List of programming languages by type

This is a list of notable programming languages, grouped by type.

There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages. Thus, in many cases, a language
is listed under multiple headings (in this regard, see "Multiparadigm languages" below).

Contents
Array languages
Assembly languages
Authoring languages
Constraint programming languages
Command line interface languages
Compiled languages
Concurrent languages
Curly-bracket languages
Dataflow languages
Data-oriented languages
Decision table languages
Declarative languages
Embeddable languages
In source code
Server side
Client side
In object code
Educational programming languages
Esoteric languages
Extension languages
Fourth-generation languages
Functional languages
Pure
Impure
Hardware description languages
HDLs for analog circuit design
HDLs for digital circuit design
Imperative languages
Interactive mode languages
Interpreted languages
Iterative languages
Languages by memory management type
Garbage collected languages
Languages with manual memory management
Languages with deterministic memory management
Languages with automatic reference counting (ARC)
List-based languages – LISPs
Little languages
Logic-based languages
Machine languages
Macro languages
Textual substitution macro languages
Application macro languages
Metaprogramming languages
Multiparadigm languages
Numerical analysis
Non-English-based languages
Object-oriented class-based languages
Multiple dispatch
Single dispatch
Object-oriented prototype-based languages
Off-side rule languages
Procedural languages
Query languages
Reflective languages
Rule-based languages
Scripting languages
Stack-based languages
Synchronous languages
Shading languages
Real-time rendering
Offline rendering
Syntax-handling languages
System languages
Transformation languages
Visual languages
Wirth languages
XML-based languages
See also
Notes
References

Array languages
Array programming (also termed vector or multidimensional) languages generalize operations on scalars to
apply transparently to vectors, matrices, and higher-dimensional arrays.

A+ FreeMat MATLAB S-Lang

Analytica GAUSS Octave SequenceL
APL Interactive Data Q Speakeasy
BASIC Language (IDL) R Wolfram
Chapel J S Language
Fortran 90 Julia Scilab X10
K ZPL

Assembly languages
Assembly languages directly correspond to a machine language (see below), although there may not be a 1-
1 mapping between an individual statement and an individual instruction, so machine code instructions
appear in a form understandable by humans. Assembly languages let programmers use symbolic addresses,
which the assembler converts to absolute or relocatable addresses. Most assemblers also support macros
and symbolic constants.

Authoring languages
An authoring language is a programming language desined for use by a non-computer expert to easily
create tutorials, websites, and other interactive computer programs.

Darwin Information Typing Architecture (DITA)

Lasso
PILOT
TUTOR
Authorware

Constraint programming languages

A constraint programming language is a declarative programming language where relationships between
variables are expressed as constraints. Execution proceeds by attempting to find values for the variables
which satisfy all declared constraints.

Bertrand
Constraint Handling Rules
CHIP
ECLiPSe
Kaleidoscope
Command line interface languages
Command-line interface (CLI) languages are also called batch languages or job control languages.
Examples:

4DOS (extended command-line shell for EXEC 2

IBM PCs) Expect (a Unix automation and test tool)
4OS2 (extended command-line shell for fish (a Unix shell)
IBM PCs) Hamilton C shell (a C shell for Windows)
bash (the Bourne-Again shell from GNU, ksh (a standard Unix shell, written by
Free Software Foundation (FSF)) David Korn)
CLIST (MVS Command List) Rc (command-line shell for Plan 9)
CMS EXEC Rexx
csh and tcsh (C-like shell from Bill Joy at sh (the standard Unix shell, written by
UC Berkeley) Stephen R. Bourne)
DIGITAL Command Language (DCL) – TACL (Tandem Advanced Command
standard CLI language for VMS (DEC,
Language)
Compaq, HP)
Windows batch language (Windows batch
DOS batch language (standard CLI/batch file language as understood by
language for the IBM PC running DOS COMMAND.COM and CMD.EXE)
operating systems, popular before
Windows) Windows PowerShell (.NET-based CLI)
zsh (a Unix shell)

Compiled languages
These are languages typically processed by compilers, though theoretically any language can be compiled
or interpreted.

ActionScript Ceylon (compiled into JVM bytecode)

Ada (multi-purpose language) CHILL
ALGOL 58 CLIPPER 5.3 (programming Language for
JOVIAL DOS-based software)
NELIAC CLEO (Clear Language for Expressing
ALGOL 60 (very influential language Orders) on Leo computers
design) Clojure (compiled into JVM bytecode)
SMALL Machine ALGOL Like COBOL
Language Cobra
Ballerina (compiled to bytecode for Common Lisp
Ballerina Runtime (BVM)) Crystal
BASIC (some dialects, including the first Curl
version of Dartmouth BASIC) D (from a reengineering of C++)
BCPL DASL compiles into Java, JavaScript, JSP,
C (one of the most widely used procedural Flex, etc. as .war file
languages) Delphi (Borland's Object Pascal
C++ (widely used multiparadigm language development system)
derived from C) DIBOL (Digital Interactive Business
C# (compiled into CIL, generates a native Oriented Language)
image at runtime)
 Dylan Nim
eC Objective-C
Eiffel (object-oriented language developed Odin
by Bertrand Meyer) P
Sather Pascal (most implementations)
Ubercode PL/I (general purpose language, originally
Elm for IBM mainframes)
Emacs Lisp Plus
Emerald Python (compiles to intermediate VM
Erlang bytecode)
F# (compiled into CIL, to generate runtime RPG (Report Program Generator)
image) Rust
Factor Scala (compiled into JVM bytecode)
Fortran (the first high-level, compiled Scheme (some implementations, e.g.
language, from IBM's John Backus) Gambit)
GAUSS SequenceL – purely functional,
Genie parallelizing and race-free
Go Simula (first object-oriented language, a
Gosu (compiled into JVM bytecode) superset of ALGOL 60)
Groovy (compiled into JVM bytecode) Smalltalk compiles to platform
independent bytecode for a Virtual
Haskell Machine
Harbour Swift
Java (usually compiled into JVM bytecode; ML
ahead-of-time (AOT) compilers compile to Standard ML (SML)
machine code)
Alice
JOVIAL
OCaml
Julia (Compiled on the fly to machine
code) Turing
Kotlin (Kotlin/Native uses LLVM to produce Vala (compiler for the GObject type
native binaries) system)
LabVIEW Visual Basic (use Common Intermediate
Mercury Language (CIL) that is JIT compiled into a
native runtime)
Mesa
Visual FoxPro
Nemerle (compiled into intermediate
Visual Prolog
language bytecode)
Xojo

Concurrent languages
Message passing languages provide language constructs for concurrency. The predominant paradigm for
concurrency in mainstream languages such as Java is shared memory concurrency. Concurrent languages
that make use of message passing have generally been inspired by process calculi such as communicating
sequential processes (CSP) or the π-calculus.

