Module 1 : Sets

Learning
Outcomes : After working through this module, you are expected to be able to:
a) Define set and different types of sets such as, finite and infinite sets,
empty set, singleton set, equivalent sets, equal sets, sub-sets and cite
examples thereof;
b) Describe sets by listing the elements and by means of set-builder
notation;
c) Perform operations on sets and
d) Solve real life problems using the addition principle for sets, principle
of inclusion-exclusion and Venn diagram;

1.1. Some Standard Notations

In everyday life and in mathematics, the term “set” is often used. A set contains
objects, people or numbers with something in common, and form a well-defined whole.
Basically, a set isSome defined:

Definition A set is a collection of well-defined distinct objects, called the elements of

the set.

Well-defined means, accurately and unambiguously stated or described. There is no

partial membership and there is no possibility of being a member more than once. If x
is a member of the set S, we write x ∈ S , and if x is not a member of the set S, we write
x ∉ S.

The barber paradox gives an example of a set that is not well-defined.: There is only
one barber in a certain town. He is male, all of the men in the town are clean-shaven.
The barber shaves all and only the men in the town who do not shave themselves. Who
shaves the barber? Now, if the barber shaves himself, then since the barber shaves only
the men who do not shave themselves, he does not shave himself. And if he does not
shave himself, then since he shaves all of the men who do not shave themselves, he
shaves himself.

One explanation for this paradox is that, the set S of men in the town who are shaved
by the barber is not well-defined. As the barber must simultaneously be a member of
the set and not be a member of the set.

Consider the following examples:

a) Collection of tall students in your a) Collection of those students in your

school school whose height is more than 180
cm
b) Collection of honest persons in your b) Collection of those people in your
 colony colony who have never been found
involved in any theft case
c) Collection of interesting books in your c) Collection of mathematics books in
school library your school library
d) Collection of intelligent students in d) Collection of those students in your
your school school who have secured more than
80% marks in annual examination

In all collections written on the left-hand side of the vertical line, the term tallness.
interesting, honesty, intelligence, are not well defined. In fact, these notions vary
from individual to individual. Hence, those collections cannot be considered as sets.
While in all collections written on the right-hand side of the vertical line, “height more
than 180 cm”, “mathematics books”, “never been found involved in theft case”, “marks
more than 80%” are well defined properties. Hence, these collections are considered as
sets.

If a collection is a set, then each object of this collection is said to be an element of

this set. A set is usually denoted by capital letters of the English alphabet and its
elements are denoted by small letters.

For example, A={ a , b , c ,d } . Here a ∈ A , b ∈ A , c ∈ A . Also, d ∈ A

Talking of the other letters of the alphabet say m, we write m∉ A

Some standard notations to represent sets:

N : the set of natural numbers
W :the set of whole numbers
Z : the set of integers
+¿ :¿
Z the set of positive integers
−¿: ¿
Z the set of negative integers
Q : the set of rational numbers
R : the set of real numbers
C : the set of complex numbers

Other frequently used symbols are:

∈: “belongs to”, “element”
∉: “does not belong to:, “not an element”
∃: there exists
∄: there does not exist

1.2 Representation of a Set

Sets can be described in several ways. One way to describe a set is to write a
description of the set-in words, as in the “the set of all integers that can be written as
the sum of two squares”. There are three main ways of describing a set using
mathematical notation.
1. Explicit listing or Roster Method. In this method, a set is represented by listing
all its elements, separating these by commas and enclosing these in curly brackets.

If V be the set of vowels of English alphabet, it can be written in Roster form as:
V = { a , e , i, o ,u }

If A be the set of natural numbers less than 7, then

A={ 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 }, is in Roster form.

The elements of a set that is described by explicit listing are the different objects in the
list obtained when the braces are removed. For example, the elements of { 2 , 4 , 6 } are 2,
4, and 6.
Note: To write a set in Roster from elements are not to be repeated i.e., all elements
are taken as distinct. For example, if A be the set of letters used in the word
mathematics, then
A={ m, a , t ,h , e ,i , c , s }

Try these out.

Describe the following sets explicitly:

a) A={ x ∈ Z : x ≤5 }

b) B= { x ∈ N : x∣24 }

c) C={ x ∈ R: x =2 }

d) D=¿

2. Implicit listing. In this method, enough number of elements are to be listed to

establish a pattern. Once the pattern is established, one may now use ellipsis “…”
to represent the other members of the set. For example, { 1 , 2, 3 , … ,100 } is the set of
the positive integers less than or equal to 100. Another example is
{ … ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , … }, the set of integers.

