rising per capital income (Rewata and Sampath, 2000). Inadequate
access to clean drinking water directly or indirectly affects health. According to WHO, more
than 80% of diseases in the world are attributed due to unsafe drinking water or to inadequate
sanitation practices (WHO, 2003a).

Global statistics estimate that currently the world is not on track to meet the MDG sanitation
target, and 2.5 billion people still lack access to improved sanitation, including 1.2 billion
who have no facilities at all particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia
(WHO/UNICEF, 2006). Lasho town is suffering from shortage and interruption of water
supply. Accordingly, this study was conducted in Lasho town, Wolaita zone, Southern
Ethiopia in order to analyse the water distribution system of the town.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Water is essential to sustain life so that a satisfactory supply must be available to all.
Therefore improving access safe drinking water can result in tangible benefits to health
(Hunter et al., 2010; WHO, 2011). However, it is widely recognized that many countries in
the world are entering an era of severe water shortage and about a billion of people in
developing countries have not safe, reliable, affordable, easily accessible and sustainable
water supply (WHO, 2009; Hunter et al., 2010; WHO, 2011). In developing countries, urban
water distribution systems designed for continuous water supply at adequate pressure and
flow however often operated intermittently. Because of due to the rapid increase in
population, urbanization make high pressure on existing infrastructure, which usually results
in infrastructural decay, there by disrupted the efficient water distribution system. Moreover,
urban water supply networks are large-scale systems that transport potable water over vast
geographical areas to millions of consumers. As a result, water supply networks regularly
experience pressure drops and interruptions of water supply. When there is an unexpected
increase in water demand. Then evaluating hydraulic performance for safe and efficient
operation of these networks is crucial (Leirens et al., 2010; Gottipati & Nanduri, 2014).

Provision of clean water supply is one of the major factors that greatly contribute to the
socioeconomic transformation of the town by improving the living standard, health and

3
thereby increasing productivity of the community. Lasho town is among the towns of Wolaita
that have fast social economic development. There are residential, different Governmental
and Non-governmental organizations, institutions and commercial activities within the town.
One of the major challenges on reduction of the performance of towns’ water supply system
is the demand on water increases due to the unexpected growth of population and
urbanization of the town. The problem of water supply in Lasho town is not only the problem
of distribution system but also shortage of supplied water from source of water, topography
of the town, small reservoir capacity, age of the pipeline and pipeline network schematization
has impact on quantity of water distribution in a system.

1.3. Objectives

1.3.1. Main Objective

The main objective of this study will be to evaluating hydraulic performance of water supply
distribution system based on existing safe and secure water demand with widely acceptable
key standard.

1.3.2. Specific Objective

 To evaluate water supply versus water demand
 To assess water loss in the distribution system
 To identify the deficiency of hydraulic parameters with EPANET

1.4. Research Question

 Is the existing water supply satisfied current demand of Lasho town?
 Is there water loss in water distribution system before reach customer?
 Is Lasho water supply system has good hydraulic parameters?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The significance of this research will be to evaluating hydraulic performance of Lasho town
water supply system. This used to know the gap between supply and demand, to assess water
loss and to identify the deficiency of hydraulic parameters in distribution system. Based on
research output, basic solution recommended to improve hydraulic performance of the
distribution system and filled gap between supply and demand in the studied area. According
to the research output, there were shortage of water, high water loss, low velocity and high

4
pressure. The significant of this research will be showing this problem and recommended
solution to solve the problem.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The scope of this research include, evaluating water supply versus demand, water loss and
hydraulic network modelling existing water supply system. Analysis of water balance include
evaluating water supply, water demand and water loss in existing water supply based on
production and consumption data and projection of total population data in studied area.
Hydraulic network modelling includes nodal-demand allocation, population projection for
each node, evaluating flow and pressure in distribution system, evaluating nodal demand
versus nodal supply after collection of necessity raw data. The output of water balance
analysis and hydraulic network modelling evaluated based on widely accepted by MOWIE
design standard. In this study population forecast with acceptable formula that CSA use,
water that delivers to community has assumed quality water and all population use only from
existing Lasho water supply system, the demand of livestock assumes from river or other
source and un-meter water loss and illegal water connection are considering as loss.