Ada – multi-purpose language Alef – concurrent language with threads

and message passing, used for systems
programming in early versions of Plan 9
from Bell Labs
 Ateji PX an extension of the Java Java
language for parallelism Join Java – concurrent language based
Ballerina - a language designed for on Java
implementing and orchestrating micro- X10
services. Provides a message based Julia
parallel-first concurrency model.
Joule – dataflow language, communicates
ChucK – domain specific programming by message passing
language for audio, precise control over
concurrency and timing Limbo – relative of Alef, used for systems
programming in Inferno (operating system)
Cilk – a concurrent C
MultiLisp – Scheme variant extended to
Cω – C Omega, a research language support parallelism
extending C#, uses asynchronous
communication occam – influenced heavily by
Communicating Sequential Processes
Clojure – a dialect of Lisp for the Java (CSP)
virtual machine
occam-π – a modern variant of occam,
Chapel which incorporates ideas from Milner's
Co-array Fortran π-calculus
Concurrent Pascal (by Brinch-Hansen) Orc
Curry Oz – multiparadigm language, supports
E – uses promises, ensures deadlocks shared-state and message-passing
cannot occur concurrency, and futures, and Mozart
Eiffel (through the SCOOP mechanism, Programming System cross-platform Oz
Simple Concurrent Object-Oriented P
Computation) Pict – essentially an executable
Elixir (runs on the Erlang VM) implementation of Milner's π-calculus
Emerald - uses threads and monitors Python — uses thread-based parallelism
Erlang – uses asynchronous message and process-based parallelism [1]
passing with nothing shared Rust
Gambit Scheme - using the Termite library Scala – implements Erlang-style actors on
Go the JVM
Haskell — supports concurrent, distributed, SequenceL – purely functional,
and parallel programming across multiple automatically parallelizing and race-free
machines SR – research language
Unified Parallel C
XProc – XML processing language,
enabling concurrency

Curly-bracket languages
Curly-bracket or curly-brace programming languages have a syntax that defines statement blocks using
the curly bracket or brace characters { and }. This syntax originated with BCPL (1966), and was
popularized by C. Many curly-bracket languages descend from or are strongly influenced by C. Examples
of curly-bracket languages include:

ABCL/c+ AWK
Alef B
Limbo bc
Go BCPL
 Ballerina Java
C – developed circa 1970 at Bell Labs Processing
C++ Groovy
C# Join Java
Ceylon Kotlin
ChucK – audio programming language Tea
Cilk – concurrent C for multithreaded X10
parallel programming LPC
Cyclone – a safer C variant MEL
D Nemerle – combines C# and ML features,
Dart provides syntax extension abilities
DASL – based on Java Objective-C
E PCASTL
eC Perl
ECMAScript PHP
ActionScript Pico
ECMAScript for XML Pike
JavaScript PowerShell
JScript R
TypeScript Rust
GLSL S-Lang
HLSL Scala (curly-braces optional)
ICI sed
Solidity[2]
SuperCollider
Swift
UnrealScript
Yorick
YASS

Dataflow languages
Dataflow programming languages rely on a (usually visual) representation of the flow of data to specify the
program. Frequently used for reacting to discrete events or for processing streams of data. Examples of
dataflow languages include:

Analytica
BMDFM
Hartmann pipelines
G (used in LabVIEW)
Lucid
Max
Oz
Prograph
Pure Data
Reaktor
 StreamBase StreamSQL EventFlow
VEE
VHDL
VisSim
Vvvv
WebMethods Flow
Ballerina
Swift (parallel scripting language)

Data-oriented languages
Data-oriented languages provide powerful ways of searching and manipulating the relations that have been
described as entity relationship tables which map one set of things into other sets. Examples of data-
oriented languages include:

Clarion
Clipper
dBase a relational database access language
Gremlin
MUMPS (an ANSI standard general purpose language with specializations for database
work)
Caché (similar to MUMPS)
RDQL
SPARQL
SQL
Tutorial D – see also The Third Manifesto
Visual FoxPro – a native RDBMS engine, object-oriented, RAD
WebDNA
Wolfram Language

Decision table languages

Decision tables can be used as an aid to clarifying the logic before writing a program in any language, but
in the 1960s a number of languages were developed where the main logic is expressed directly in the form
of a decision table, including:

Filetab

Declarative languages
Declarative languages express the logic of a computation without describing its control flow in detail.
Declarative programming stands in contrast to imperative programming via imperative programming
languages, where control flow is specified by serial orders (imperatives). (Pure) functional and logic-based
programming languages are also declarative, and constitute the major subcategories of the declarative
category. This section lists additional examples not in those subcategories.

Analytica
 Ant (combine declarative programming and imperative programming)
Curry
Cypher
Distributed Application Specification Language (DASL) (combine declarative programming
and imperative programming)
ECL
Gremlin
Lustre
Mercury
MetaPost
Modelica
Prolog
QML
Oz
RDQL
SequenceL – purely functional, automatically parallelizing and race-free
SPARQL
SQL (Only DQL, not DDL, DCL, and DML)
Wolfram Language
xBase
XSL Transformations

Embeddable languages

In source code

Source embeddable languages embed small pieces of executable code inside a piece of free-form text, often
a web page.

Client-side embedded languages are limited by the abilities of the browser or intended client. They aim to
provide dynamism to web pages without the need to recontact the server.

Server-side embedded languages are much more flexible, since almost any language can be built into a
server. The aim of having fragments of server-side code embedded in a web page is to generate additional
markup dynamically; the code itself disappears when the page is served, to be replaced by its output.