The elements of a set that is described by implicit listing are those that follow the
pattern.

3. Set-builder form. In this method, elements of the set are not listed but these are
represented by some property. The elements of a set described using set-builder
notation are those objects of the given type that satisfy the stated condition. For

example, the elements of the set {ba :a∧b are positiveintegers } are infinitely many.

Other examples.
 Let V be the set of vowels of English alphabet then V can be written in the set
builder form as:

V = { x : x is avowel of English alphabet }

Let A be the set of natural numbers less than 7, then

A={ x : x ∈ N∧1 ≤ x <7 }

Note: The symbol ‘:’ is read as ‘such that’

Try these out.

 Write the following in set-builder form:

i. A={−3 ,−2 ,−1, 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 }

ii. B= {3 , 6 , 9 , 12 }

iii. C={ 50 , 51, 52 , … ,60 }

1.3 Classification of Sets

Finite and Infinite Sets

Finite and finite sets are two of the different types of sets. The word ‘finite’ describes
that it is countable and the word ‘infinite’ means it is not finite or uncountable. Here,
you will learn about finite and finite sets, their definition, properties and other details
of these two types of sets along with various examples and questions.

Finite Sets
Definition Finite sets are the sets having a finite/countable number of members.
finite sets are also known as countable sets as they can be
counted. This process will run out of elements to list if the elements of
this set have a finite number of members

Examples of finite sets:

P= { 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , … , 50 }
Q= { a :a is aninteger , 1<a<10 }
A set of all English alphabets (because it is countable)

Singleton is a set with only one element

Cardinality of Finite Sets:

If ‘a’ represents the number of elements of set A, then the cardinality of a finite set is
n ( A ) =a. So, the cardinality of the set A of all English Alphabets is 26, because the
number of elements (alphabet) is 26. Similarly, for a set containing the months in a
year will have a cardinality of 12.
Properties of Finite Sets
The following finite set conditions are always finite.
 A subset of finite set
 The union of two finite sets
 The power set of a finite set

Few examples of finite sets:

P= {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 }
Q= {3 ,6 , 9 }
R={ 1,2 }

 Here, P, Q, and R are finite sets because the elements are finite and countable
 R ⊂ P because all the elements of set R are present in P . So, the subset of a
finite set is always finite
 P ∪Qis { 1,2,3,4,6,9 }, so, the union of two sets is also finite

Non-empty Finite Set

It is a set where either the number of elements is big or only starting or ending is
given, So, we denote it with the number of elements with n( A) and if n( A) is a natural
number then it’s a finite set.

Example.

S= { a set of the number of peopleliving ∈India }

It is difficult to calculate the number of people living in India but it’s somewhere a
natural number. So, we can call it a non-empty finite set.

If N is a set of natural numbers less than n, so the cardinality of set N is n .

N= { 1,2,3, … , n }

X =x 1 , x 2 , … , x n

Y = { x : x 1 ∈ N ,1 ≤i ≤ n }, where I is the integer between 1 and n.

Infinite Set
If a set is not finite, it is called infinite set because the number of elements in that set
is not countable and also, we cannot represent it in Roster form. Thus, infinite sets are
also known as uncountable sets.

Examples of Infinite Sets

 A set of whole numbers, W ={ 0 , 1, 3 , 4 ,… }
 A set of all points on a line
 The set of all integers

Cardinality of Infinite Sets

The cardinality of a set is n ( A ) =x, where x is the number of elements of a set A. Thus,
the cardinality of an infinite set is n( A)=∞ as the number of elements is unlimited in
it.

Properties of Infinite Sets

 The union of two infinite sets is infinite
 The power set of an infinite set is infinite
 The superset of an infinite set is also infinite

Comparison of Finite and Infinite Sets

Let us compare the difference between finite and infinite set:

The sets could be equal only if their elements are the same, so a set could be equal
only if it is a finite set, whereas if the elements are not comparable, the set is infinite.

Factors Finite Set Infinite Sets

Number of elements Elements are countable The number of elements is
uncountable
Continuity It has a start and end It is endless from the start
elements or end. Both the sides
could have continuity
Cardinality n ( A ) =n, n is the number n ( A ) =∞ as the number of
of elements in the set elements are uncountable
Union Union of two finite sets is Union of two infinite sets
finite is infinite
Power set The power set of a finite The power set of an
set is also finite infinite set is infinite
Roster form Can be easily represented The infinite set cannot be
in roster form represented in roster form,
so we used ‘ellipses to
represent the infinity

Empty Set
An empty set is a set which has no elements and it can be represented as { } or ∅ and
shows that it has no element.

