Complex numbers and

polynomials

P (z) = z 2 + 0.9iz + 0.1111

Mats Bodin
2017-02-21
A big thanks goes to Kibret Sigstam for proofreading the compendium!
Table of contents

1 Complex numbers 5
1.1 Definition and arithmetic rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Polar represenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Quadratic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 The n:th roots of a complex number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 Polynomials 25
2.1 The division algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Factoring polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3
Chapter 1

Complex numbers

1.1 Definition and arithmetic rules

The non-negative integers 0, 1, 2, 3, . . ., are known as natural numbers,
and is denoted by N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .} (sometimes 0 is excluded). All inte-
gers, both positive and negative, is denoted by Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .},
while numbers that can be expressed as the quotient of two integers are
called rational numbers, and is denoted by Q. Those numbers we usually
mean by numbers are called the real numbers and is denoted by R. Besides
the rational numbers, real numbers include √ so called irrational numbers that
cannot be expressed as a fraction, e.g. 2 and π.
Integers, rational numbers, and real numbers can be constructed from
the natural numbers, and we say that the integers is an extension of the
natural numbers, the rational numbers is an extension of integers, and the
real numbers is an extension of the rational numbers. We will discuss how
this construction is done, but note that it is possible to construct (numbers
and arithmetic operations) R from Q, Q from Z, and Z from N. If n is an
integer we write n ∈ Z, read “n belongs to Z”. A crossed out sign, ∈, / is read
“does not belong to”. For example, we write 1/10 ∈ Q since it is a rational
number, and 1/10 ∈ / Z since it is not an integer. See Appendix A Sets i
Anton and Rorres 1 .
The equation
x + b = 0,
where b 6= 0 is a natural numbers has no solution such that x is a natural
number, however, there is a solution x ∈ Z. In a similar way the equation

ax + b = 0

does not necessarily have an integer solution x for integers a and b, but
there is a solution −b/a that belong to the rational numbers. The quadratic
equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0,
where a, b and c are real numbers, does not necessarily have a solution that is
a real number. But if it has real valued solutions we can factor the quadratic

5
6 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

polynomial on left side of the equation as ax2 + bx + c = (x − α1 )(x − α2 ).

We shall see that the same is true for polynomials of higher degree, i.e. if
a0 +a1 x+a2 x2 +. . .+an xn = 0 has n solutions α1 , α2 , . . . , αn (not necessarily
distinct), the polynomial can be expressed a product of linear factors (x−α),

a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn = an (x − α1 )(x − α2 ) . . . (x − αn ).

Example 1.1

The polynomial p(x) = 4x3 − 12x + 8 can be factored as

p(x) = 4(x − 1)2 (x + 2),

where x = 1 is a root of multiplicity 2, and x = −2 is a root of

multiplicity 1, i.e. p(1) = 0 and p(−2) = 0. You can check yourself
by expanding the factors. On the other hand, it is not possible to
express
q(x) = x2 + 1
as the product of linear factors with real coefficients since x2 + 1 = 0
has no real valued solutions, this is because x2 ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R.

We will extend R to what is called the complex numbers in order to find

roots to polynomials, which will enable us to express all polynomials as a
product of linear factors (x − α). We do this by creating a new number i,
called the imaginary unit, which satisfies the identity i2 = −1 and there-
fore is a solution to the equation x2 + 1 = 0.

Definition 1.1: Complex number

A complex number is an expression

a + ib or a + bi,

where a and b are real numbers. The number a is called the real
part, while b is called the imaginary part. Two complex numbers
a + bi and c + di are equal if and only if a = c och b = d.

If z = a + bi is a complex number the real part of z is denoted by Re(z),

while the imaginary part is denoted by
√ Im(z), i.e. Re(z) = a and Im(z) = b.
We also write symbolically that i = −1.

Example 1.2: Re(z) och Im(z)

a. Re(−1 + 2i) = −1, Im(−1 + 2i) = 2

b. Re(3i) = 0, Im(3i) = 3
c. Re(0) = 0, Im(0) = 0
 1.1. DEFINITION AND ARITHMETIC RULES 7

Even though the complex number i may seem strange, i is not stranger
than a rational or real number, and essential in many applications. The
ImHzL complex numbers is denoted by

-2 + 2 ä 2ä C = {a + bi : a, b ∈ R}.
ä 2+ä By letting b = 0 it is clear that a real number is also a complex number
1
with imaginary part equal to 0, and C is an extension of R. A summary of
-2 1
-2 -1 1 2
ReHzL complex numbers is given in Appendix B in Anton and Rorres 1 .
-1
Since a complex number is uniquely determined by two real numbers,
-2 - ä the real part and the imaginary part, a complex number z = a + bi can be
Figure 1.1 Complex numbers illustrated graphically in a plane by the coordinate (a, b), i.e. with Re(z) on
illustrated in the complex the x-axis and Im(z) on the y-axis, as shown in Figure 1.1. This plane is
plane. referred to as the complex plane.
How do we perform arithmetic with complex numbers? This i actually
easier than one might expect. Addition and multiplication of complex num-
bers will obey the following arithmetic rules.

Rule 1: Arithmetic with complex numbers

• Add two complex numbers by adding the real part with the
real part, and the imaginary part with the imaginary part
• Multiply as you would normally do if i was an unknown variable
ImHzL
and use that i2 = −1
z ‡ a+bi
w+z Addition can be interpreted graphically as vector addition, illustrated in
Figure 1.2. In the next section we will discuss how multiplication of complex
numbers can be interpreted graphically. First we look at some examples of
ReHzL addition and multiplication is performed according to Rule 1.
w ‡ c+di
Example 1.3
Figure 1.2 Addition of com-
plex numbers in the complex We treat i as if it was an unknown variable and use that the imaginary
plane. unit i satisfies i2 = −1.
a. 2(1 − 3i) = 2 − 6i
b. (7 − 3i) + (2 + 2i) = (7 + 2) + (−3 + 2)i = 9 − i
c. (1 + 4i)(3 − 2i) = 3 − 2i + 12i − 8i2 = 3 + 10i + 8 = 11 + 10i
d. i3 = i2 i = (−1)i = −i

The complex numbers can be constructed by defining the complex num-

ber to be the ordered pair (a, b), where a, b ∈ R, together with the following
rules for addition and multiplication. This method of construction is similar
to how rational numbers can be constructed, which also can be viewed as a
pair of ordered integers. For α ∈ R and the complex numbers z = (a, b) and
w = (c, d), we define addition and multiplication by
1. αz = α(a, b) = (αa, αb)
2. z + w = (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
3. z · w = (a, b) · (c, d) = (ac − bd, ad + bc)
 8 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

We can identify (a, 0) with the real number a and (0, 1) with the imag-
inary unit i, especially (a, b) = a(1, 0) + b(0, 1) = a + bi. It is not difficult
to confirm that Rule 1 gives the same result as property 1-3 above. Assume
that z = a + bi and w = c + di, then by Rule 1
z · w = (a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2 = ac + adi + bci − bd
ImHzL = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i
which is the same as Property 3. Proving Property 1 and 2 is left as an
z ‡ a+bi exercise.
b  z¤ ‡ a2 + b2
Next we introduce some basic concepts and begin with the absolute value
ReHzL of a complex number.
a

Figure 1.3 The absolute value Definition 1.2: Absolute value: |z|
|z| can be intepreted as the dis-
The absolute value (or modulus) of√the complex number z = a + bi is
tance from the origin to z.
denoted by |z| and given by |z| = a2 + b2 .