Server side
PHP
VBScript
SMX – dedicated to web pages
Tcl – server-side in NaviServer and an essential component in electronics industry systems
WebDNA – dedicated to database-driven websites

The above examples are particularly dedicated to this purpose. A large number of other languages, such as
Erlang, Scala, Perl and Ruby can be adapted (for instance, by being made into Apache modules).
Client side
ActionScript
JavaScript (aka ECMAScript or JScript)
VBScript (Windows only)

In object code

A wide variety of dynamic or scripting languages can be embedded in compiled executable code. Basically,
object code for the language's interpreter needs to be linked into the executable. Source code fragments for
the embedded language can then be passed to an evaluation function as strings. Application control
languages can be implemented this way, if the source code is input by the user. Languages with small
interpreters are preferred.

AngelScript
Ch
EEL
Io
Julia
Lua
Python
Ruby (via mruby)
Squirrel
Tcl

Educational programming languages

Languages developed primarily for the purpose of teaching and learning of programming.

Alice
Blockly
Catrobat
COMAL
Elan
Emerald
Ezhil
Logo
KTurtle
Modula-2
Pascal
Racket
Scheme
Scratch
Snap!
Turing
Wolfram Language
Esoteric languages
An esoteric programming language is a programming language designed as a test of the boundaries of
computer programming language design, as a proof of concept, or as a joke.

Beatnik
Befunge
Brainfuck
Chef
INTERCAL
LOLCODE
Malbolge
Piet
Rockstar
Shakespeare
Thue
Whitespace

Extension languages
Extension programming languages are languages embedded into another program and used to harness its
features in extension scripts.

AutoLISP (specific to AutoCAD)

BeanShell
CAL
C/AL (C/SIDE)
Guile
Emacs Lisp
JavaScript and some dialects, e.g., JScript
Lua (embedded in many games)
OpenCL (extension of C and C++ to use the GPU and parallel extensions of the CPU)
OptimJ (extension of Java with language support for writing optimization models and
powerful abstractions for bulk data processing)
Perl
Pike
Python (embedded in Maya, Blender, and other 3-D animation packages)
Rexx
Ruby (Google SketchUp)
S-Lang
SQL
Squirrel
Tcl
Vim script (vim)
Visual Basic for Applications (VBA)
Windows PowerShell
Fourth-generation languages
Fourth-generation programming languages are high-level languages built around database systems. They
are generally used in commercial environments.

1C:Enterprise programming language

ABAP
CorVision
CSC's GraphTalk
CA-IDEAL (Interactive Development Environment for an Application Life) for use with CA-
DATACOM/DB
Easytrieve report generator (now CA-Easytrieve Plus)
FOCUS
IBM Informix-4GL
LINC 4GL
MAPPER (Unisys/Sperry) – now part of BIS
MARK-IV (Sterling/Informatics) now VISION:BUILDER of CA
NATURAL
Progress 4GL
PV-Wave
LiveCode (not based on a database; still, the goal is to work at a higher level of abstraction
than 3GLs)
SAS
SQL
Ubercode (VHLL, or Very High Level Language)
Uniface
Visual DataFlex
Visual FoxPro
xBase

Functional languages
Functional programming languages define programs and subroutines as mathematical functions and treat
them as first-class. Many so-called functional languages are "impure", containing imperative features. Many
functional languages are tied to mathematical calculation tools. Functional languages include:

Pure
Agda Haskell PureScript
Clean Hope Ur
Coq (Gallina) Idris KRC
Cuneiform Joy SAC
Curry Lean SASL
Elm Mercury SequenceL
Futhark Miranda
Impure
APL Lisp
ATS Clojure
CAL Common Lisp
C++ (since C++11) Dylan
C# Emacs Lisp
VB.NET LFE
Ceylon Little b
D Logo
Dart Scheme
Curl Racket (formerly PLT Scheme)
ECMAScript Tea
ActionScript Mathematica
ECMAScript for XML ML
JavaScript Standard ML (SML)
JScript Alice
Source OCaml
Erlang Nemerle
Elixir Nim
LFE Opal
Gleam OPS5
F# Perl
Flix PHP
Groovy Python
Hop Q (equational programming language)
J Q (programming language from Kx
Java (since version 8) Systems)
Julia R
Kotlin Raku
REBOL
Red
Ruby
REFAL
Rust
Scala
Swift
Spreadsheets
Tcl
Wolfram Language

Hardware description languages

In electronics, a hardware description language (HDL) is a specialized computer language used to describe
the structure, design, and operation of electronic circuits, and most commonly, digital logic circuits. The
two most widely used and well-supported HDL varieties used in industry are Verilog and VHDL.
Hardware description languages include:

HDLs for analog circuit design

Verilog-AMS (Verilog for Analog and Mixed-Signal)
VHDL-AMS (VHDL with Analog/Mixed-Signal extension)

HDLs for digital circuit design

Advanced Boolean Expression Language
Altera Hardware Description Language
Bluespec
Confluence
ELLA
Handel-C
Impulse C
JHDL
Lava
Lola
MyHDL
PALASM
Ruby (hardware description language)
SystemC
SystemVerilog
Verilog
VHDL (VHSIC HDL)

Imperative languages
Imperative programming languages may be multi-paradigm and appear in other classifications. Here is a list
of programming languages that follow the imperative paradigm:

Ada ECMAScript Machine languages

ALGOL 58 ActionScript Modula-2, Modula-3
JOVIAL ECMAScript for XML MUMPS
NELIAC JavaScript Nim
ALGOL 60 (very influential JScript OCaml
language design) Source Oberon
BASIC FORTRAN Object Pascal
C GAUSS Open Programming
C++ Go Language (OPL)
C# Groovy OpenEdge Advanced
Ceylon Business Language (ABL)
Java
CHILL Pascal
Julia
COBOL Lua Perl
D PHP
MATLAB
 PL/I Ruby Tcl
PowerShell Rust Wolfram Language
PROSE Speakeasy
Python Swift

Interactive mode languages

Interactive mode languages act as a kind of shell: expressions or statements can be entered one at a time,
and the result of their evaluation is seen immediately. The interactive mode is also termed a read–eval–print
loop (REPL).