As the finite set has a countable number of elements and the empty set has zero
elements so, it is a definite number of elements. With a cardinality of zero, an
empty set is a finite set.

Examples of sets:

A={ x : x ∈ R∧x +1=0 }

2

B= { x : x is a number whichis greater than 7∧lessthan 5 }

Set A consists of real numbers but there is no real number whose square is -1.
Therefore, this set has no element. Similarly, there is no such number which is less
than 5 and greater than 7. Such a set is said to be a null (empty) set. It is denoted by
the symbol void, ∅ .

Singleton Set
It is a set with exactly one element

Equivalent Sets
Equivalent sets are two sets that comprise equal number of elements. To be
equivalent, the sets should have the same cardinality.

Equal Sets
Two sets A and B can be equal only if each each element of set A is also the element
of set B. Also, if two sets are the subsets of each other, they are said to be equal

1.4 Subsets

Definition A set A is a subset of a set B, written as A ⊆B , if every element of

A is also an element of B. The relation ⊆ is called the
inclusion relation.

So, A ⊆ B whenever x ∈ A implies x ∈ B . Observe carefully the difference between ⊆

and ∈:

If B= {1 , 2 ,3 }, then 1 is an element of B, but 1 is not a subset of B. The ser A={ 1 },

which has 1 as its only element, however, is a subset of B, since it fulfils the
definition; whenever x ∈ A , then x ∈ B . Note that there is only one possibility for x ,
namely, x=1. It is very important that you learn to distinguish between an object
(which may of course be a set itself), and the set form from objects, e.g.

 1 is different from { 1 }

 { 1 } is different from { {1 } }

Observe that the unique element of the last set is the set { 1 }

Here are some elementary properties of the ⊆ relation:

Lemma 1. ∅ is a subset of every set.

Proof: Recall that by definition, ∅ is a subset of a set A , if every element of ∅ is also

an element of A . Since ∅ has no elements, this is trivially true.

Lemma 2. For any set A , A ⊆ A

Proof: By our definition of ⊆, A is a subset of A , if every element of A is an element of
A , and this is of course true.

Lemma 3. If A is a subset of B, and B is a subset of C , then A is a subset of C .

Proof: We want to show that A ⊆C , and we have as hypothesis that A ⊆ B and B⊆C .
Using our definition of ⊆, we have to show that if x ∈ A , then x is an element of C thus,
let x be an arbitrary element of A . Our hupothesis A ⊆ B tells us that x ∈ B , and since
B⊆C , we also have x ∈ C .
A subset can be classified as follows:
1) Proper subset
2) Improper subset
1) Proper Subsets
Any set A is a proper subset (strict subset) of B if there is at least one element of B
that is not element of set A that is if A and B are unequal and all the elements of A are
present in B then A is a proper subset of B.

Example 1. Is A a proper subset of B if A={ 1, 2 , 3 , 4 } and B= {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 }?

Solution:

Answer. No, A is not a proper subset of B as they are equal and B has no unique

element which is not present in A

Example 2. Is A a proper subset of B if A={ 1,2 } and B= {1,5 , 6 , 7 } ?

Solution:

Answer. No, A is not a proper subset of B. It is not even a subset as 2 is not present
in
B

2) Improper Subset
Consider two sets A and B. A is an improper subset of B if it contains all the elements
of B. Any set is an improper subset of itself.

Superset
A set A is a superset of another set B if all the elements of the set B are elements of
the set A .The superset relationship is denoted A ⊃B . For example, if A={} and
B={} , then A ⊃B but B is not a superset of A .

1.5 Power Set

Definition The power set of a set A is the set whose elements are the subsets
 of A . The notation P( A) is commonly used to denote the power set
of A

Consider the set A={ 1, 2 } . The subsets of A are: { 1 , 2 }, { 1 } , {2 }∧{}, so that

P ( A )={ { 1, 2 }, { 1 } , {2 } {}}.

The name “power set” comes from the fact that a set with n elements has exactly 2n
subsets. Thus, there are 2n elements in the power set of a set with n elements.