5
 2. LITREATURE REVIEW

2.1. General Concept of Water Supply

Safe and adequate supply of drinking water is a large crucial component of human life
system. However, billions of people in the world have not access water today. Two third of
this number of population is from the developing countries (WHO, 2009; Hunter et al. 2010;
WHO 2011). The Provision of safe and adequate water supply to population have large
effects. Such as on health, productivity, quality of life, reduction of poverty and ensure
sustainable socioeconomic development (MOWIE, 2015). The pace of urban development is
increasing of urban water demand due to urban population growth and increasing of urban
living facilities requiring high water consumption placing a challenge on the demand side of
urban water supplies. In addition to construction of new and expansion existing urban water
supply schemes, both these challenges should have to be properly addressed in Operation and
Maintenance too (Laura, 2006; MoWR, 2005).

2.2. Element of Water Distribution System

Urban water supply networks are large-scale systems that transport potable water over vast
geographical areas to millions of consumers. These systems consist of elements, such as

6
pipes, pumps, valves, storage tanks, reservoirs, meters, fittings, and other hydraulic
appurtenances needed to carry water from source of potable water to the various point of
use(Laura, 2006; Leirens et al., 2010; Elsheikh et al., 2013).

2.3. Methods of Water Supply System

Water can delivers to customer continuous supply system or intermittent supply system.
2.3.1. Continuous System

Continuous water supply system is the best system and water is supply for all 24 hours and 7
days in a week. This system is possible when there is adequate quantity of water for supply.
In this system, supply water is always available for fire fighting. In addition, due to
continuous circulation, water always remains fresh. In this system less diameter of pipes are
required and rusting of pipes will be less. Losses will be more if there are leakages in the
system (Sharma, 2008; Venkateswara, 2005).

2.3.2. Intermittent System

When adequate quantity of water is not available, the supply of water is dividing into zones
and each zone is supply with water for fixed hours in a day or on alternate days. As the water
is supply after intervals, it is call intermittent system. The system has disadvantages such as
Pipelines are likely to rust faster due to alternate wetting and drying, increases the
maintenance cost, polluted water through leaks during non-flow periods and more wastage to
collect fresh water at each supply time. In this water supply system the high-elevated area,
get adequate pressure by dividing the city in zones. The repair work can easily do in the non-
supply hours (Anden & Kelkar, 2007; Behailu, 2012).

2.4. Methods of Water Distribution

For efficient distribution it is required that, the water should reach to every consumer with
required rate of flow. Therefore, some pressure in pipeline is necessary, which should force
the water to reach at every place. The methods of distribution system classified as gravity
system, pumping system and combined system (Behailu, 2012).

2.4.1. Gravity System

When some ground sufficiently high above the city area is available, this can best utilized for
Distribution system in maintaining pressure in water mains. This method is also much
suitable when the source of supply such as lake, river or impounding reservoir is at

7
sufficiently higher than city. The water flows in the mains due to gravitational forces. As no
pumping is required, therefore it is the most reliable system for the distribution of water.

2.4.2. Pumping System

Constant pressure head had maintained in the system due to direct pumping into mains. Rate
of flow cannot vary easily according to demand unless numbers of pumps are operating in
addition to stand by ones. Supply affected during power failure and breakdown of pumps.
Hence, diesel pumps standby also in addition to electrical pump. During fires, the water
pumped in required quantity by the stand by units.

2.4.3. Combined System

The pump connected to the mains as well as elevated reservoir the system also known as dual
system. In the beginning when demand is small the water is stored in the elevated reservoir,
but when demand increases the rate of pumping, the flow in the distribution system comes
from the both the pumping station as well as elevated reservoir. This system is more reliable
and economical, because it requires uniform rate of pumping but meets low as well as
maximum demand. The water stored in the elevated reservoir meets the requirements of
demand during breakdown of pumps and for firefighting (Venkateswara, 2005).

2.5. Water Losses in Distribution System

The volume of water lost between the point of supply and the customer meter due to various
reasons. It can be express as the difference between system inputs volume, and authorized
consumption, and consists of apparent and real losses. Apparent losses can be subdividing
into unauthorized consumption, meter inaccuracies and data handling errors. Real losses are
make-up of leakage from transmission and distribution pipes, leakage from service
connections and losses from storage tanks (Jalal et al., 2008; Sharma, 2008; Swammee et al.,
2008). Water losses occur in every water distribution network in the world. For economic and
technical reasons, it has to be accepting that real water losses cannot eliminate. Nevertheless,
there has been a large increase in the knowledge and development of state-of-the-art
equipment, allowing us to manage water losses within economic limits (Stevens et al., 2004;
Cunlifffe, 2014).