The absolute value is interpreted geometrically as the distance from the

origin to the point z, similarly as the length of a vector, illustrated in Figure
1.3. Although, note that a complex numbers is not a vector. We also define
ImHzL the complex conjugate of a complex number, or conjugate for short.
z ‡ a+bi
b Definition 1.3: Complex conjugate: z

The complex conjugate of the complex number z = a + bi is denoted

z and given by z = a − bi.
ReHzL
a
The complex conjugate can be seen as a reflection of z in the real axis
as illustrated in Figure 1.4. The complex conjugate has the following prop-
-b — erties.
z ‡ a-bi

Figure 1.4 A graphic illustra- Theorem 1.1: Properties of the complex conjugate
tion of the complex conjugate z
of z. z z
a) z · w = z · w b) z = z c) z + w = z + w d) =
w w
We only give a proof of property (a) of Theorem 1.1 and leave (b)-(d)
as an exercise.

Proof. To show that z · w = z·w, we will need to show that the left hand side
(LHS) equals the right hand side (RHS). If we let z = a + bi and w = c + di,
and then expand LHS and RHS separately, we get
LHS: z · w = (a + bi) · (c + di) = ac − bd + i(ad + cb) = ac−bd−i(ad+cb)
RHS: z · w = (a − ib) · (c − di) = ac − adi − cbi + bdi2 = ac − bd + i(ad + cb)
Thus LHS=RHS, which completes the proof.
 1.1. DEFINITION AND ARITHMETIC RULES 9

The absolute value has the following properties.

Theorem 1.2: Properties of the absolute value

z |z|
2
a) |z| = z · z b) |z| = |z| c) |z · w| = |z| · |w| d)   =
 
w |w|

The properties in Theorem 1.2 can be proved with similar methods as in

the proof of Theorem 1.1. Especially property (a) in Theorem 1.2 is useful
when evaluating the quotient of two complex numbers, which for z = a + bi
becomes

z · z = |z|2 = a2 + b2 (1.1)

Example 1.4: Complex division

Evaluate
1+i
.
3 + 4i
Since we only have arithmetic rules for addition and multiplication we
can not evaluate the quotient directly, however, we may use property
(1.1), i.e. z · z = |z|2 . By multiplying both the numerator and the
denominator with the conjugate of the denominator, the denominator
will become a real number
1+i (1 + i)(3 − 4i) 3 − 4i + 3i + 4 7−i 7 1
= = 2 2
= = − i.
3 + 4i (3 + 4i)(3 − 4i) 3 +4 25 25 25

Two other useful properties are

ImHzL
z z+z z−z
 w¤ Re(z) = and Im(z) = .
w+z 2 2i
 z¤

 w + z¤ There is also a triangle inequality for complex numbers, similar to that for
ReHzL
vectors. It can be interpreted as the distance from the origin to z + w is less
w than or equal to the distance when taking the detour via z, see Figure 1.5.
Theorem 1.3: The triangle inequality
Figure 1.5 Illustration of the
triangle inequality. For any two complex numbers z and w

|z + w| ≤ |z| + |w|

Proof. Let z and w be two arbitrary complex numbers. Then

|z + w|2 = (z + w) · z + w = (z + w)(z + w)
(1.1) (Theorem 1.1c)

= z · z + z · w + w · z + w · w = |z|2 + (z · w + w · z) + |w|2
10 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Note that for a complex number z = a + bi we have that

|a|2 ≤ a2 + b2 = |z|2 .

Taking the square root of both sides and using that a = Re(z) we get that

|Re(z)| ≤ |z| .

It follows that

z·w+w·z = z · w + z · w = 2Re(z · w) ≤ 2 |Re(z · w)|

(Theorem 1.1a,b) (1.1)

≤ 2 |z · w| = 2 |z| |w| = 2 |z| |w|

Therefore
|z + w|2 ≤ |z|2 + 2 |z| |w| + |w|2 = (|z| + |w|)2
and the triangle inequality follows by taking the square root.

Example 1.5: The complex plane

We can illustrate regions in the complex plane using the absolute

value, the real part, and imaginary part. Since absolute value is
interpreted as distance from the the origin, |z − z0 | < r is interpreted
as all complex numbers z with distance from z0 is less than r. Figure
1.6-Figure 1.9 show the regions in the complex plane corresponding
to the inequalities (a)-(d) below.
a. |z| ≥ 1
b. Im(z) < 1/2
c. |z − (1 + i)| ≤ 1/2
d. |Re(z)| < 1/2
A solid line means that the numbers on the line belongs to the region,
while a dashed line means that they do not belong to the region.

ImHzL ImHzL

ä ä

ReHzL ReHzL
-1 1 -1 1

-ä -ä

Figure 1.6 |z| ≥ 1 Figure 1.7 Im(z) < 1/2

 1.1. DEFINITION AND ARITHMETIC RULES 11

ImHzL ImHzL

ä ä

ReHzL ReHzL
-1 1 -1 1

-ä -ä

Figure 1.8 |z − (1 + i)| ≤ 1/2 Figure 1.9 |Re(z)| < 1/2

Exercises 1.1
In exercise 1.1-1.9, write the complex number
1.15 z · w 1.17 z · w
in the form a + bi

1.16 |z + 2w| 1.18 (z − w) · (z + w)

1.1 (i − 2) + (2i + 1) 2+i
1.6 3+4i

1.2 i(i − 1) In exercise 1.19-1.24: Sketch the points in the

1.7 1
− i complex plane that satisfies
i 2

1.3 (2i − 1)(i + 1)

1.19 Im(z) = 1 1.22 |z| ≤ 2
3−i
i
1.8
· (1 − i)2
−3+i
1.4 3
1.20 Re(z) ≥ −1
1.23 |z − 1| ≤ 2
(10−2i)(1+i) i
1.5 5−i 1.9 i − 1+i 1.21

−1 < Im(z) ≤ 1/2 1.24 1 < |z| ≤ 2

1.10 Compute i2 , i3 , i4 , i5 .
Which solutions can
you find to the equation x2 = −1? What is
in if n is a positive integer? 1.25 Find the real number a that satisfies
In exercise 1.11-1.14, let z = 4 − 2i and
 
3 + 4i
Im = 0.
w = 2 + 2i. Evaluate a+i

1.11 Re(z · w) 1.13 Im(z · z) 1.26 Prove that

a. z + w = z + w
b. wz = wz


1.12 Im(z + w) 1.14 |z · w|

1.27 Prove that z 2 ∈ R if and only if Re(z) = 0

In exercise 1.15-1.18, let z = 2 + i and or Im(z) = 0.
w = −1 − i. Evaluate
 12 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Table 1: Two important triangles.