The following facts are important to remember. For any set X :

 P ( x ) is a set
 The elements of P(x ) are sets
 A ∈ P ( X ) ⇔ A ⊆ X (this is the definition of the power set)
 ∅ ∈ P( X) and X ∈ P( x)

Proposition 1. Let A and B be sets. Then A ⊆ B if and only if P( A) ⊆P (B)

Proof.
Suppose A ⊆B . We need to show that if P( A)⊆ P (B)
Take any X ∈ P( A) . Then X ⊆ A .
Since A ⊆ B then X ⊇ B.
Therefore X ∈ P(B) and P( A) ⊆P (B)

Suppose P( A) ⊆P (B). We need to show that A ⊆ B .

Since A ⊆ A , A ∈ P( A)
Since P( A) ⊆P (B), A ∈ P( B)
By definition of P( B), A ⊆ B

The number of elements of a power set¿ 2n

The number of elements of the power set P is 24 =16 as the number of elements of set
P is 4. So, it shows that the power set of a finite set is finite.

1.6 Universal Set

The universal set is a collection of all elements or members of all the related sets,
known as subsets. All the stars in a milky way galaxy are a good example of a
universal set. If we consider all the stars in the milky way galaxy. When we study
numbers in mathematics, we are interested in the set of natural numbers. The basic
set is considered a universal set, and its subsets are even numbers, prime numbers,
etc.

Universal Set Definition

The universal set is the set of all elements or members of all related sets. It is usually
denoted by the symbol ξ∨⋃.
Examples of universal sets.
In human population studies, the universal set is the set of all the people in the world.
The set of all people in each country can be considered as a subset of the universal
set.

Consider sets A , B∧C . Given A={ 2 , 4 , 6 } , B= {1 , 3 ,7 ,9 , 11 } and C={ 4 , 8 ,11 }

The universal set of A , B∧C is:
ξ= {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 6 ,7 ,8 , 9 , 11 }

Complement of Universal Set

For a subset A of the universal set ξ (U), its complement is represented as A ' which
includes the elements of the universal set but not the elements of set A . The universal
set consists of a set of all elements of all its related subsets, whereas the empty set
contains no elements of the subsets. Thus, the complement of the universal set is
an empty set.

Venn Diagram of Universal Set

Mathematician John Venn introduced the concept of representing sets pictorially by
means of closed geometrically figures called Venn diagrams. In Venn diagrams the
universal set ξ (U ) is represented by a rectangle and all other sets under consideration
by circles within the rectangle.

Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are pictorial representations of sets represented by closed figures. They
are used to show the relationship between sets. Venn diagrams are the graphical
representation of the sets. The universal set is represented by a rectangle and its
subsets are represented by circles.

Venn diagrams in different situations

 If a set A is a subset of B, then the circle representing set A is drawn inside the
circle representing set B

 If set A and B have some elements in common, then to represent them, we draw
two circles which are overlapping
ξ
 If set A and B are disjoint, then they are represented by two non-intersecting
circles.
ξ

1.7 Operations on Sets

When two or more sets are combined together to form one set under given
conditions, then operation/s on sets are carried out.

The four basic operations on sets:

1. Union of sets
2. Intersection of sets
3. Complement of a set
4. Cartesian product of sets

1. Union of Sets:
The union of two given sets is the smallest set which contains all the elements of
both the sets. Given set A and set B, their union is a set which consists of all the
elements of A and all the elements of B such that no element is repeated.

The symbol for denoting union of sets is ‘⋃ ' . Hence, the union of set A and set B is
written symbolically as A ∪B .

A ∪ B= { x : x ∈ A∨x ∈ B }

Example 1. Let A={ 2 , 4 , 5 ,6 } and B= { 4 , 6 , 7 , 8 }. Find A ∪B

Solution:

A ∪B= {2 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 }
Example 2: Let X ={ a , e ,i , o ,u } and Y ={ }. Find the union of X and Y .

Solution:

X ∪Y = { a , e , i, o ,u }

Note: The union of any set with an empty set is the set itself

Some properties of the operation of union:

(i) A∪ B = B ∪ A Commutative Law
(ii) A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C Associative Law
(iii) A∪∅ =A Law of Identity Element
(iv) A∪A=A Idempotent Law
(v) U∪A=U Law of the universal set

2. Intersection of Sets
Intersection of two given sets is the largest set which contains all the elements that are
common to both the sets.

The intersection of two given sets A and B is a set which consists of all the elements
which are common to both A and B.

The symbol for denoting intersection of sets is ‘∩' . Thus, the intersection of sets A and
B is written A ∩ B.