2.6. Layouts of Pipe Networks

The configuration of the distribution system is determined primarily by size and location of
water demand, street patterns, location of treatment and storage facilities, degree and type of

8
development of the area, and topography (Misdial, 2003). Generally, two patterns of
distribution main systems commonly used are:

2.6.1. Branching or Dean End System

Branched configurations are also providing depending upon the general layout plan of the
city roads and streets. The rural water networks have branched configurations.

2.6.2. Looped System

Urban water networks have mostly looped configurations. The looped system has the
hydraulic advantage of delivering water to any location from more than one direction, thereby
avoiding dead ends (HQDoA, 1986).

The use of looped feeder system is preferable because of the looped feeder supplies water to
the area of greatest demand from at least two directions. Looped configurations are preferred
over branched configurations. Then looped feeder system should be using for water
distribution systems whenever practicable. Water distribute into different area is dividing into
zones, and each zone serving with a separate distribution reservoir and a separate distribution
main (Gottipati & Nanduri, 2014; WHO, 2014).

2.7. Design of Hydraulic Network

Water distributions systems are design adequately satisfy the water requirements for a
combination of are residential, commercial, industrial, public water uses, fire demand and
unaccounted for system losses. The essential parameters for network sizing are the projection
of residential, commercial and industrial water demand, per capita water consumption, peak
flow factors, minimum and maximum pipe sizes, and pipe material and reliability
considerations (Swammee et al., 2008; Venkateswara, 2005).

2.7.1. Estimation of Water Demand

The estimation of water demand for the sizing of any water supply system or its component is
the most important part of the design methodology (Venkateswara, 2005; Sarbu, 2011;
Arunkumar, 2015).

Population Forecasting: The average percentage of the last few decades/years is determined,
and the forecasting has done on the basis that percentage increase per decade/year will be
same (Alemayehu, 2010).

9
𝑃𝑛 = (1 + 𝑟)………………………………………………….………………… (2.1)

Where:

R=annual growth rate of the population

Pn=population at time n in thefuture

Po = present population n = periods
of projection

Residential Water Demand: Residential water demand includes the water required in
residential buildings for drinking, cooking, bathing, lawn sprinkling, gardening, sanitary
purposes, etc. In most countries, the residential demand constitutes 50 to 60% of the total
demand (Venkateswara, 2005; Alemayehu, 2010).

Institution and Commercial Demand: Universities, Institution, commercial buildings and

commercial centers including office buildings, warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping centers,
health centers, schools, temple, cinema houses, railway and bus stations etc. comes under this
category. Commercial use of water amounts to about 10 to 30% of total consumption (Belay,
2012).

Industrial Water Demand: The quantity of water demand for industrial purpose is around
20 to 25% of the total demand of the city (Alemayehu, 2010).

Public Use Demand: It is for parks, public buildings, and streets contribute to the total
amount of water consumed per capita. Fire demands are usually included in this class of
water use. The total quantity of water used for fire fighting may not be large, but because of
the high rate at which it is required, it may control the design of the facilities. About 5 to 10%
of all water used is for public uses (Alemayehu, 2010; Belay, 2012).

Fire fighting Demand: The quantity of water required for fire fighting is generally
calculating by using different empirical formulae (Alemayehu, 2010). Ethiopia National
Board of Fire fighting calculates fire demand:

QF = 231.6√P (1 − 0.01√P) ……………….....……………………………………… (2.2)

Where, QF = fire demand (m3/hr.);

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P = Population in 1000’s

Per Capital Demand: the total quantity of water required by various purposes by a town per
year and ‘p’ is population of town, and then per capita demand will be (Venkateswara, 2005):

…………………………………………………………………………….. (2.3)

Where:

Pcd=per capital

Q= Discharge

P= population

Factors affecting Per Capita Demand: The water demand varies from seasonally, daily,
even hourly. The main factors affecting for capita demand are Climatic conditions, Size of
community, Living standard of the people, Industrial and commercial activities, Pressure in
the distribution system, System of sanitation, Cost of water, System of supply & Size of the
city. The rate of water consumption increase in the pressure of the building and even with the
required pressure at the farthest point, the consumption of water will automatically increase.
This increase in the quantity is firstly due to use of water freely by the people as compared
when they get it scarcely and more water loss due to leakage, wastage etc. (Swammee et al.,
2008).