APL Mathematica (Wolfram language)

BASIC (some dialects) MATLAB
Clojure ML
Common Lisp OCaml
Dart (with Observatory or Dartium's Perl
developer tools) PHP
ECMAScript Pike
ActionScript PostScript
ECMAScript for XML Prolog
JavaScript Python
JScript PROSE
Source R
Erlang REBOL
Elixir (with iex) Rexx
F# Ruby (with IRB)
Fril Scala
GAUSS Scheme
Groovy Smalltalk (anywhere in a Smalltalk
Haskell (with the GHCi or Hugs interpreter) environment)
IDL S-Lang (with the S-Lang shell, slsh)
J Speakeasy
Java (since version 9) Swift
Julia Tcl (with the Tcl shell, tclsh)
Lua Unix shell
MUMPS (an ANSI standard general Windows PowerShell (.NET-based CLI)
purpose language) Visual FoxPro
Maple

Interpreted languages
Interpreted languages are programming languages in which programs may be executed from source code
form, by an interpreter. Theoretically, any language can be compiled or interpreted, so the term interpreted
language generally refers to languages that are usually interpreted rather than compiled.

Ant APL
 AutoHotkey scripting language OCaml
AutoIt scripting language Pascal (early implementations)
BASIC (some dialects) PCASTL
Programming Language for Business Perl
(PL/B, formerly DATABUS, later versions PHP
added optional compiling)
PostScript
Eiffel (via Melting Ice Technology in
PowerShell
EiffelStudio)
PROSE
Emacs Lisp
Python
GameMaker Language
Rexx
Groovy
R
J
REBOL
Julia (compiled on the fly to machine code,
but a transpiler Julia2C exists) Ruby
JavaScript S-Lang
Lisp (early versions, pre-1962, and some Speakeasy
experimental ones; production Lisp Standard ML (SML)
systems are compilers, but many of them Spin
still provide an interpreter if needed) Tcl
LPC Tea
Lua TorqueScript
MUMPS (an ANSI standard general- thinBasic scripting language
purpose language)
VBScript
Maple
Windows PowerShell – .NET-based CLI
Mathematica
Wolfram Language
MATLAB
Some scripting languages – below

Iterative languages
Iterative languages are built around or offering generators.

Aldor IPL-v
Alphard Julia
C# Lua
CLU Nim
Cobra PHP
Eiffel, through "agents" Python
Icon Sather

Languages by memory management type

Garbage collected languages

Garbage Collection (GC) is a form of automatic memory management. The garbage collector attempts to
reclaim memory that was allocated by the program but is no longer used.
 APL Lisp (originator)
C# Arc
Clean Clojure
Crystal Common Lisp
ECMAScript Dylan
ActionScript Emacs Lisp
ECMAScript for XML Racket
JavaScript Scheme
JScript Logo
Source Lua
Emerald ML
Erlang Standard ML (SML)
Go Alice
Groovy OCaml
Haskell Nim (programming language)
Java Perl
Julia PHP
Kotlin PowerShell
Python
Ruby
Smalltalk
Speakeasy

Languages with manual memory management

Ada
C
C++
Fortran
Pascal
Rust
Objective-C
Zig

Languages with deterministic memory management

Ada
C
C++
Fortran
Pascal
Rust[3][4]
Objective-C
Zig
Languages with automatic reference counting (ARC)
Objective-C
Perl
Swift
Visual Basic
Xojo

List-based languages – LISPs

List-based languages are a type of data-structured language that are based on the list data structure.

Lisp Joy
R
Arc
Source
Clojure
Common Lisp Tcl
Dylan Tea
Emacs Lisp TRAC
Racket
Scheme
Logo

Little languages
Little languages[5] serve a specialized problem domain.

awk – used for text file manipulation.

Comet – used to solve complex combinatorial optimization problems in areas such as
resource allocation and scheduling
sed – parses and transforms text
SQL – has only a few keywords and not all the constructs needed for a full programming
language[a] – many database management systems extend SQL with additional constructs
as a stored procedure language

Logic-based languages
Logic-based languages specify a set of attributes that a solution must-have, rather than a set of steps to
obtain a solution.

Notable languages following this programming paradigm include:

ALF
Alma-0
CLACL (CLAC-Language)
Curry
Fril
 Flix (a functional programming language with first-class Datalog constraints)
Janus
λProlog (a logic programming language featuring polymorphic typing, modular
programming, and higher-order programming)
Oz, and Mozart Programming System cross-platform Oz
Prolog (formulates data and the program evaluation mechanism as a special form of
mathematical logic called Horn logic and a general proving mechanism called logical
resolution)
Mercury (based on Prolog)
Visual Prolog (object-oriented Prolog extension)
ROOP

Machine languages
Machine languages are directly executable by a computer's CPU. They are typically formulated as bit
patterns, usually represented in octal or hexadecimal. Each bit pattern causes the circuits in the CPU to
execute one of the fundamental operations of the hardware. The activation of specific electrical inputs (e.g.,
CPU package pins for microprocessors), and logical settings for CPU state values, control the processor's
computation. Individual machine languages are specific to a family of processors; machine-language code
for one family of processors cannot run directly on processors in another family unless the processors in
question have additional hardware to support it (for example, DEC VAX processors included a PDP-11
compatibility mode). They are (essentially) always defined by the CPU developer, not by 3rd parties. The
symbolic version, the processor's assembly language, is also defined by the developer, in most cases. Some
commonly used machine code instruction sets are:

ARM
Original 32-bit
16-bit Thumb instructions (subset or registers used)
64-bit (major architecture change, more registers)
DEC:
18-bit: PDP-1, PDP-4, PDP-7, PDP-9, PDP-15
12-bit: PDP-5, PDP-8, LINC-8, PDP-12
36-bit: PDP-6, PDP-10, DECSYSTEM-20
16-bit: PDP-11 (influenced VAX and M68000)
32-bit: VAX
64-bit: Alpha
Intel 8008, 8080 and 8085
Zilog Z80
 x86:
16-bit x86, first used in the Intel 8086
Intel 8086 and 8088 (the latter was used in the first and early IBM PC)
Intel 80186
Intel 80286 (the first x86 processor with protected mode, used in the IBM AT)
IA-32, introduced in the 80386
x86-64 The original specification was created by AMD. There are vendor variants, but
they're essentially the same:
AMD's AMD64
Intel's Intel 64
IBM[b]
305
650
701
702, 705 and 7080
704, 709, 7040, 7044, 7090, 7094
1400 series, 7010
7030
7070
System/360 and successors, including z/Architecture
MIPS
Motorola 6800
Motorola 68000 family (CPUs used in early Apple Macintosh and early Sun computers)
MOS Technology 65xx
6502 (CPU for VIC-20, Apple II, and Atari 800)
6510 (CPU for Commodore 64)
Western Design Center 65816/65802 (CPU for Apple IIGS and (variant) Super Nintendo
Entertainment System)
National Semiconductor NS320xx
POWER, first used in the IBM RS/6000
PowerPC – used in Power Macintosh and in many game consoles, particularly of the
seventh generation.
Power ISA
Sun Microsystems (Now Oracle) SPARC
UNIVAC[b]
30 bit computers: 490, 492, 494, 1230
36 bit computers
1101, 1103, 1105
1100/2200 series
MCST Elbrus 2000

