PHS 211 – Dr Obot Section

Central Force

Central force is a very important concept in Physics. For example, the

gravitational force of attraction between two-point masses is a central force. A
central force can be supposed that a particle of mass m has the properties that;

(a) The force is always directed from m toward or away from a fixed point
O.
(b) The magnitude of the force depends on the distance r from O.
When these two conditions are met, the particle is said to move in a central
force field. The point O is referred to as the centre of frame. Mathematically, F
is a central force iff;

r
F=f ( r ) r 1=f ( r )
r

r
Where r 1= r is a unit vector in the direction of r.

If f ( r )< 0 the force is attractive towards O otherwise if f ( r )> 0 the force is

regarded as repulsive from O.
 Fig1: Geometrical illustration of a central force.

Properties of a particle moving under the influence of a central force.

If a particle is moving in a central force field, the followings are true;

1. The path of the particle must be a plane curve, i.e., it must be in a plane.
2. The angular momentum of the particle is conserved i.e., it is constant in
time.
3. The particle moves in such a way that the position vector from point O
sweeps out equal areas in equal time, i.e., the time rate of change in area is
constant. This is also known as the Law of Areas.

Conservative Force

A force acting on a particle is said to be conservative if the work done by the force
during a motion of the particle is independent of the path of the particle.

Mathematical the curl of F = 0.

Curl (F) = 0

( )
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
=0
∂x ∂y ∂z
a b c

For simplicity, consider a single particle with kinetic energy,

1 2
T = mr . The work done on the particle along its mechanical evolution can be
2

illustrated as;

tB

W ( A → B )=∫ F ( r ) .dr
tA

From the above expression, the force depends on the particle’s position.
However, if the force is given in terms x and y, as;

F ( r ) =k 1 y x^ +k 1 y ^x

Where k1 and k2 are constants.

Let’s evaluate the work done along each of the two paths in the Figure above
xB xB

W ( 1 )=k 1∫ y A dx +k 2∫ x B dy
xA xA

W ( 1 )=k 1 y A ( x B −x A ) + k 2 x B ( y B− y A )

xB xB

W ( 2 )=k 1∫ y B dx+ k 2∫ x A dy
xA xA

W ( 2 )=k 1 y B ( x B−x A ) + k 2 x A ( y B− y A )

Note that W ( 1 ) ≠ W ( 2 )

The difference between the work done along the two paths

W ( 1 )−W ( 2 )=( k 2−k 1 )( x B−x A ) ( y B− y A )

If k 2−k 1, the work is the same for both paths and the work would be independent
but on the end points and reduces to the surface integral.

∮ F . dr =0
If ∇ × F=curl F=0,

Then F=−∇ U . U(r) is the potential energy and such a force is conservative.

Conclusion: a force is conservative if the work done W(A to B) by a force moving

the particle from A to B is independent of the path by which the particle is moved
between A and B. in this case the work done depends on the relative position of
the particle.

Conservative forces in three dimensions

So far, we discussed conservative forces in one dimension, defining them as ones
that can be obtained from a derivative of some potential V (x). A conservative force
acting along the x axis is a force that can be written as:
−dV ( x , y , z )
F x= .
dx

More generally, one can define conservative forces in three dimensions by

introducing a potential function that depends on all three coordinates V (x, y, z).
We then have:
−∂ V ( x , y , z ) −∂ V ( x , y , z ) −∂V ( x , y , z )
F x= ; F y= ; Fz=
∂x ∂y ∂z

Non-conservative force

Based on the above, we can conclude that the net work done over the path is
zero; ∆ W =W ( 1 )−W ( 2)=0 which implies the conservation of energy.

Alternatively, ∇ × F=curl F=0 or F=−∇ . V(r) for a conservative force,

However, in the case of a non-conservation force, the net work done by a non-
conservative field on an object taken around a closed loop is non-zero.

In practice, the network is invariably negative. This is just another way of saying
that a non-conservative field dissipates energy: i.e., if an object gives up a certain
amount of energy to a non-conservative field
in traveling from point A to point B, then the field only returns part, or, perhaps,
none, of this energy to the object when it travels back to point B. The remainder is
usually dissipated as heat.
Motion of Rigid Bodies (Incomplete)

A rigid body largely do not change shape and size while under the influence of
deforming force. It can be seen as objects with dimensions but moving as one
piece. An object of such is regarded as a set of points or system of particles.