Peak Factor: The water demand is not constant throughout the day and varies greatly over
the day. Generally, the demand is lowest during the night and highest during morning or
evening hours of the day. Peak daily demand over a 12-month period required for the design
of a distribution system upstream of the balancing storage calculate as during a 12- month
period over average daily demand of the same period. Peak hour demand or maximum hour
demand over a 24-hour period required for the design of a distribution system. Thus, the peak
hour factor can define as the ratio of peak hour demand on peak day over average hour
demand over the same 24 hours. Peak factor for a water distribution design can also estimate
from the ratio of peak hourly demand on a maximum demand day during the year over the
average hourly demand over the same period. Then demand factor calculated with below
formula:

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𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃ℎ𝑑 /𝐴ℎ𝑑 ……………………………………………...……………………… (2.4)
Where:

Pf = peak factor

Phd= Peak hour demand

Ahd = Average hour demand

𝑃𝑑𝑓 = 𝑃𝑑𝑑 /𝐴𝑑𝑑 …… ……………….…………………………………………… (2.5)

Where;

Pdf= Peak day factor

Pdd= Peak day demand

Add= Average daily demand

𝑃ℎ𝑑 = 𝐴ℎ𝑑𝑋𝑃ℎ𝑓……………………….……………………………………………… .(2.6)

Where:

Phd= peak hour demand

Ahd= average hour demand

Phf= peak hour factor

Table2.1: Demand Factor

Population Maximum day demand factor Peak hour factor

< 20,000 1.30 2.00

20,000 to 50,000 1.25 1.90

50,000 and above 1.20 1.70

Annual Average Demand: The annual average demand is average daily demand over a
period of one year. Used for economical calculations and firefighting.

Q day-avg = Pd x p……………………………………………………………………. (2.7)

12
Where:

Pd=per capital demand

P= population

Maximum Day Demand: maximum day demand is the amount of water required during the
day of maximum consumption in a year. It is important for design of water treatment plants
and water storages.

Q day-max = Q day-avg X Mdf…………………………………….………………… (2.8)

Where:

Qday-max=maximum day demand

Qday-avg=average day demand

Mdf=maximum Day Factor

Factor Peak Hour Demand: peak hour demand is the amount of water required during the
maximum hour in a given day. It is Important for design of distribution systems.

Q peak-hour = Q day-avg x Phf……………………………………………. (2.9)

Fire Flow Rate: fire fighting calculated from the following formula

QF = 231.6√P(1 − 0.01√P)………………………………………………. (2.10)

QF=fire flow rate

P=population

Coincident Draft: Coincident is the sum of maximum daily demand and the fire demand.

Qcd= 231.6√P(1 − 0.01√P) + Q day-avg X Mdf…………………….……………. (2.11)

2.7.2. Water Losses

water losses due to defective ( pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves and
fittings), Losses due to, consumers miss use public tap, Losses due to unauthorized and
illegal connections. It accounts about 10 to 15% of total consumption (Venkateswara, 2005;

13
Belay, 2012). A figure of 15% generally regarded as good, and uneconomical to try to
reduce. .

Table2.2: Water Losses Percentage each Design Period

Start year 5 Years 10 Years 15 Years 20 Years

40 % 35 % 30 % 27.5 % 25 %

Source= (MoWR 2006).

2.7.3. Base (Nodal) Demand

Although water utilities make a large number of flow measurements, such as those at
customer meters for billing and at treatment plants and wells for production monitoring, dates
are not usually compile on the node-by-node basis needed for modelling. The most common
method of allocating baseline demands is a simple unit loading method. This method involves
counting the number of customers [ hectares of a given land use, number of fixture units, or
number of equivalent dwelling units] that contribute to the demand at a certain node, and then
multiplying that number by the unit demand [for instance, number of gallons (liters) per
capita per day] for the applicable load classification. Two basic approaches exist for filling in
the data gaps between water production and computed customer usage (Datwyler, 2014;
Belay, 2012).