Macro languages

Textual substitution macro languages

Macro languages transform one source code file into another. A "macro" is essentially a short piece of text
that expands into a longer one (not to be confused with hygienic macros), possibly with parameter
substitution. They are often used to preprocess source code. Preprocessors can also supply facilities like file
inclusion.

Macro languages may be restricted to acting on specially labeled code regions (pre-fixed with a # in the
case of the C preprocessor). Alternatively, they may not, but in this case it is still often undesirable to (for
instance) expand a macro embedded in a string literal, so they still need a rudimentary awareness of syntax.
That being the case, they are often still applicable to more than one language. Contrast with source-
embeddable languages like PHP, which are fully featured.

cpp (the C preprocessor)

m4 (originally from AT&T, bundled with Unix)
ML/I (general purpose macro processor)

Application macro languages

Scripting languages such as Tcl and ECMAScript (ActionScript, ECMAScript for XML, JavaScript,
JScript) have been embedded into applications. These are sometimes called "macro languages", although in
a somewhat different sense to textual-substitution macros like m4.

Metaprogramming languages
Metaprogramming is the writing of programs that write or manipulate other programs, including
themselves, as their data or that do part of the work that is otherwise done at run time during compile time.
In many cases, this allows programmers to get more done in the same amount of time as they would take to
write all the code manually.

C++ META II (and META I, a subset)

CWIC MetaOCaml
Curl Nemerle
D Nim
eC Perl
Emacs Lisp Python
Elixir Ruby
F# Rust[6]
Groovy Scheme
Haskell SequenceL
Julia Smalltalk
Lisp Source
Lua TREEMETA
Maude system Wolfram Language
Mathematica

Multiparadigm languages
Multiparadigm languages support more than one programming paradigm. They allow a program to use
more than one programming style. The goal is to allow programmers to use the best tool for a job, admitting
that no one paradigm solves all problems in the easiest or most efficient way.

1C:Enterprise programming language Eiffel (imperative, object-oriented (class-

(generic, imperative, object-oriented, based), generic, functional (agents),
prototype-based, functional) concurrent (SCOOP))
Ada (concurrent, distributed, generic F# (functional, generic, object-oriented
(template metaprogramming), imperative, (class-based), language-oriented)
object-oriented (class-based)) Fantom (functional, object-oriented (class-
ALF (functional, logic) based))
Alma-0 (constraint, imperative, logic) Go (imperative, procedural),
APL (functional, imperative, object- Groovy (functional, object-oriented (class-
oriented (class-based)) based), imperative, procedural)
BETA (functional, imperative, object- Harbour
oriented (class-based)) Hop
C++ (generic, imperative, object-oriented J (functional, imperative, object-oriented
(class-based), functional, (class-based))
metaprogramming)
Julia (imperative, multiple dispatch
C# (generic, imperative, object-oriented ("object-oriented"), functional,
(class-based), functional, declarative) metaprogramming)
Ceylon (generic, imperative, object- LabVIEW (dataflow, visual)
oriented (class-based), functional,
Lava (object-oriented (class-based),
declarative)
visual)
ChucK (imperative, object-oriented, time-
Lua (functional, imperative, object-oriented
based, concurrent, on-the-fly)
(prototype-based))
Cobra (generic, imperative, object-oriented
Mercury (functional, logical, object-
(class-based), functional, contractual)
oriented)
Common Lisp (functional, imperative,
Metaobject protocols (object-oriented
object-oriented (class-based), aspect-
(class-based, prototype-based))
oriented (user may add further paradigms,
e.g., logic)) Nemerle (functional, object-oriented (class-
based), imperative, metaprogramming)
Curl (functional, imperative, object-oriented
(class-based), metaprogramming) Objective-C (imperative, object-oriented
(class-based), reflective)
Curry (concurrent, functional, logic)
OCaml (functional, imperative, object-
D (generic, imperative, functional, object-
oriented (class-based), modular)
oriented (class-based), metaprogramming)
Oz (functional (evaluation: eager, lazy),
Delphi Object Pascal (generic, imperative,
logic, constraint, imperative, object-
object-oriented (class-based),
oriented (class-based), concurrent,
metaprogramming)
distributed), and Mozart Programming
Dylan (functional, object-oriented (class- System cross-platform Oz
based)) Object Pascal (imperative, object-oriented
eC (generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
(class-based)) Perl (imperative, functional (can't be purely
ECMAScript (functional, imperative, object- functional), object-oriented, class-oriented,
oriented (prototype-based)) aspect-oriented (through modules))
ActionScript PHP (imperative, object-oriented,
ECMAScript for XML functional (can't be purely functional))
JavaScript
JScript
 Pike (interpreted, general-purpose, high- ROOP (imperative, logic, object-oriented
level, cross-platform, dynamic (class-based), rule-based)
programming language ) Ruby (imperative, functional, object-
Prograph (dataflow, object-oriented (class- oriented (class-based), metaprogramming)
based), visual) Rust (concurrent, functional, imperative,
Python (functional, compiled, interpreted, object-oriented, generic,
object-oriented (class-based), imperative, metaprogramming, compiled)
metaprogramming, extension, impure, Scala (functional, object-oriented)
interactive mode, iterative, reflective,
Seed7 (imperative, object-oriented,
scripting)
generic)
R (array, interpreted, impure, interactive
SISAL (concurrent, dataflow, functional)
mode, list-based, object-oriented
prototype-based, scripting) Spreadsheets (functional, visual)
Racket (functional, imperative, object- Swift (protocol-oriented, object-oriented,
oriented (class-based) and can be functional, imperative, block-structured)
extended by the user) Tcl (functional, imperative, object-oriented
REBOL (functional, imperative, object- (class-based))
oriented (prototype-based), Tea (functional, imperative, object-
metaprogramming (dialected)) oriented (class-based))
Red (functional, imperative, object-oriented Windows PowerShell (functional,
(prototype-based), metaprogramming imperative, pipeline, object-oriented (class-
(dialected)) based))
Wolfram Language

Numerical analysis
Several general-purpose programming languages, such as C and Python, are also used for technical
computing, this list focuses on languages almost exclusively used for technical computing.