Rigid bodies undergo two types of motion when displaced from one place to
another: translational and rotational motion at the same time. However, under
conditions, one of them may be zero. (Please you may ignore this section – the
incomplete part – for now)

10.0 Relativity

Definitions

Events: Physical phenomena that occur not depending on any reference frame,
e.g., an explosion, a man running, disintegration of subatomic particles.
Observers: they record events in both time and coordinates in a particular
reference frame.

Simultaneous events: they occur when the light signals from two events reach at
observer at the same time.

Relativity of Simultaneity: Two events simultaneous in one inertial frame are not
simultaneous in any other frame. This is a consequence of Einstein’s Postulates.

Proper time is the time difference between two events occurring at the same
position (Denoted by t0 or τ).
Rest frame: the inertial frame where two events are only separated by time; the
frame in which the proper time is measured.
Proper length: the distance between two positions at rest, the length measured

in the rest frame. (Denoted by L0).

Recall that there are two types of reference frames namely the inertia and the
non-inertia reference frames. A non-inertia reference frame is a frame of
reference that is undergoing acceleration while the inertia reference frame is one
that is not acceleration – where velocity is constant or not changing with time.

10.1 Special Relativity

There was a problem on the behaviour of light – when it shifts in encounter with a
massive object – and it was observed that particles behave differently as the
speed approaches that of light. To resolve the problem – that the principles of
conservation for energy and momentum be valid in all inertia frames – Newton’s
second law with respect to the expressions for kinetic energy and momentum had
to be revised.
Therefore, Albert Einstein proposed the two postulates, known as special
relativity.

1. The laws of Physics are the same in all inertial frames.

2. The speed of light in a vacuum (c = 3.8 x 108m/s) is the same in all inertial
frames.

10.2 Defects of the Newtonian Mechanics

When objects move at a speed approaching that of light, Newtonian mechanics

become invalid; however, Newtonian mechanics can still be verified for instances
such as when electrons are accelerated through an electric field with very high
potential difference. Given a case where millions of volage was used to accelerate
electrons at the speed of 0.99c – according to Newton mechanics – if the
potential difference is increased by a factor of 4, the corresponding kinetic energy
1
[ 2
]
should be 1.98c 2 m v =eV . But based on experiments, no particle in the universe

can have a speed higher that the speed of light.

The general relativity or the Newtonian mechanics cannot explain phenomena

like the bending of light by the sun and the clocks tick at different rates at
different locations in gravitational filed (that is if one of the observers is moving
and the other stationary).

10.3 Galilean Transformation

It should be noted that events should be described using different reference
frames; however, Newtonian mechanics are always valid in all inertial reference
frames.

Galilean came up with theory that there is no preferred inertial reference frame –
Galilean relativity. It implies that results obtained on a moving vehicle with
uniform velocity are same with observations of the same experiment in a
stationary vehicle.

Consider the diagram below with two reference frames S and S’. Whereas the
observer in S inertia reference frame is stationery, that of S’ is moving with
velocity V and other observes an event P.

Fig 10.1: an event at point P with respect to the reference frames.

In the inertia reference frame: or say in the system S inertial frame

P= ( x , y , z ,t ) 10.1
In system S’

P=( x , y , z , t ) 10.2
' ' ' 1

If there are two reference frames designated as shown in the above figure, the
clocks in both reference frames are synchronised to start at t = 0, and they run at
the same rate
'
x =x−v t or '
x =x+ v t 10.3
'
y =y or y= y
'
10.4
'
y =y or z=z
'
10.5

t ' =t or t=t ' 10.6

10.4 Lorentz Transformation

The Lorentz transformation relates the coordinates (with time) and velocities in
two inertial reference frames. They are more general than the Galilean
transformation and are consistent with the principle of relativity. In other words,
the Lorentz transformation is a modification of the Galilean transformation,

Let’s consider two inertial frames S and Sˡ which have a relative velocity v
between them along the x-axis.
Fig 10.2: An event occurring with respect to two inertial frames.

Assuming there is a single flash at the origin of S and Sˡ at time t = tˡ = 0 when the
two inertial frames happen to coincide. The outgoing light wave will be spherical
in shape moving outward with a velocity c in both S and Sˡ. from Einstein’s second
postulate, we have:
2 2 2
x + y + z =c t
2 2
10.7
ˡ2 ˡ2
x + y + z =c t
ˡ2 2 ˡ2
10.8

However, the orthogonal coordinates will not be affected by the horizontal

velocity, hence we have:

yᶦ = y, zᶦ = z 10.9

But the x-coordinates will be affected and a linear transformation is obtained as:

xᶦ =k ( x−vt ) 10.10

x=kᶦ ( xᶦ + vt ) 10.11
However, in relativity the transformation equations should have the same form
(the laws of physics must be the same). Only the relative velocity matters. So, k′=
k.