2.7.4. Water Supply Service Coverage

Population with access to water services, either as a domestic water connection or through
public water points. Calculated as the population served (connections and public water
points) divided by the total population living in the service area.

………………………………………………… (2.12)

Where:

A=Total population of the town,

B=Number of domestic customers,

C=Number of public water points,

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D= Number of households using public water point

E= Average family size (CSA)

2.7.5. Hydraulic Parameters

Transmission Main: Rising and gravity transmission mains from source to distribution
should be design for the maximum day demand, based on the design hours of water source
operation. Storage facilities at the termination of the transmission main(s) should cater for the
peak hourly flow in the distribution system. Where transmission or gravity mains involve
working or static pressures that are higher than advisable in relation to pump capacities or
pipe pressure ratings, and then break pressure tanks and/or booster stations should
considered. No house connections should be made to transmission mains (MoWR, 2006).

Distribution Systems: The distribution network should design for the peak hourly demand.
The minimum pipe size considered for primary and secondary networks should be DN 50.8
mm. Tertiary pipes may be below DN 50.8 mm but not below DN 25.4 mm. Large-scale
networks may conceivably have a larger minimum diameter for primary and secondary pipes.
Distribution systems planned with either one large diameter pipe suitable for the final
planning horizon, or multiple smaller diameter pipes installed at various intermediate-
planning horizons. An economic analysis should carry out to determine the cheapest solution
(MoWR, 2006; Swammee et al., 2008).

Pressure Head: The minimum design nodal pressures prescribed to discharge design flows
onto the properties. Generally, it based on population served, types of dwellings in the area,
and fire fighting requirements. As it is not economic to maintain high pressure in the whole
system just to cater to the need of few high-rise buildings in the area, the provision of booster
pumps are specify. Moreover, water leakage losses increase with the increase in system
pressure in a water distribution system. The static state pressures in pipelines must be less
than the pipe nominal pressure rating. In the case of long mains where water hammer risk is
expected, due attention must be given to the pipe material and a proper water hammer
analysis carried out.

Flow Rate: The main hydraulic parameters in water distribution networks are the pressure
and the flow rate, other relevant design factors are the pipe diameters, velocities, and the
hydraulic gradients. The distribution flow rate, design based on the maximum of day demand
plus fire demand and maximum hour rate. Because of Velocity is directly proportional to the

15
flow rate. For a known pipe diameter and a known velocity, the flow rate through a section
can estimated. Low velocities affect the proper supply and will be undesirable for hygienic
reasons that sediment formation may cause due to the long-time of retention (Zyoud, 2003;
Venkateswara, 2005; MoWR, 2006). The effect of the velocity on the diameters of pipe
system can observed from the following equation:

…………………………………………………………………………….. (2.13)

Where:

D=diameter of the pipe (m)

Q: discharge (m3 /sec)

V: velocity (m/sec

From the above equation, it is clear that the velocity increasing should decrease the diameter
value. Water velocities maintained at less than 2 m/sec, except in short sections. Velocities in
small diameter (<100m) pipes may need even lower limiting velocities. A minimum velocity
of 0.6 m/sec can take, but for looped systems, there will be pipelines with sections of zero
velocity. Experience shows that a pipe designed to flow at a velocity between 0.6 and 1.5
m/sec, depending on diameter, is usually at optimum condition. Short sections, particularly at
special cases, e.g. at inlet and outlet of pumps, may be designed for higher velocities
(MoWR, 2006; AWRDB, 2012; Datwyler, 2014).

Head Loss: Head loss relates to velocity and pipe roughness. The maximum head loss with
therefore be governed by the maximum velocity criterion.

2.7.6. Reservoirs
Operational reservoir(s) should be providing to command a distribution system, located at
elevation(s) providing the required pressure for water flow within the system. They should
have sufficient storage to cover the difference between hourly peak demand and actual supply
from the source, fire fighting demands if to allow for, and for a limited emergency volume in
case of power breakdown, repairs or O&M activities. In order to provide for security of
supplies above the need for balancing purposes it is recommending that the minimum total
reservoir storage capacity be in the range of 30% to 50% of the average daily demand
(MoWR, 2006).