AIMMS
AMPL
Analytica
Fortran
FreeMat
GAUSS
GAMS
GNU Octave
Julia
Klerer-May System
Mathematica
MATLAB
PROSE
R
Seneca – an Oberon variant
Scilab
Speakeasy
Wolfram Language
Non-English-based languages
Chinese BASIC (Chinese)
Fjölnir (Icelandic)
Kalaam (Hindi)
Language Symbolique d'Enseignement (French)
Lexico (Spanish)
Rapira (Russian)
ezhil (Tamil)

Object-oriented class-based languages

Class-based object-oriented programming languages support objects defined by their class. Class definitions
include member data. Message passing is a key concept, if not the main concept, in object-oriented
languages.

Polymorphic functions parameterized by the class of some of their arguments are typically called methods.
In languages with single dispatch, classes typically also include method definitions. In languages with
multiple dispatch, methods are defined by generic functions. There are exceptions where single dispatch
methods are generic functions (e.g. Bigloo's object system).

Multiple dispatch
Common Lisp Dylan Julia [c]
Cecil

Single dispatch
ActionScript 3.0 GNU E
Actor eC
Ada 95 and Ada 2005 (multi-purpose Eiffel
language) Sather
APL Ubercode
BETA F-Script
C++ Fortran 2003
C# Fortress
Ceylon Gambas
Oxygene (formerly named Chrome) Game Maker Language
ChucK Harbour
Cobra J
ColdFusion Java
Curl Processing
D Groovy
Distributed Application Specification Join Java
Language (DASL) Tea
Delphi Object Pascal X10
E
 LabVIEW Revolution (programmer does not get to
Lava pick the objects)
Lua Ruby
Modula-2 (data abstraction, information Scala
hiding, strong typing, full modularity) Speakeasy
Modula-3 (added more object-oriented Simula (first object-oriented language,
features to Modula-2) developed by Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen
Nemerle Nygaard)
NetRexx Smalltalk (pure object-orientation,
Oberon-2 (full object-orientation developed at Xerox PARC)
equivalence in an original, strongly typed, F-Script
Wirthian manner) Little Smalltalk
Object Pascal Pharo
Object REXX Squeak
Objective-C (a superset of C adding a Scratch
Smalltalk derived object model and IBM VisualAge
message passing syntax) VisualWorks
OCaml SPIN
OpenEdge Advanced Business Language SuperCollider
(ABL)
VBScript (Microsoft Office 'macro scripting'
Oz, Mozart Programming System language)
Perl 5 Visual DataFlex
PHP Visual FoxPro
Pike Visual Prolog
Prograph
X++
Python (interpretive language, optionally
Xojo
object-oriented)
XOTcl

Object-oriented prototype-based languages

Prototype-based languages are object-oriented languages where the distinction between classes and
instances has been removed:

1C:Enterprise programming language Io

Actor-Based Concurrent Language (ABCL, Lua
ABCL/1, ABCL/R, ABCL/R2, ABCL/c+) MOO
Agora NewtonScript
Cecil Obliq
ECMAScript R
ActionScript REBOL
ECMAScript for XML Red
JavaScript (first named Mocha, then Self (first prototype-based language,
LiveScript) derived from Smalltalk)
JScript TADS
Etoys in Squeak
Off-side rule languages
Off-side rule languages denote blocks of code by their indentation.

ISWIM, the abstract language that Miranda, Haskell's parent

introduced the rule Orwell
ABC, Python's parent Haskell
Python Curry
Cobra
Elixir (, do: blocks)
Boo
F#
Genie Nim
Occam
SPIN
Scala (off-side optional)

Procedural languages
Procedural programming languages are based on the concept of the unit and scope (the data viewing range)
of an executable code statement. A procedural program is composed of one or more units or modules,
either user coded or provided in a code library; each module is composed of one or more procedures, also
called a function, routine, subroutine, or method, depending on the language. Examples of procedural
languages include:

Ada (multi-purpose language) CPL (Combined Programming Language)

ALGOL 58 Curl
JOVIAL D
NELIAC Distributed Application Specification
ALGOL 60 (very influential language Language (DASL) (combine declarative
design) programming and imperative
SMALL Machine ALGOL Like programming)
Language eC
Alma-0 ECMAScript
BASIC (these lack most modularity in ActionScript
(especially) versions before about 1990) ECMAScript for XML
BCPL JavaScript (first named Mocha, then
BLISS LiveScript)
C JScript
C++ (C with objects plus much else, such Source
as generics through STL) Eiffel
C# (similar to Java/C++) Forth
Ceylon Fortran (better modularity in later
CHILL Standards)
ChucK (C/Java-like syntax, with new F
syntax elements for time and parallelism) GAUSS
COBOL Go
Cobra Harbour
ColdFusion HyperTalk
 Java Oriel
Groovy Pascal (successor to ALGOL 60,
Join Java predecessor of Modula-2)
Tea Free Pascal (FPC)
JOVIAL Object Pascal, Delphi
Julia PCASTL
Language H Perl
Lasso Pike
Modula-2 (fundamentally based on PL/C
modules) PL/I (large general-purpose language,
Mathematica originally for IBM mainframes)
MATLAB Plus
Mesa PowerShell
MUMPS (first release was more modular PROSE
than other languages of the time; the Python
standard has become even more modular R
since then)
Rapira
Nemerle
RPG
Nim
Rust
Oberon, Oberon-2 (improved, smaller, S-Lang
faster, safer follow-ons for Modula-2)
Component Pascal VBScript
Visual Basic
Seneca
Visual FoxPro
OCaml
Wolfram Language
Occam
Microsoft Dynamics AX (X++)