Angle v
◦ 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦
rad 0 π/6 π/4 π/3
√
π/2
√1 3
sin(v) 0 1/2 2 2 1
√
3 √1 1
cos(v) 1 2 0
2 √2
tan(v) 0 √1 1 3 undef.
3

30 °
45 °
1 1
1 3
2 2
45 ° 60 °
1 1
2 2

1.2 Polar represenation

Because a complex number z = a + bi can be identified with a point in the
complex plane we can in a unique way identify that number with its distance
r from the origin together with the angle θ between the real axis and the
−−→
ImHzL straight line OP , as illustrated in Figure 1.10. Therefore

a = r cos(θ) and b = r sin(θ).

z ‡ a+bi
b r‡ a2 + b2
P where the distance from the origin r is given by
Θ
ReHzL p
O a r = |z| = a 2 + b2 ,

Figure 1.10 A complex num- and

b
ber is uniquely determined by tan(θ) =
.
r = |z| (distance to the origin) a
and the angle θ. Hence we can express z in polar form as

z = r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)).

This way we can describe a complex number z = a + bi in the complex plane

by the polar coordinate [r, θ] instead of the cartesian coordinate (a, b).
Writing z in the form z = a + bi is called rectangular form (or carte-
sian form). The angle θ is the argumentet of z and is denoted by arg(z).
Note that the argument is not unique since adding 2π to the angle θ will
represent the same complex number.
 1.2. POLAR REPRESENATION 13

Example 1.6: arg(z) is not unique

Find the polar form of the complex

√ number z, where
a. z = 1 + i. We have |1 + i| = 2 and arg(1 + i) = π/4, but any angle
in
23π 15π 7π π 9π 17π
{. . . , − ,− ,− , , , , . . .}
4 4 4 4 4 4
can represent the argumentet. In polar form we can for example write
√
1 + i = 2(cos(π/4) + i sin(π/4)),
ImHzL but also √
1+i= 2(cos(9π/4) + i sin(9π/4)).
ReHzL b. z = i. We have |i| = 1 and arg(i) = π/2, so i = cos(π/2) + i sin(π/2).
-1 Α
c. z = 2. |2| = 2 and arg(2) = 0, so 2 = 2(cos(0) + i sin(0))
The numbers in Example 1.2 a-c is illustrated in the figure below.
 z¤ ‡ 2
ImHzL
- 3
z ‡ -1 - ä 3
z‡ä z ‡ 1+ä

Figure 1.11 Identifying trian- z‡2

gles makes it easy to determine ReHzL
exact arguments.
√  √ 
d. z = −1 − i 3. First note that −1 − i 3 = 2. We can identify
√
the number −1 − i 3 with a triangle in the third quadrant (Figure
1.11) in order to find its argument. The angle α = 60◦ = π/3 radians
so θ = π/3 + π = 4π/3, hence
ImHzL z = 2(cos(4π/3) + i sin(4π/3))
z ‡ z1 × z 2
.
z2 Next we will analyze how multiplication of complex numbers can be
visualized graphically. Assume that z1 , z2 ∈ C have polar forms
z1
z1 = r1 (cos(θ1 ) + i sin(θ1 )),
Θ

Θ1
Θ2 z2 = r2 (cos(θ2 ) + i sin(θ2 )),
ReHzL
and let z = z1 · z2 = r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)). It follows by standard trigonometric
formulas that
z1 · z2 = r1 r2 (cos(θ1 ) + i sin(θ1 ))(cos(θ2 ) + i sin(θ2 ))
Figure 1.12 Arguments are
added when multiplying to = r1 r2 (cos(θ1 ) cos(θ2 ) − sin(θ1 ) sin(θ2 )) + i(cos(θ1 ) sin(θ2 ) + sin(θ1 ) cos(θ2 ))
complex numbers. = r1 r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 ))

which gives that r = r1 · r2 och θ = θ1 + θ2 (up to a scalar multiple of 2π),

see Figure 1.12. Therefore we get
14 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

|z1 · z2 | = |z1 | · |z2 | (1.2)

arg (z1 · z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ). (1.3)

This proves (1.2) in Theorem1.2(c). The identity (1.3) should be read with
care since we may add multiples of 2π to the argument. In a strict mathe-
matical sense we are abusing equality, but write like like this for simplicity.
Note that since arg(z) = − arg(z) and arg(kz) = arg(z) for a en positive
constant k (why?), it follows that

     
z1 z1 · z2 z1 · z2
arg = arg = arg = arg(z1 · z2 ) = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 )
z2 z2 · z2 |z2 |2

Therefore we also have the following properties for division of complex

numbers

 
 z1  |z1 |
 = (1.4)
 z2  |z2 |
 
z1
arg = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 ). (1.5)
z2

Example 1.7: Rotation and translation

Multiplication with a complex number w such that |w| = 1 can be

interpreted as a rotation in the complex plane, while addition with a
complex number can be interpreted as a translation in the complex
plane. The figure shows a triangle ABC having corners

A = 1/2 + i (red), B = 1/2 + 2i (blue), and C = 3/2 + i (green),

and how the triangle is transformed under multiplication with i and

translated with 2 + i.

ImHzL
3 z + H2 + äL
2 z
äz
1
ReHzL
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
 1.2. POLAR REPRESENATION 15

Exercises 1.2
In exercise 1.28-1.31, let z = 1 + i and w = 2i. In exercise 1.36-1.39, write the complex number
Indicate z, w, z/w, and z · w, in the complex in the form z = a + bi
plane, and find
1.36 |z| = 4 and 1.38 |z| = 2 and
1.28 arg(w) och |w| 1.30 arg(z/w) and arg(z) = 3π/4 arg(z) = π/3
|z/w|
1.37 |z| = 1 and 1.39 |z| = 2 and
1.29 arg(z) and |z| 1.31 arg(z · w) and arg(z) = −π/4 arg(z) = 4π/3
|z · w|
In exercise 1.40-1.41, sketch the indicated points
in the complex plane
In exercise 1.32-1.35, write the complex number
in polar form
1.40 |z| = 1 and 1.42 |z − i| ≤ 1 and
−π < arg(z) < π4 0 ≤ arg(z) < π/2
1.32 −1 1.34 1+i
i−1

1.41 |z| ≥ 1 and

1.33 −1 + i √
1.35 −1 + i 3 arg(z) = π/3
16 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.3 Quadratic equations

The complex unit i is a solution to the quadratic equation z 2 + 1 = 0, and
Exercise 1.4 revealed that −i is also a solution. In fact i and −i are the only
solutions to z 2 + 1 = 0. In this section we shall see that we can solve all
quadratic equations including those with complex coefficients. In general a
polynomial has exactly as many roots, not necessarily distinct, as its highest
power. Let us try to solve the quadratic equation

z 2 + 2z + 5 = 0

using the standard quadratic formula, we get

√ √ p √
z = −1 ± 1 − 5 = −1 ± −4 = −1 ± 4(−1) = −1 ± 2 −1 = −1 ± 2i,
√
since i = −1. In this case it works, but what if the quadratic equation has
complex coefficients? Consider for example the equation

z 2 + 2z + 1 − i = 0.