Considering the outgoing light wave along the x-axis (y = z = 0), so we have;

xᶦ =ctᶦ in the Sᶦ frame 10.12

x=ct in the S frame 10.13

Substituting Equations 10.12 and 10.13 into Equations 10.10 and 10.11
respectively, we have:

( vc )
xᶦ =k ( x−vt ) =k ( ct−vt ) =kct 1− 10.14

( vc )
x=k ( xᶦ +vt ) = k ( ctᶦ + vt )=kctᶦ 1+ 10.15

Furthermore, we pluck Equations 10.14 and 10.15 into Equations 10.12 and 10.13
respective;

( )
ctᶦ =xᶦ =kct 1−
v
c
10.16

ct=x=kctᶦ 1+ ( vc ) 10.17

From 10.16, we have;

( vc )
tᶦ =kt 1− 10.18

And from 10.17, we have

( vc )
t=ktᶦ 1+ 10.19
Substituting tᶦ of Equation 10.18 into 10.19, we have;

t=k 2 t 1+ ( vc )(1− vc ) 10.20

( )
2
v
1=k 2 1− 10.30
c2

1
k= =γ∧γ ≥ 1

√ 10.31
2
v
1− 2
c

Equation 10.31 can be plucked into Equation 10.10 as;

xᶦ =γ ( x −vt ) x=γ ( xᶦ + vtᶦ ) 10.32

Plugging one into the other, we have;

x=γ ( γx−γvt + vtᶦ ) 10.33

To obtain the time for the Lorentz transformation, we use

Equation 10.33 and solve for tᶦ;

2
x−γ x+ γ vt=γvtᶦ
2
10.34

x ( 1−γ ) +γ vt=γvtᶦ 10.35

2 2

v2
1− 2 −1
c
x 2
+γ 2 vt=γvtᶦ 10.36
v
1− 2
c

2
v
−γ 2 x 2
+ γ 2 vt=γvtᶦ 10.37
c

( )
2
1 2 v
tᶦ =
2
−γ x 2 +γ vt 10.38
γv c
tᶦ =γ ( t−vx /c ) 10.39
2

Hence the Lorentz transformation

xᶦ =γ ( x −vt ) x=γ ( xᶦ + vtᶦ ) 10.40

yᶦ = y y= yᶦ 10.41

zᶦ =z z=zᶦ 10.42

tᶦ =γ ( t−vx /c 2) t=γ ( tᶦ +vxᶦ / c 2 ) 10.43

Note that the Galilean transformation can be obtained from the Lorentz
transformation if c → ∞ (or v → 0), so that γ → 1.

Moreover, note that two events which are simultaneous in frame S’ (say at time
t’=0 and at positions x1 and x2 are not simultaneous in frame S (t1≠ t2).

10.5 Lorentz Velocity Transformation

In line with the distance, the velocity and acceleration are also affected when the
speed of the high enough or when the observer is in motion.

For x, y, and z, the velocities transformation from S to Sᶦ are:

uᶦ x +v
ux= 2 10.44
1+ v uᶦ x / c

√
2
v
uᶦ y 1−
c2 10.45
uy = 2
1+ v uᶦ y /c
u z=
uᶦ z 1−
√ v2
c
1+ v uᶦ z /c
2

2
10.46

10.6 Relativistic Momentum and Energy

Ordinarily, momentum P=mv , but in relativistic form, it is given as;

mv
P= =γmv

√ 10.47
2
v
1− 2
c

Assuming that the relativity mass is given as:

m
mrc= =γm

√ 10.48
2
v
1− 2
c

If the ‘mass-increase’ expression above is referred to as the rest mass of an

object, then we can rewrite it with respect to force and energy. The kinetic energy
expression is;
2
mc 2
K= −mc

√ v
2 10.49
1− 2
c

2
K=γm c −m c =( γ −1 ) mc
2 2
10.50

Also based on the fact that energy can be expressed as gravitational and kinetic –
another expression for relativistic energy is;
2 2 2
E =P c +m c
2 4
10.51

P is the momentum.
Using Newton’s second law of motion, the relativistic force is;

(√ )
d mv
F=
dt v2 10.52
1− 2
c

Oftentimes, the mass the expressions is referred to as the rest mass, denoted by
mo.