Query languages

Reflective languages
Reflective languages let programs examine and possibly modify their high level structure at runtime or
compile-time. This is most common in high-level virtual machine programming languages like Smalltalk,
and less common in lower-level programming languages like C. Languages and platforms supporting
reflection:

Befunge Delphi Object Pascal

Ceylon eC
Charm ECMAScript
ChucK ActionScript
CLI ECMAScript for XML
C# JavaScript
Cobra JScript
Component Pascal BlackBox Component Emacs Lisp
Builder Eiffel
Curl Harbour
Cypher Julia
 JVM PowerShell
Java Prolog
Groovy Python
Join Java REBOL
X10 Red
Lisp Ruby
Clojure Smalltalk (pure object-orientation,
Common Lisp originally from Xerox PARC)
Dylan F-Script
Logo Little Smalltalk
Scheme Self
Lua Squeak
Maude system IBM VisualAge
Oberon-2 – ETH Oberon System VisualWorks
Objective-C Snobol
PCASTL Tcl
Perl Wolfram Language
PHP XOTcl
Pico X++
Poplog Xojo
POP-11

Rule-based languages
Rule-based languages instantiate rules when activated by conditions in a set of data. Of all possible
activations, some set is selected and the statements belonging to those rules execute. Rule-based languages
include:

awk OPS5
CLIPS Prolog
Constraint Handling Rules ToonTalk – robots are rules
Drools Mathematica
GOAL agent programming language XSLT
Jess Wolfram Language

Scripting languages
"Scripting language" has two apparently different, but in fact similar, meanings. In a traditional sense,
scripting languages are designed to automate frequently used tasks that usually involve calling or passing
commands to external programs. Many complex application programs provide built-in languages that let
users automate tasks. Those that are interpretive are often called scripting languages.

Recently, many applications have built-in traditional scripting languages, such as Perl or Visual Basic, but
there are quite a few native scripting languages still in use. Many scripting languages are compiled to
bytecode and then this (usually) platform-independent bytecode is run through a virtual machine (compare
to Java virtual machine).
 AppleScript Ksh
AutoHotKey Lasso
AutoIt Lua
AWK MAXScript
bc MEL
BeanShell Object REXX (OREXX, OOREXX)
Bash Oriel
Ch (Embeddable C/C++ interpreter) Pascal Script
CLI Perl
C# (compiled to bytecode, and running PHP (intended for Web servers)
JIT inside VM)
PowerShell
CLIST Python
ColdFusion R
ECMAScript REBOL
ActionScript Red
ECMAScript for XML Rexx
JavaScript (first named Mocha, then Revolution
LiveScript)
Ruby
JScript
Sh
Source
Smalltalk
Emacs Lisp
S-Lang
CMS EXEC
sed
EXEC 2
Tea
F-Script
Tcl
Game Maker Language (GML)
TorqueScript
ICI
VBScript
Io
WebDNA, dedicated to database-driven
JASS websites
Julia (still, compiled on the fly to machine Windows PowerShell (.NET-based CLI)
code)
Winbatch
JVM
Many shell command languages such as
Groovy
Unix shell or DIGITAL Command
Join Java Language (DCL) on VMS have powerful
scripting abilities.

Stack-based languages
Stack-based languages are a type of data-structured language that are based on the stack data structure.

Beatnik Piet
Befunge Poplog via its implementation language
Canonware Onyx[7] POP-11
Factor PostScript
Forth RPL
Joy (all functions work on parameter stacks S-Lang
instead of named parameters)
Synchronous languages
Synchronous programming languages are optimized for programming reactive systems, systems that are
often interrupted and must respond quickly. Many such systems are also called realtime systems, and are
used often in embedded systems.

Examples:

Argus
Averest
Esterel
Lustre
Signal

Shading languages
A shading language is a graphics programming language adapted to programming shader effects. Such
language forms usually consist of special data types, like "color" and "normal". Due to the variety of target
markets for 3D computer graphics.

Real-time rendering

They provide both higher hardware abstraction and a more flexible programming model than previous
paradigms which hardcoded transformation and shading equations. This gives the programmer greater
control over the rendering process and delivers richer content at lower overhead.

Adobe Graphics Assembly Language (AGAL)[8]

ARB assembly language (ARB assembly)
OpenGL Shading Language (GLSL or glslang)
High-Level Shading Language (HLSL) or DirectX Shader Assembly Language
PlayStation Shader Language (PSSL)
Metal Shading Language (MSL)
Cg
Shining Rock Shading Language (SRSL)[9]
Spark[10]
Nitrous Shading Language[11]
Godot Shading Language[12]

Offline rendering

Shading languages used in offline rendering produce maximum image quality. Processing such shaders is
time-consuming. The computational power required can be expensive because of their ability to produce
photorealistic results.

RenderMan Shading Language (RSL)

Houdini VEX Shading Language (VEX)
 Gelato Shading Language
Open Shading Language (OSL)

Syntax-handling languages
These languages assist with generating lexical analyzers and parsers for context-free grammars.

ANTLR
Coco/R (EBNF with semantics)
GNU bison (FSF's version of Yacc)
GNU Flex (FSF version of Lex)
glex/gyacc (GoboSoft compiler-compiler to Eiffel)
lex (Lexical Analysis, from Bell Labs)
M4
Parsing expression grammar (PEG)
Prolog
Emacs Lisp
Lisp
SableCC
Scheme
yacc (yet another compiler-compiler, from Bell Labs)
JavaCC

System languages
The system programming languages are for low level tasks like memory management or task
management. A system programming language usually refers to a programming language used for system
programming; such languages are designed for writing system software, which usually requires different
development approaches when compared with application software.