The quadratic formula gives

p √
z = −1 ± 1 − (1 − i) = −1 ± i.
√
This is problematic since we can not easily interpret what is meant by i.
In Example 1.2-1.4 we demonstrate how we can solve an equation in the
form
z 2 = a + bi,
by setting z = x + yi, where x and y are real numbers.

Example 1.8: Method 1: quadratic equations

Find all solutions to the equation

z 2 = −3 + 4i.

Setting z = x + yi and inserting this into the equation we get z 2 =

(x + yi)2 = x2 − y 2 + 2xyi = −3 + 4i which gives us the equation

x2 − y 2 + 2xyi = −3 + 4i

For this equality to hold, the real part of the left hand side must be
equal to the real part on the right hand side, and the imaginary part
on the left must be equal to the imaginary part on the right, i.e.

x2 − y 2 = Re(x2 − y 2 + 2xyi) = Re(−3 + 4i) = −3

and
2xy = Im(x2 − y 2 + 2xyi) = Im(−3 + 4i) = 4,
which gives the equation system
1.3. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 17

x2 − y 2 = −3 (1.6)
2xy = 4 (1.7)
√
Also note that x2 + y 2 = |z|2 = z 2  = |−3 + 4i| = 25 = 5.
 

Equation (1.6) together with x2 + y 2 = 5 gives us the system of

equations

x2 − y 2 = −3 (1.8)
x2 + y 2 = 5 (1.9)

Adding (1.8) and (1.9) we get that 2x2 = 2, so x = ±1. Inserting this
into (1.7) gives y = ±2, which gives the solutions

z1 = −1 − 2i and z2 = 1 + 2i.

In the next example the equation will be of the form

az 2 + bz + c = 0,
where the coefficients a, b, and c are complex numbers. In this case we can
not use that |z|2 = |a + bi|, but instead need to use (1.7) in Example 1.8.

Example 1.9: Method 2: quadratic equations

Find all solutions to the equation

z 2 + 2iz − 5 = 0.

Setting z = x + yi, where x and y are real numbers, we get

z 2 + 2iz − 5i = (x + yi)2 + 2i(x + yi) − 5

= x2 − y 2 + 2xyi + 2xi − 2y − 5 =
= x2 − y 2 − 2y − 5 + i(2xy + 2x) = 0

For the last equality to hold, the real part and the imaginary part
must both be zero. Therefore we get the equation system

x2 − y 2 − 2y − 5 = 0 (1.10)
2xy + 2x = 0 (1.11)

Equation (1.11) can be written as 2x(y + 1) = 0 which implies that

x = 0 or y = −1. Inserting x = 0 into (1.10) gives that a

−y 2 − 2y − 5 = 0 ⇔ y 2 + 2y + 5 = 0.

By the quadratic formula y = −1±2i, however, we have assumed that

y is real number, therefore these solutions are not valid. Inserting
y = −1 into (1.10) yieldsb
18 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

x2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ x = ±2.

These solutions are valid solutions since they are real valued, hence
the solutions are x = 2 and y = −1, and x = −2 and y = −1, that is

z1 = 2 − i and z2 = −2 − i.
a
The symbol ⇔ means that the statements on each side of the symbol are
equivalent and is read as ”is equivalent to” or ”if and only if”. See Appendix A in
Anton and Rorres 1 .
b
The symbol ⇒ means that the statement to the left implies the statement to
the right, and is read as ”implies”.

Even though setting z = x + yi worked well in Example 1.9, it may lead

to a system of equations that is difficult to solve. Completing the square
can be a way to simplify the equation.

Example 1.10: Completing the square

Find all solutions to the equation

z 2 + 2iz + 1 = 0.

Completing the square yields

z 2 + 2iz + 1 = (z + i)2 − i2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ (z + i)2 + 2 = 0 ⇒ (z + i)2 = −2

Setting z + i = x + yi we get

(z + i)2 = (x + yi)2 = x2 − y 2 + 2xyi = −2,

which gives the equation system

x2 − y 2 = −2 (1.12)
2xy = 0 (1.13)

Equation (1.13) implies that

√ x = 0 or y = 0, but since Equation
(1.12) implies that x = ±i 2 is complex if y = 0, this solution is not
For x = 0 Equation (1.12) becomes y 2 = 2, which gives that
valid. √
y = ± 2. Therefore √
z + i = ±i 2,
which gives the solutions
√ √ √ √
z1 = −i − i 2 = i(−1 − 2) and z2 = −i + i 2 = i(−1 + 2).
 1.3. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 19

Example 1.11: Julia sets

The illustration on the front page (Figure 1.13) shows the Julia set
for P (z) = z 2 + 0.9iz + 0.1111, created with Mathematica 10, using
the Escape time algorithm, in which a pixels is colored by how fast
the corresponding point diverge towards infinity when iterated under
P (z). The filled Julia set for P (z) consist of points (blue) which under
iteration of P (z) remains in a bounded region. Julia sets are examples
of so called fractals, which means “broken”or “fractured”. A typical
property of fractals is that a fractal look similar on different scales,
and you can zoom in and discover new details on any scale. Figure
1.13 was created in Mathematica with the command

Figure 1.13 Illustration of

the Julia set for the polynomial
P (z) = z 2 + 0.9iz + 0.1111.

Exercises 1.3
In exercise 1.45-1.49, solve the equation
1.43 Show that z = −1 + i is a solution to the
equation z 2 + 2z + 2 = 0. Verify that z is also
a solution. 1.45 1.47
1+i z 2 −(3+2i)z+5+i = 0
z2 =
1.44 Show that z = −1 − i is a solution to the 1−i
equation iz 2 − 2z − 2i = 0. Verify that z is
not a solution. 1.48

z 2 − 2iz + 1 = 0
1.46

z 2 −4z +4+2i = 0 1.49

(4−3i)z 2 −25z+31−17i = 0
20 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.4 The n:th roots of a complex number

In this section we will solve equations in the form of

zn = w

where z is an unknown and w = a + bi is a known complex number. Any

solution to this equation is called an n:th root of w. But first we derive a
very useful formula that we will need.
Assume that |z| = 1, so we can write z in polar form as

z = cos(θ) + i sin(θ).