A ∩ B= { x : x ∈ A∧x ∈ B }

Example 1. Given a={ 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 ,6 , } and B= {3 , 5 , 7 , 9 }. Find A ∩ B

Solution:

A ∩ B= {3 , 5 }

Example 2. Let X ={ a , b , c } and Y ={}. Find X ∩Y

Solution:
X ∩Y ={}

Example 3. Given A={ 4 ,6 ,8 , 10 , 12 }, B= {3 , 6 , 9 , 12 ,15 , 18 } and

C={ 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ,10 }. Find

i. A∩B
ii. B∩ C
iii. A ∩C

Solution:
i. A ∩ B= {6 ,12 }
 ii. B∩ C={ 3 ,6 ,9 }

iii. A ∩C={ 4 , 6 , 8 ,10 }

Some Properties of the operation of intersection:

(i) A ∩ B=B ∩ A Commutative Law
(ii) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ C= A ∩( B∩ C) Associative Law
(iii) ∅ ∩ A=∅ Law of ∅
(iv) U ∩ A=A Law of U
(v) A ∩ A=A Idempotent Law
distributes
(vi) A ∩ ( B∪C )=(A ∩B)∪( A ∩C ) Distributive Law (∩ )
∪
A ∪ ( B ∩C )=(A ∪B)∩( A ∪ C) Distributive Law (∪ distributes over ∩)

Note:
A ∩∅=∅ ∩ A=∅ Intersection of any set with the empty set is always the empty set

Addition Principle for Disjoint Sets

If the finite sets A1 , A 2 ,… , An are pairwise disjoint set, then

| A1 ∪ A 2 ∪ … ,∪ A n|=| A 1|+|A 2|+⋯ +| An|

When the sets are not disjoint the addition principle does not give us the right answer
because the elements belonging to the intersection are counted more than once. We
have to compensate the over-counting by subtracting the number of times the
elements are over-counted. The simplest case covers two sets.

The Principle of Inclusion-Exclusion

| A ∪ B|=| A|+|B|−| A ∩ B|

Example 1. Assume that the enrollment of a college is 4689, with 60 students taking
Math 210, 42 taking CIST 260, and 24 taking both. Together how
many dufferent students are taking two courses? In other words,
determine the number of students who are taking either Math 210, or
CSIT 260.

Solution:

Let A be the set of students taking Math 210, and B the set of students taking CSIT
260, then, | A|=60 , |B|=42 and | A ∩ B|=24. We want to find | A ∪ B|.

| A ∪ B|=| A|+|B|−| A ∩ B|=60+42−24=78

Therefore, 78 students are taking either Math 210 or CSIt 260

Example 2. Among the 4689 students, 2112 of them have earned at least 60 credit
hours and 2678 of them have earned at most 60 credit hours. How
many students are there who have accumulated exactly 60 hours?

Solution:

Let A be the set of students who have earned at least 60 credit hours, and B be the set
of students who have earned at most 60 credit hours. We want to find | A ∩ B|
| A ∪ B|=| A|+|B|−| A ∩ B|
4689=| A ∪ B|=| A|+|B|−| A ∩ B|=2112+2678−| A ∩ B|

| A ∩ B|=( 2112+ 2678 )−4689

| A ∩ B|=101

There are 101 students who have accumulated each 60 credit hours.

Try these out.

a) The attendance of two consecutive college football games was 72397 and 69211
respectively. If 45713 people attended both games, how many different people
have watched the games?

b) The attendance of two consecutive college football games was 72397 and 69211
respectively, if 93478 different individuals attended these two games, how many
have gone to both?

3. The Complement of Set

In complement of a set, if ξ be the universal set and A a subset of ξ , then the

complement of A is the set of all elements of ξ which are not elements of A .
Symbolically, we denote the complement of A with respect to ξ as A’ it is also written
ξ− A

For example, if ξ= {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 } and A={ 1,3,7 }. Find A '

Solution:

The elements of ξ which do not belong to A are 2, 4, 5, 6

Hence, A' =ξ−A= {2 , 4 ,5 , 6 }

Few more examples:

a Let the set of natural numbers be the universal set and A is the set of even natural
numbers, then A' = { x : x is the set of odd natural bumbers }
b Let ξ=the set of letters∈the English alphabet and
A=the set of consonants∈the english alphabet , then
A' =the set of vowels∈the Englishalphabet

c The complement of a universal set is an empty set.

Solution:
Let ξ denote the universal set, then
ξ '=the set of those elements which are not ∈ξ
= empty set¿ ∅

A set and its complement are disjoint sets.