System software is computer software designed to operate and control the computer hardware, and to
provide a platform for running application software. System software includes software categories such as
operating systems, utility software, device drivers, compilers, and linkers. Examples of system languages
include:
 First
Language Originator Influenced by Used for
appeared
Burroughs
ESPOL 1961 ALGOL 60 MCP
Corporation
IBM, ALGOL 60, FORTRAN,
PL/I 1964 Multics
SHARE some COBOL
Niklaus
PL360 1968 ALGOL 60 ALGOL W
Wirth
Dennis Most operating system kernels, including
C 1969 BCPL
Ritchie Windows NT and most Unix-like systems
PL/S IBM 196x PL/I OS/360
Carnegie
BLISS Mellon 1970 ALGOL-PL/I[13] VMS (portions)
University
PL/8 IBM 197x PL/I AIX
PL/MP
IBM 197x PL/I CPF, OS/400
and PL/MI
Honeywell,
PL-6 197x PL/I CP-6
Inc.
NOS subsystems, most compilers, FSE
SYMPL CDC 197x JOVIAL
editor
Bjarne
C++ 1979 C, Simula See C++ Applications[14]
Stroustrup
Jean Embedded systems, OS kernels, compilers,
ALGOL 68, Pascal,
Ada Ichbiah, S. 1983 games, simulations, CubeSat, air traffic
C++, Java, Eiffel
Tucker Taft control, and avionics

D Digital Mars 2001 C++ Multiple domains[15]

Ada, Modula-3, Lisp,
Andreas
Nim 2008 C++, Object Pascal, OS kernels, compilers, games
Rumpf
Python, Oberon
Mozilla C++, Haskell, Erlang,
Rust 2010 Servo layout engine, Redox OS
Research[16] Ruby

Swift Apple Inc. 2014 C, Objective-C, Rust macOS, iOS app development [d]

Andrew C, C++, LLVM IR, Go,

Zig 2016 As a replacement for C
Kelley Rust, JavaScript
Pascal, C, Go, Oberon-
Odin Ginger Bill 2016 2, Newsqueak, Jai, As an alternative for C
GLSL

Transformation languages
Transformation languages serve the purpose of tranforming (translating) source code specified in a certain
formal langauge into a defined destination format code. It is most commonly used in intermediate
components of more complex super-systems in order to adopt internal results for input into a succeeding
processing routine.

ATL
AWK
 MOFM2T
QVT

Visual languages
Visual programming languages let users specify programs in a two-(or more)-dimensional way, instead of
as one-dimensional text strings, via graphic layouts of various types. Some dataflow programming
languages are also visual languages.

Analytica
Blockly
Clickteam Fusion
DRAKON
Fabrik
G (used in LabVIEW)
Grasshopper
Lava
Limnor
Max
NXT-G
Pict
Prograph
Pure Data
Quartz Composer
Scratch (written in and based on Squeak, a version of Smalltalk)
Snap!
Simulink
Spreadsheets
Stateflow
Subtext
ToonTalk
VEE
VisSim
Vvvv
XOD
EICASLAB

Wirth languages
Computer scientist Niklaus Wirth designed and implemented several influential languages.

ALGOL W
Euler
Modula
Modula-2, Modula-3, variants
Obliq Modula 3 variant
 Oberon (Oberon, Oberon-07, Oberon-2)
Component Pascal
Oberon-2
Pascal
Object Pascal (umbrella name for Delphi, Free Pascal, Oxygene, others)

XML-based languages
These are languages based on or that operate on XML.

Ant
Cω
ECMAScript for XML
MXML
LZX
XAML
XPath
XQuery
XProc
eXtensible Stylesheet Language Transformations (XSLT)

See also
Programming paradigm
IEC 61131-3 – a standard for programmable logic controller (PLC) languages
Educational programming language
Esoteric programming language

Notes
a. The objects of SQL are collections of database records, called tables. A full programming
language can specify algorithms, irrespective of runtime. Thus an algorithm can be
considered to generate usable results. In contrast, SQL can only select records that are
limited to the current collection, the data at hand in the system, rather than produce a
statement of the correctness of the result.
b. Submodels are not listed, only base models
c. The concept of object is not present in Julia, but the language allows for multiple dispatch on
different types at runtime.
d. Swift uses automatic reference counting.

References
1. Documentation » The Python Standard Library » Concurrent Execution (https://docs.python.
org/3/library/concurrency.html)
2. https://docs.soliditylang.org/en/v0.8.11/
3. "Understanding Ownership - The Rust Programming Language" (https://doc.rust-lang.org/ni
ghtly/book/ch04-00-understanding-ownership.html). doc.rust-lang.org.
 4. "Smart Pointers - The Rust Programming Language" (https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/book/s
econd-edition/ch15-00-smart-pointers.html). doc.rust-lang.org.
5. Jon Bentley (AT&T) August 1986 CACM 29 (8) "Little Languages", pp 711-721 from his
Programming Pearls column (http://www.cs.toronto.edu/~chechik/courses18/csc2125/paper
13.pdf)
6. "Procedural Macros for Generating Code from Attributes" (https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/bo
ok/ch19-06-macros.html#procedural-macros-for-generating-code-from-attributes). doc.rust-
lang.org.
7. "Canonware Onyx" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170313205049/http://www.canonware.co
m/onyx/index.html). Canonware.com. Archived from the original (http://www.canonware.com/
onyx/index.html) on March 13, 2017. Retrieved July 7, 2018.
8. Scabia, Marco. "What is AGAL" (https://www.adobe.com/devnet/flashplayer/articles/what-is-
agal.html). Adobe Developer Connection. Adobe. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
9. Hodorowicz, Luke (30 March 2015). "Shading Languages" (http://www.shiningrocksoftware.
com/2015-03-30-shading-languages/). www.shiningrocksoftware.com. Shining Rock
Software. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
10. Foley, Tim; Hanrahan, Pat. "Spark: Modular, Composable Shaders for Graphics Hardware"
(https://software.intel.com/en-us/articles/spark-modular-composable-shaders-for-graphics-ha
rdware). Intel Software. ACM. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
11. "Nitrous FAQ" (http://oxidegames.com/products/nitrous-2/). oxidegames.com. Retrieved
8 May 2018.
12. Linietsky, Juan; Manzur, Ariel. "Shading language – Godot Engine latest documentation" (htt
p://docs.godotengine.org/en/3.0/tutorials/shading/shading_language.html).
docs.godotengine.org. Godot community. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
13. Wulf, W.A.; Russell, D.B.; Haberman, A.N. (December 1971). "BLISS: A Language for
Systems Programming". Communications of the ACM. 14 (12): 780–790.
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.691.9765 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.691.
9765). doi:10.1145/362919.362936 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F362919.362936).
S2CID 9564255 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9564255).
14. "C++ Applications" (http://www.stroustrup.com/applications.html).
15. "Organizations using the D Language - D Programming Language" (https://dlang.org/orgs-u
sing-d.html).
16. "Mozilla Research" (https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/research/). 1 January 2014.

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