By the properties

|z1 · z2 | = |z1 | |z2 |

arg(z1 · z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 )

we get that |z n | = |z|n = 1 and

arg(z n ) = arg(z) + arg(z) + . . . + arg(z) = n arg(z).

Therefore we can write z n as

z n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)

which yields de Moivres formula (cos(θ) + i sin(θ))n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ).

It is important, so we formulate this as a theorem.

Theorem 1.4: de Moivres formula

(cos(θ) + i sin(θ))n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ) för n ∈ Z

Using de Moivres formula we can easily compute powers of complex num-

bers.

Example 1.12: Powers

Evaluate
(1 + i)10 .
Since √
1+i= 2(cos(π/4) + i sin(π/4))
we get
√
(1 + i)10 = ( 2(cos(π/4) + i sin(π/4)))10
= 210/2 (cos(10π/4) + i sin(10π/4))
= 25 (cos(π/2) + i sin(π/2)) = 32i
1.4. THE N :TH ROOTS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER 21

De Moivres formula can also be used to derive trigonometric formulas

for cos(nθ) and sin(nθ), where n is an integer. Below is an example where
we derive the double-angle formulas.

Example 1.13: Double-angle formulas

By de Moivres formula we have that (cos(θ) + i sin(θ))2 = cos(2θ) +

i sin(2θ). Expanding the left hand side we get

(cos(θ) + i sin(θ))2 = cos2 (θ) + 2i cos(θ) sin(θ) − sin2 (θ)

= cos(2θ) + i sin(2θ).

If we identify the real part of the left hand side with the real part
of the right hand side of the last inequality, and similarly for the
imaginary parts of respective side, we get the formulas

sin(2θ) = 2 cos(θ) sin(θ)

cos(2θ) = cos2 (θ) − sin2 (θ)

We will use de Moivres formula to find the solutions to the equation

z n = w, where w is a complex number. Assume that the polar form of z is
z = r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)), so that

z n = r n (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)).

If w = 0, the only solution is the trivial solution z = 0, so lets assume that

w 6= 0, and that the polar form of w is

w = r0 (cos(θ0 ) + i sin(θ0 )),

where r0 > 0. Then we can write the equation as

r n (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)) = r0 (cos(θ0 ) + i sin(θ0 )).

Since two complex numbers are equal if and only if they have the same
absolute value and argument (up to a multiple of 2π), it follows that

|z n | = |w| and arg(z n ) = arg(w).

Taking into account that we can add 2kπ to the argument, k ∈ Z, we get
the equations

r n = r0 (1.14)
n θ = θ0 + 2kπ, k∈Z (1.15)

1/n
Since r0 > 0 Equation (1.14) has a unique solution r = r0 , and (1.15)
gives that
 22 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

θ0 2kπ
+
θk = , for k ∈ Z
n n
Therefore the solutions to the equation z n = w are
    
1/n θ0 2kπ θ0 2kπ
z = r0 cos + + i sin + k∈N
n n n n
Since cosine and sine have period 2π it is enough to chose n consecutive in-
teger values of k in order to find all solutions. Note that this means that the
1/n
solutions will be evenly distributed on a circle of radius r0 in the complex
plane with an angle of 2π/n between them (cf. Figure 1.14).
ImHzL
Example 1.14: Finding n:th roots
3Π Π
Find all solutions to the equation
4 4
ä
z 4 = −4.
ReHzL
- 2 2 Let z = r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)) so that
-ä
3Π Π
- -
4
z 4 = r 4 (cos(4θ) + i sin(4θ)).
4
Since |−4| = 4 and arg(−4) = π we get the equations
Figure 1.14 All solutions to
rn = 4 (1.16)
the equation z 4 = −4. Note
that the radius of the circle is 4 θ = π + 2kπ, for k∈Z (1.17)
√
r = 41/4 = 2. √
By Equation (1.16) we get that r = 41/4 = (22 )1/4 = 21/2 = 2.
Solving for θ in (1.17), we get that
π π
θ= +k ,
4 2
so the solutions are given by
√ π π π π
z= 2(cos( + k ) + i sin( + k )) for k = −2, −1, 0, 1
4 2 4 2
Note that we may chose any four consecutive values of k, and could
just as well have chosen e.g. k = 0, 1, 2, 3. Hence the solutions are
√   π  √  1
π 
1
z1 = 2 cos + i sin = 2 √ + i√ =1+i
4 4 2 2
√ √
      
3π 3π −1 1
z2 = 2 cos + i sin = 2 √ + i√ = −1 + i
4 4 2 2
√   π  √  −1
 π 
1
z3 = 2 cos − + i sin − = 2 √ − i√ = −1 − i
4 4 2 2
√ √
      
3π 3π 1 1
z4 = 2 cos − + i sin − = 2 √ − i√ =1−i
4 4 2 2
The solutions are illustrated in Figure 1.14.
 1.4. THE N :TH ROOTS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER 23

A useful function is the complex exponential function ez for complex

values z. First, for real values θ we define eiθ by

eiθ = cos(θ) + i sin(θ)

This is called Eulers formula. For z = α + iβ we define the complex

exponential function ez by

eα+iβ = eα eiβ = eα (cos(β) + i sin(β))

The function ez will satisfy the usual arithmetic rules of exponential

functions, such as e.g.
ez1 1
ez1 ez2 = ez1 +z2 , = ez1 −z2 , = e−z
ez2 ez
We can write any complex number z in exponential form as eα+iβ , where
|z| = eα and arg(z) = β. This is a more compact notation than polar form
since the expression does not include sine or cosine.

Example 1.15: Exponential form

√ √
Since eln( 2)
= 2 we can write
√ √ π
√ π
1 + i = 2(cos(π/4) + i sin(π/4)) = eln( 2) ei 4 = eln( 2)+i 4

Exercises 1.4
In exercise 1.52-1.56, solve the equation
1.50 Show that
a. eiπ + 1 = 0
√
b. e2+i2π/3 = e2 (− 12 + i 3
2 ) 1.52 z 3 = 8i 1.55 (z − i)3 = i

1.51 Express z 31 in the form a + bi when 1.53 z 4 = −16 1.56 (z + 1)4 = −4

a. z = −i
b. z = 1 − i 1.54 z 6 = 1
Chapter 2

Polynomials

2.1 The division algorithm

You are familiar with polynomials, but for completeness we include a formal
definition of polynomials and introduce basic concepts.