16
2.7.7. Power Supply and Pumps
The design working capacity of pumps (duty point) determined taking into account the
system requirement and the number of units working simultaneously. A mechanical flow
meter (water meter) should be installed on the outlet of a pumping station (after the manifold)
(AWRDB, 2012). Maximum flow velocities for pumping systems will be as follows:

 Discharge flange: unlimited,

 at inlet branch: 2m/sec,
 at outlet branch: 3.5 m/sec,
 at inlet manifold:1.2 m/sec,
 at outlet manifold: 3 m/sec
 In riser pipe from submersible pump to borehole head: 2 m/sec
Borehole pump installation should have an arrangement for measuring the water level in the
tube well (dip tube). There must be a low water level protection device for the pump motor
set. Where multiple boreholes are needed for any particular scheme, consideration will be
given to providing 50% stand-by borehole capacity, fully equipped, depending on the
vulnerability of the scheme (MoWR, 2006).

2.7.8. Operation and Maintenance

Urban water supply networks are large-scale systems that transport potable water over vast
geographical areas to millions of consumers. As a result, safe and efficient operation and
maintenance of these networks is crucial. As the utility existed to serve the demand of the
urban community, it is very challenging to satisfy the rapidly growing development activities
of the community, which has direct relation with water supply. Intended to encourage the
utility to handle between its operation and maintenance activities rehabilitation need on the
water supply service, which has to be planned and achieved to diminish shortfalls in the
system (Leirens et al., 2010; MoWR, 2012). Because of factors that could cause a water
distribution system to lose its hydraulic flow pattern such as changes in flow and pressure
caused by poor operational controls of valves and pumps and impacts of repairs and
maintenance(WHO, 2014).

2.8. Hydraulic Analysis of Water Distribution System

The flow hydraulics in water supply distribution system govern the basic principles of flow
such as continuity equation, equations of motion, and Bernoulli’s equation for close conduit.
Another important area of pipe flows is to understand and calculate resistance losses and

17
form losses due to pipefittings (bends, elbows, valves, enlargers and reducers), which are the
essential parts of a pipe network. Suitable equations for form losses calculations are required
for total head-loss computation as fittings can contribute significant head loss to the system
(Swammee et al., 2008; Elsheikh et al., 2013).

2.8.1. Conventional Method

The most common conventional method (not using computers) that is using in designing
hydraulic networks is the Hardy Cross algorithm method. It involves iterative trial and error.
Now a day, manual computation for hydraulic network analysis is only acceptable when
applied to systems with only a single pipeline or branched network with no loop. For
networks with loops, it is highly recommended to use the more accurate, fast and convenient
network modelling computer software (Ormsbee & Lingireddy, 1997; Walski et al., 2003;
Atiquzzaman, 2004).

2.8.2. Hydraulic Network Modelling Software

Computer models have become an essential tool for the management of water distribution
systems around the world. The models for analysing and designing water distribution systems
have been available since the mid-1960s even if many advances work had done with regard
to the sophistication and application of this technology. The primary reason for the growth
and use of computer model has been the availability and widespread use of the
microcomputer (Ormsbee & Lingireddy, 1997). Many methods were using in the past to
compute flows in network of pipes such methods range from graphical analogies and finally
to the use of mathematical models to find the hydraulic flow and head relationships as well as
the resulting water quality concentration(Saminu & Sagir, 2013).

Hydraulic modelling of water distribution systems can allow determining system pressure
and flowing rates under a variety of different conditions without having to go out and
physically monitor your system (Dawe, 2000a). There are numerous purposes for using a
computer model to simulate the flow conditions within a system. a model can be employed to
ensure adequate quantity and quality portable water to community, evaluate planning and
design alternatives, assess system performance, verified operating strategies for better
management of the water infrastructure system, perform vulnerability studies to assess risks
that may be presented and affect the water supply. For this purposes, a model is constructed
in which data describing network elements of pipes, junctions, valves, pumps, tanks, and
reservoirs are assembled in systematic manner to predict pipe flow and junction hydraulic

18
grade lines(HGL) or pressures within a water distribution system(Dawe, 2000; Water CAD
User’s Guide, 2003; Atiquzzaman, 2004).