Let A be any set, then A' =set of those elements of ξ which are not ∈A '
Let x ∉ A , the x is an element of ξ not conytained ∈¿ A’

So x ∉ A '

Therefore, A and A ' are disjoint sets

Symbolically, we write A ' to denote the complement of A with respect to the universal
set.

Thus, A' = { x : x ∈ ξ∧x ∉ A } that is A' = { ξ−A }

Some properties of complement sets

' '
(i) A ⋃ A =A ∪ A=∪ Complement Law

(ii) ( A ∩ B' )=∅ Complement Law

(iii) ( A ∪ B )' =A ' ∩B ' De Morgan’s Law

(iv) ( A ∩ B )' = A ' ∪B ' De Morgan’s Law

'
(v) ( A' ) = A Law of Complementation

'
(vi) ∅ =∪ Law of Empty Set

'
(vii) ∪ =∅

Difference of Two Sets

If A and B are two sets, then their difference is given by A−B or B− A

A−B means, elements of A which are not elements of B.

A−B={ x : x ∈ A∧x ∉ B } and B− A={ x ∈ B∧x ∉ B }

So that if A={ 2 ,3 , 4 } and B= { 4 , 5 , 6 }, then A−B={ 2 ,3 } and B− A={ 5 , 6 }

Solved examples to find the difference of two sets:

1. A={ 1, 3 , 3 } and B= { 4 , 5 , 6 }

Find the difference between the two sets:

(i) A and B
(ii) B and A

Solution:

Since the two sets are disjoint, as they do not have elements in common,

(i) A−B={ 1 ,2 , 3 }= A

(ii) B− A={ 4 ,5 ,6 }=B

2. Let A={ a , b , c ,d , e , f } and B= {b , d , f , g } .

Find the difference between the two sets:

(i) A and B

(ii) B and A

Solution:

(i) A−B={ a , c , e }
(ii) B− A={ g }

3. Given three sets P, Q and R such that:

P= { x : x is a natural number between 10∧16 }

Q= { y : y is an even number between 8∧20 } and

R={ 7 , 9 ,11 , 14 , 18 ,20 }

Find

(i) P-Q

(ii) Q-R

(iii) R-P
 (iv) Q–P

Solution:

(i) P – Q ¿ { 11 ,13 , 15 }

(ii) Q – R ¿ { 10 , 12, 16 }

(iii) R – P ¿ { 7 , 9 , 18 ,20 }

(iv) Q – P ¿ { 10 , 16 ,18 }

Symmetric Difference
If A and B are two sets, their symmetric difference is the set consisting of all elements
that belong to A or to B but not to both A and B and we denote it by A ⊕ B . Thus

A ⊕B=¿

For Example. Let A={ a , b , c ,d } and B= { a , c , e , f , g }

Then
A ⊕B= {b , d , e , f , g }

1.8 Cartesian Product of Two Sets and Partitions

If A∧B are two non-empty sets, their Cartesian product A x B is the set of all ordered
pairs ( a , b ) with a ∈ B and b ∈ B . Thus

A x B= { ( a , b ) :a ∈ A∧b ∈ B }

For example:

1. If A={ 7 , 8 } and B= {2 , 4 ,6 }, find A x B

Solution:

A x B= { ( 7,2 ) , ( 7,4 ) , ( 7,6 ) , ( 8,2 ) , ( 8,4 ) , ( 8,6 ) }

2. If A x B = { ( p , x ) , ( p , y ) , ( q , x ) , ( q , y ) } , find A and B.

Solution:
 A is the set of all first entries in ordered pairs in A x B

B is the set of all the second entries in ordered pairs in A x B

Thus, A = { p , q } and B = { x , y }

Partition

Partition or quotient set of a nonempty set A is a collection P of nonempty subsets of A

such that

1. Each element of A belongs to one of the sets in P .

2. If A1 , A 2 are distinct elements of P , then A1 ∩ A 2=∅

The sets in P are called the blocks or cells of the partition

Example. Let a={ a , b , c , d , e , f , g , h }

A1= { a , b , c , d } A2= { a , c , e , f , g , h } A3 ={ a , c , e , g }

A 4= {b , d } A5 ={ e , f . g , h }

Then

 { A1 , A 2 } is not a partition of A since A1 ∩ A 2 ≠ ∅

 { A1 , A 3 } is not a partition since c is an element of both A1 and A3
 { A1 , A 5 } is a partition of A since A1 ∩ A 5=∅