Definition 2.1: Polynomials

Let n be a non-negative integer. A function P (x) having the form

P (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + . . . + an xn ,

where a1 , a2 , . . . , an are real (complex) numbers, and an unknown

variable x, is called a real (complex) polynomial. The numbers
a0 , a1 , . . . , an are called coefficients. The highest power of x with
non-zero coefficient is called the degree of the polynomial and is
denoted by deg(P ). A number α such that P (α) = 0 is called a root
(zero) of the polynomial P (x), in other words a root of the polynomial
is a solution to the equation P (x) = 0.

Two polynomials are equal if and only if their coefficients are equal. We
define addition of two polynomials by adding the coefficients of the same
power.

Example 2.1

a. P (x) = k, where k ∈ R and k 6= 0, is a polynomial of degree 0 with

no roots.

b. P (x) = 1 + x2 − 2x7 is a polynomial of degree 7, and e.g. x = 1 is a

root of P (x).

c. R(x) = 2 − x2 + x−4 is not a polynomial because the exponent in the

term x−4 is not a non-negative integer.

25
26 CHAPTER 2. POLYNOMIALS

We can divide polynomials in a similar way as we divide an integer a (the

dividend) by an integer b (the divisor), and similarly as we get a remainder
if a is not divisible by b, we can be a remainder dividing polynomials.

Example 2.2

Dividing 48 by 5 we get
48 3
= 9 + ⇔ 48 = 9 · 5 + 3
5 5
where 3 is called the remainder. Note that the remainder 3 is strictly
less than the divisor 5. In general the remainder is strictly less than
the quotient. In a similar way we shall see that we can divide the
polynomial x2 + 3 with the polynomial (x − 1) and get

x2 + 3 4
= (x + 1) + ⇔ x2 + 3 = (x + 1)(x − 1) + 4,
x−1 x−1
where the remainder is 4. Note that the degree of the remainder
is strictly less than the degree of the divisor (x − 1), in this case
deg(4) = 0 och deg((x − 1)) = 1. This will always be the case for
polynomial division.

In general it is true for polynomials Am (x) (the dividend) and Bn (x)

(the divisor) of degree m and n respectively, that if m > n, there exist
unique polynomials Qm−n (x) (the quotient) of degree m − n, and rk (x) (the
remainder) of degree k, such that

Am (x) = Qm−n (x)Bn (x) + rk (x) (2.1)

where rk (x) is a polynomial with deg(rk ) = k < deg(Bn ) = n.

The division algorithm is a method for dividing two polynomials and

is similar to long division. We illustrate the method with an example.

Example 2.3: The division algorithm

In this example we divide A(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2x − 5 by B(x) = x − 1,

by using “long division” for polynomials. We begin by writing the
long division

x3 −3x2 +2x −5 |x − 1

1. Multiply (x − 1) with x2 , so that the coefficients for the highest

power in the result iequals the coefficient of the highest power in
x3 − 3x2 + 2x − 5 and write the answer below inside parentheses
with a minus in front. Also write x2 at the top.
2.1. THE DIVISION ALGORITHM 27

x2
x3 −3x2 +2x −5 |x − 1
−(x3 −x2 )

2. Add the two lines.

x2 −2x
x3 −3x2 +2x −5 |x − 1
−(x3 −x2 )
−2x2 +2x −5

3. Repeat Step 1. for −2x2 + 2x − 5, i.e. multiply x − 1 with −2x

and write the answer inside parentheses with a minus in front,
write −2x at the top, and add the two bottom lines.

x2 −2x
x3 −3x2 +2x −5 |x − 1
−(x3 2
−x )
−2x2 +2x −5
−(−2x2 +2x)
−5

Continue repeating Step 1 until the degree of the remaining polyno-

mial is less then the degree of the divisor x − 1. In this case, the
division algorithm is complete since deg(−5) = 0 which is less than
deg(x − 1) = 1. Thus the remainder is −5. We can then write

A(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2x − 5 = (x2 − 2x)(x − 1) − 5,

or dividing both sides by x − 1 as

A(x) x3 − 3x2 + 2x − 5 5
= = x2 − 2x − .
B(x) x−1 x−1

Thus
A(x) 5
= x2 − 2x − ,
B(x) x−1
where Q(x) = x2 −2x is the quotient, and r(x) = −5 is the remainder.
 28 CHAPTER 2. POLYNOMIALS

In the next example the long division is written with the divisor to the
right, but the method is of course the same.

Example 2.4

Find the remainder for the polynomial divsion A(x)/B(x) där A(x) =
(x4 + 3x3 + 4x2 + 15x − 5) and B(x) = (x2 + 5).
x2 + 3x − 1
x2 + 5 x4 + 3x3 + 4x2 + 15x − 5

− x4 − 5x2
3x3 − x2 + 15x
− 3x3 − 15x
− x2 −5
x2 +5
0
The reminder equals 0, hence

A(x) = x4 + 3x3 + 4x2 + 15x − 5 = (x2 + 3x − 1)(x2 + 5).

Exercises 2.1
In exercise 2.1-2.4, by inspection state the In exercise 2.5-2.8, find the reminder by
highest possible degree of the remainder. polynomial long division

2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7

(x4 −x2 +3)/(2x+3) (x + 1)/(x4 − 1) (x3 +x−1)/(x+1) (x4 +2x+1)/(x2 −x)

2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8

(x3 + x)/(x2 + 3) (x7 + x3 )/(x3 + 3) (x7 + x3 )/(x3 − 1) (x9 + 1)/x

2.2. FACTORING POLYNOMIALS 29

2.2 Factoring polynomials

Theorem 2.1 is a fundamental theorem that we will not attempt to prove.
Unfortunately, the proof lies outside the scope of this course.
Theorem 2.1: The Fundamental theorem of algebra

A polynomial P (x) (with real or complex coefficients) with

deg(P ) ≥ 1 has at least one complex root.

A polynomial Q(x) is a factor of P (x) if there exist a polynomial R(x)

such that P (x) = Q(x)R(x), i.e. polynomial division yields 0 as a remain-
der. The next theorem is important and states that (x − a) is a factor of
P (x) if and only if a is a root of P (x).

Theorem 2.2: The Factor theorem

If P (x) is a polynomial and a ∈ C, then

(x − α) is a factor of P (x) ⇔ P (a) = 0

Proof. When proving an equivalence A ⇔ B we need to prove both impli-

cations A ⇒ B and A ⇐ B.

First we prove the implication ⇒: Assume that (x − a) is a factor of

P (x). Then P (x) = R1 (x)(x − a) for some polynomial R1 , which gives
that P (a) = R1 (a)(a − a) = R1 (a) · 0 = 0.