2.8.3. Selection of Hydraulic Modelling software

Computer models are significant investments for water companies.to ensure a good invest
meant return and correct use of the models, the models must be capable of correctly
simulating flow conditions encountered at the site. Pipe network analysis mathematical
models become increasingly accepting, within the water industry as a mechanism for
simulating the behaviour of water distribution systems. The selection of a particular model
and the setup of a model schematization determine depends on the research question at hand,
the behaviour of the system, the available time and budget and future use of the model. The
research question and the behaviour of the water system determine the level of the model
schematization. The time scale of the dominating processes and the spatial distribution of the
problem are key elements in the selection of a model (Rossman, 2000; Dawe, 2000b; Ramesh
et al., 2012).

2.8.4. Hydraulic Modelling of Water Distribution Network

EPANET is a computer program that performs steady and extended period simulation of
hydraulic and water quality behaviour within pressurized pipe networks. EPANET tracks the
flow of water in each pipe, the pressure at each node, the height of water in each tank, and the
concentration of a chemical species throughout the network during a simulation period
comprised of multiple time steps (Rossman, 2000). Main principle of network analysis with
EPANET is basing on the continuity and conservation of energy theory. For incompressible
fluids, continuity equation implies, the algebraic sum of the flow rates in the pipes meeting at
a node together with any external flows is zero also called conservation of mass (Dawe,
2000b; Rossman, 2000; Newbold, 2009).

19
 3. Method and Materials

3.1 Study area

Lasho is a town in Wolaita Zone of the southern Nations, Nationalities and people’s Region,
Ethiopia. The approximate distance from the town of sodo to Lasho is about 79 kilometres to
North West via B52. And also the distance from Addis Ababa 388km via Butajeira-Worabe –
sodo to southwest. Lasho town is used as an administrative capital of kawo koysha woreda of
Wolaita zone. It is located on elevation of 2,130 meters above sea level. Lasho is a population
place in southern Nations, Nationalities and people’s regional state. The amenities in the
town are 24 hours electric light, pure water service, kindergarten, primary and high schools,
health center, every day public market and others. Lasho lies between 6, 42’, 29’’ north 37,
28’, 23’’ East.

20
3.2. Material

The materials used in this research to achieve the research goal. Because of materials are key
elements to facilitate the research work. Materials, which were used in this research
topographical map, computer, digital camera, EPANET software, GPS, excel and word.

Collection of data and field survey

 Collect the water demand and water loss data from Lasho water supply and sanitation
office and different governmental offices.

 Collection of the survey data for the distribution network, service reservoir and pump

Station locations using Hand GPS, from DEM and Google Earth.
Equipment Required

For proper implementation of the proposed study, some equipment and materials are required
for data collection, processing and evaluation. Some of the equipment and materials required
for this study include:

 Topographic map to determine geographic location and elevation of the

study area.
 Standard tables and charts determine hydraulic constants that assist for
parameterization of the physical processes in the study area; Software like
Global Mapper, Arc map and AutoCAD for pre- and post-processing.
 GPS for geographical location reading.

3.3. Methodology
In this research work of evaluation of hydraulic performance of water supply distribution
system in Lasho town, that was both secondary and primary data used. Based on the research
objectives and questions how the research carried out discussed here. After successful
completion of data collected from the study area data analyzed to evaluating water supply
versus water demand, to assess water loss and to identify deficiency of hydraulic parameters
as shown below using flow chart fig.3.2.

21
Fig.3.2: Flow Chart of Activities to Evaluating Hydraulic Performance

22
3.4 Time and Work plan
- Providing general information/data for public including project users

- Technical papers

- Presentation

Table 3.1 Work plan

No. steps in the research plan Fab March April May June July
1. Submission of the proposal 
2. Getting permission to work in a  
particular area
3. Data collection in some cases field   
involved at specified area
4. Literature review   
5. Analysis using software’s 

6. Draft analysis or preliminary analysis 

7. Report up of findings 
8. Presentation of final research products 

23
3.5 Budget

Table 3.2 budget

Item Cost (ETB)
Data collection and preparation 12,000
Supplies and stationary (photocopy, print, flash disk, book purchase, etc. 7,000
Transport and food expenditure 10,000
Total 29,000

24
25
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