Next we prove the implication ⇐: Assume that P (a) = 0. According to the

division algorithm P (x) = R2 (x)(x − a) + r(x) where deg(r(x)) < deg((x −
a)) = 1, i.e. deg(r(x)) = 0, so r(x) must be a constant which we denote by
r ∈ R. Then P (x) equals

P (x) = R2 (x)(x − a) + r.

By the assumption P (a) = 0 it follows that

0 = P (a) = R2 (a)(a − a) + r = R2 (a) · 0 + r = r.

Therefore r = 0, so that P (a) = R2 (x)(x − a), i.e. (x − a) is a factor of

P (x).

By the Factor theorem and the Fundamental theorem of algebra, we get

that all polynomials can be expressed as product of linear factors.
30 CHAPTER 2. POLYNOMIALS

Theorem 2.3: (Factoring polynomials)

A polynomial

P (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + . . . + an xn ,

with deg(P ) = n has exactly n roots β1 , β2 , . . . , βn , and can be ex-

pressed as
P (x) = an (x − β1 )(x − β2 ) . . . (x − βn ).

Proof. Assume the P (x) is a polynomial such that deg(P ) ≥ 1. Then by

the Fundamental theorem of algebra, P (x) has at least one root, denote
the root β1 ∈ C. By the Factor theorem P (x) = Rn−1 (x)(x − β1 ), where
deg(Rn−1 ) = n − 1. If deg(Rn−1 ) ≥ 1 can repeat the argument Rn−1 , so
that Rn−1 (x) = Rn−2 (x)(x − β2 ). We continuing like this until R0 (x) has
deg(R0 ) = 0, i,e. R0 (x) = k, where k is a constant, we get that

P (x) = k(x − β1 )(x − β2 ) · . . . · (x − βn ).

Multiplying all factors it follows that the constant k in front of the highest
power must be an .

Note that some of the roots βi my be equal, however, we can collect all
factors that are the same and express a P (x) polynomial of degree n in a
unique way as

P (x) = an (x − α1 )m1 (x − α2 )m2 · . . . (x − αk )mk

where all αi are unique, and m1 + m2 + . . . + mk = n. The number mi is

called the multiplicity of the root αi ; a double root is a root of multi-
plicity 2, and a triple root is a root of multiplicity 3.

Example 2.5

Factor P (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 into linear factors. We can try to

find one root by trail and error for some simple integer values. Note
that P (x) has exactly 3 roots. Since P (1) = 13 − 6 · 12 + 11 · 1 − 6 = 0,
x = 1 is a root of P (x), so there is a polynomial Q(x) (of degree 2)
such that
P (x) = (x − 1)Q(x).
Next we use the division algorithm to determine Q(x).
2.2. FACTORING POLYNOMIALS 31

x2 − 5x + 6
x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6


x−1
− x3 + x2
− 5x2 + 11x
5x2 − 5x
6x − 6
− 6x + 6
0
Since the remainder equals 0, we have that

P (x) = (x − 1)(x2 − 5x + 6).

We find the remaining two roots by solving the equation

x2 − 5x + 6 = 0.

By the quadratic formula

s 
5 2
r
5 5 1 5 1
x2 − 5x + 6 = 0 ⇔ x = ± −6= ± = ±
2 2 2 4 2 2
⇔ x = 2 or x = 3

Hence P (x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3).

An important property is; if P (x) is a real polynomial (all coefficients

are real numbers) and z is a complex root of P (x), then z is also a root of
P (x). This follows by αz = α z for real numbers α, and the arithmetic rules
of the complex conjugate. For example, if P (x) is a polynomial of degree 2,
we have
P (z) = az 2 + bz + c = az 2 + bz + c = P (z) = 0 = 0.
The general case when deg(P ) > 2 follows in a similar way.

Theorem 2.4: Conjugate roots

If P (x) is a real polynomial and w = a + bi is a complex root of P (x),

where a, b ∈ R, then w = a − ib is also a root of P (x).

Theorem 2.4 is not true for complex polynomials (some coefficients are
compelex), a counter example is given by Example 1.3. Note that if w is a
root to a real polynomial P (x), then
(x − w)(x − w)
will always be a real quadratic factor of P (x). To show this is left as an
exercise.
 32 CHAPTER 2. POLYNOMIALS

Example 2.6
√
Factor P (x) = x4 + 4x + 3 into linear
√ factors, given that w = 1 − i 2
is a root to P (x). Since 1 − i 2 is a root√ to P (x) and P (x) is a
real polynomial, it follows that w = 1 + i 2i is also a root of P (x).
Therefore
√ √
(x − (1 − i 2)(x − (1 + i 2)) = x2 − 2x + 3

is a factor of P (x). Applying the the division algorithm we get

x2 + 2x + 1
x2 − 2x + 3 x4


+ 4x + 3
− x4 + 2x3 − 3x2
2x3 − 3x2 + 4x
− 2x3 + 4x2 − 6x
x2 − 2x + 3
− x2 + 2x − 3
0
Since x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2 we have that
√ √
P (x) = (x + 1)2 (x2 − 2x + 3) = (x + 1)2 (x − (1 − i 2)(x − (1 + i 2))

Exercises 2.2

2.9 Show that z = −1 + i is solution to the 2.12 2.15

equation z 2 + 2z + 2 = 0 and find the other
solution. x3 +3x2 −49x+45 9x3 − 9x2 + x − 1

2.13 2.16

2.10 Show that if w = a+bi, where a, b ∈ R then 2x3 +9x2 +10x+3 x4 + 2x2 + 1
(x − w)(x − w) is real polynomial of degree 2.
2.14

4x3 + 4x2 + x + 1
2.11 Find one root by trial and error and deter-
mine all roots.
a. P (x) = 4x3 − 7x − 3 2.17 Factor p(x) into linear factors given that
b. P (x) = x4 − 2x3 + 3x2 − 4x + 2 w is a root.
a. p(x) = x4 + 10x2 + 9, where w = i
b. p(x) = x5 + x4 + 10x3 − 8x2 + 16x− 20, where
In exercise 2.12-2.16, factor the polynomial into w = 3i − 1
linear factors
Answers to exercises

1.1: −1 + 3i

1.2: −1 − i

1.3: −3 + i

2
1.4: 3

1.5: 2 + 2i

2
1.6: 5 − 15 i

1.7: − 3i
2

1.8: −1

1.9: − 21 + 12 i

1.10: Solutions to the equation are: x = ±i,


1 n = 4k



i n = 4k + 1
in = , for k ∈ N


 −1 n = 4k + 2

−i n = 4k + 3

1.11: 12

1.12: −4

33
34 CHAPTER 2. POLYNOMIALS

1.13: 0

√
1.14: 4 10

1.15: −1 + 3i

1.16: 1

1.17: −3 − i

1.18: 3 − 2i

ImHzL

ReHzL
-1 1

-ä
1.19:

ImHzL

ReHzL
-2 -1 1 2

-ä

1.20:

ImHzL

ReHzL
-2 -1 1 2

-ä

1.21:

ImHzL

ReHzL
-2 -1 1 2

-ä

1.22:
2.2. FACTORING POLYNOMIALS 35

ImHzL

ä
ReHzL
-2 -1 1 2
-ä
1.23:

ImHzL

ReHzL
-2 -1 1 2

-ä

1.24:

1.25: a = 3/4

1.26:
a. Let z = a + bi och w = c + di. Then LHS: z + w =
(a + bi) + (c + di) = a + c + i(b + d) = a + c − i(b + d). Futher more
RHS: z + w = a − bi + c − di = a + c − i(b + d), so RHS=LHS.
b. Proven in a similar way as (a).

1.27: Assume that z = a + bi and z 2 ∈ R. Then (a + bi)2 = a2 +

2abi − b2 ∈ R ⇔ 2ab = 0 ⇔ a = 0 or b = 0. The Theorem follows
since Re(z) = a and Im(z) = b.

1.28: arg(w) = π/2 and |w| = 2

√
1.29: arg(z) = π/4 and |z| = 2

√ √ √ √
1.30: arg(z/w) = −π/4 and |z/w| = 2/2 = 1/ 2 (obs: 2 = 2· 2)

√
1.31: arg(z · w) = 3π/4 and |z · w| = 2 2

1.32: cos(π) + i sin(π)

√
1.33: 2(cos(3π/4) + i sin(3π/4))
36 CHAPTER 2. POLYNOMIALS

1.34: cos(3π/2) + i sin(3π/2)

1.35: 2(cos(2π/3) + i sin(2π/3)

√ √
1.36: −2 2 + 2 2i

√ √
1−i 2 2
1.37: √
2
= 2 +i 2

√
1.38: 1 + i 3

√
1.39: −1 − i 3

ImHzL

ä
Π
4
ReHzL
-2 -1 1 2

-ä

1.40:

ImHzL

Π
6
1
ReHzL
2
1

1.41:

ImHzL

ReHzL
-1 1 2

1.42: -ä

1.43: z 2 +2z +2 = (−1+i)2 +2(−1+i)+2 = 1−2i−1−2+2i+2 = 0

1.44: iz 2 − 2z − 2i = i(−1 − i)2 − 2(−1 − i) − 2i = i(1 + 2i − 1) + 2 +

2i − 2i = i − 2 + 2 − 2i − 2i = 0
2.2. FACTORING POLYNOMIALS 37

1.45: z = ± √12 (1 + i)

1.46: z = 3 − i or z = 1 + i

1.47: z = 2 + 3i or z = 1 − i

√ √
1.48: (1 − 2)i or z = (1 + 2)i

1.49: z = 3 + 4i or z = 1 − i

1.50:
a. eiπ + 1 = cos(π) + i sin(π) + 1 = −1 + 0 + 1 = 0
√
3
b. e2+i2π/3 = e2 ei2π/3 = e2 (cos(2π/3) + i sin(2π/3)) = e2 (− 12 + 2 )

1.51:
a. i
b. 215 (1 + i)

1.52:
Roots: 9ä - 3 , -2 ä, ä + 3=
ImHzL

5Π Π
6 ä 6
ReHzL
-2 2
-ä

Π
-
2
38 CHAPTER 2. POLYNOMIALS

1.53:
Roots: 9H-1 + äL 2 , H-1 - äL 2 , H1 - äL 2 , H1 + äL 2=
ImHzL

3Π Π
4 4
ä
ReHzL
-2 2
-ä
3Π Π
- -
4 4

1.54:
1 ä 3 1 ä 3 1 ä 3 1 ä 3
Roots: : + ,- + , -1, - - , - , 1>
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ImHzL

2Π Π
3 3
ä

Π 0 ReHzL
-1 1

-ä Π
2Π
- -
3 3

1.55:
3ä 3 3ä 3
Roots: : - , 0, + >
2 2 2 2
ImHzL

5Π ä Π
6 6
ReHzL
-1 1

-ä
Π
-
2
Note that the figure show the solutions of the equation w3 = i, and
that w = z − i
2.2. FACTORING POLYNOMIALS 39

1.56:
Roots: 8-2 + ä, -2 - ä, -ä, ä<
ImHzL

3Π Π
4 4
ä

ReHzL
- 2 2
-ä
3Π Π
- -
4 4

Note that the figure show the solutions of the equation w4 = −4, and
that w = z + 1

2.1: 0

2.2: 1

2.3: 1

2.4: 2

2.5: x2 − x + 2
x3


x+1 +x−1
− x3 − x2
− x2 + x
x2 + x
2x − 1
− 2x − 2
−3

2.6: x4 +x+1
x3 − 1 x7 x3


+
− x7 + x4
x4 + x3
− x4 +x
x3 + x
− x3 +1
x+1
40 CHAPTER 2. POLYNOMIALS

2.7: x2 + x + 1
x2 − x x4


+ 2x + 1
− x4 + x3
x3
− x3 + x2
x2 + 2x
− x2 + x
3x

2.8: x8
x9 + 1


x
− x9

2.9: Since the left hand side is a real polynomial, z = −1 − i is also

a solution.

2.10: (x − w)(x − w) = (x − (a + bi))(x − (a − bi)) = x2 − 2ax + b2 + a2

which is a real polynomial since a, b ∈ R.

2.11:
a. x = −1 is a root, the division algorithm gives that P (x) = (x +
1)(4x2 −4x−3), we find the remaining roots by solving (4x2 −4x−3) =
0, which are x = 3/2 and x = −1/2.
b. x = 1 is a root, the division algorithm gives P (x) = (x − 1)(x3 − x2 +
2x− 2). Trying some values for the 3:rd degree polynomial yields that
x = 1 is a root of x3 − x2 + 2x − 2, the division algorithm then yieles
√
x3 − x2 + 2x − 2 = (x − 1)(x2 + 2) so the roots are x = 1, x = ±i 2.

2.12: (x − 1)(x − 5)(x + 9)

2.13: 2(x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 1/2)

2.14: 4(x + 1)(x − i/2)(x + i/2)

2.15: 9(x − 1)(x − i/3)(x + i/3)

2
2.16: x2 + 1 = (x − i)2 (x + i)2
2.2. FACTORING POLYNOMIALS 41

2.17: Hint: these are real polynomials, so w is also a root, which

means that (z − w)(z − w) is a quadratic factor of the polynomial.
a. (x − i)(x + i)(x − 3i)(x + 3i)
√ √
b. (x − (3i − 1))(x − (−3i − 1)(x − 1)(x − i 2)(x + i 2)
Bibliography

1. Howard Anton and Chris Rorres. Elementary linear algebra: with sup-
plemental applications. Wiley, 2011.

43