11.1 Time Dilation

The consequences of the Lorentz transformation as well as experimental results

lead us to phenomena like time dilation and length centration at high speed.

Time dilation is a phase used to indicate the reduction in time observed when an
object is moving with a velocity close to that of light (3.0 x 10 8 m/s) it’s usually in
fractions (say, 1/3, 1/7, etc).
Imagine a light clock consisting of two mirrors and a beam of light reflecting back
and forth between the mirrors. One ‘tick’ is when the light goes from one mirror
to the other and back. We infer a light pulse bouncing vertically between two
mirrors. Our interest is the time it takes for the light pulse to complete a round
trip.

The distance between both mirrors is L and the light moves with a velocity c.

Figure 11.1: light pulse travelling between two mirrors.

In the rest frame S’

The proper time for one tick is given as

∆ t o=
2L
c( d 2L
¿ v= ≡
t ∆t o ) 11.1

' L
Where t 1= c →time up 11.2

' L
t 2= →time down 11.3
c
 2L
t '1+ t '2=∆ t o = 11.4
c

Assuming the light clock is on a spaceship, so while we are at inertia reference

frame the clock is moving with a velocity U in the x-direction. The path the light
clock takes is different and has only a finite velocity. The time it takes the
spaceship to make a roundtrip from the earth’s frame S can be obtained as;

In the earth’s frame S

t
t 1= →time up 11.6
2

t
t 2= →time down 11.7
2

Figure 11.2: on the earth, the part travelled by the light pulse can be resolved as a
triangle.

Using Pythagoras theorem, we have;

2 2 2 2
v t c t
L+
2
= 11.8
4 4
 ( c 2−v 2 ) t 2
2
L= 11.9
4

2
2 4L
t = 11.10
( c 2−v 2 )

√
2
4L 2L
t= = 2 2 11.11
c −v √ c −v
2 2

2L 1
t= ∙

√
C v
2
11.12
1−
c2

2L
But ∆ t o∨to = C 11.13

t=γt o 11.14

1
γ= ≥1

√ 11.15
2
v
1− 2
c

V
γ−Lozentz Factor sometimes we use =β
c

So, the time it takes the light pulse to make a roundtrip in the clock when it is
moving by us appears longer than when it is at rest; we say that the time is
dilated. It doesn’t matter which frame is the earth and which is the clock but any
object that moves with a velocity close to that of light seems to have a slow
running time/clock.

Example: The period of a pendulum is measured as 3s in the rest reference frame.

What is the period when measured by an observer moving at the speed of 0.95C
relative to the pendulum.
Solution

Given t o=3 s

1 1 1
γ= = = =3.2

√ √ √1−0.952
2 2
v ( 0.95C)
1− 2 1− 2
c c

t=γt o=3.2 x 3=9.6 s

Thus, the moving pendulum takes longer to complete a period.

Example: A man is placed on a spaceship orbiting the earth with 95% off the
speed of light. If he had a son of 2 years before embarking on the journey, how
old would the man and his son be after 80 years if the man was 20 years old
before the trip.

Solution

Given:

t o=80 yrs , v=0.5 c

Using

1 1 1
γ= = = =1.15

√ √
√1−0.25
2 2
v (0.5C)
1− 2 1− 2
c c

This implies that the time is slowed by 15%. So, at the end of 80 yrs., the man
would actually be 12 years younger; he appears 68 years from the journey and
would be 68+20 = 88 years old while his son would be 2 + 80 = 82 years old.
11.2 The Twin Paradox

Students to read it up.

Hint: given the slowed nature of time when orbiting in space at a speed close to
the speed of light, as seen in the two examples, a twin on a spacecraft with high
speed will return home younger than the other who was left on earth.

11.2 Length Contraction

Proper length is the length of an object in its rest frame. Consider a length and we
measure its length/distance along the direction of motion.

In the rest frame Sˡ we have:

ct
Lo = 11.16
2

If the light clock is put on a spaceship is put on a spaceship and the roundtrip time
of the light pulse from the earth’s frame S

Figure 11.3: space covered by a light clock on a spacehip.

t 1=time out

t 2=time back

t=t 1+t 2 11.17

L
L+v t 1=c t 1 ⇒ t 1= 11.18
C−V

L
L−v t 2=c t 2 ⇒ t 2= 11.19
C+V

2 Lc 2 L 1
t=t 1+ t 2= = ∙
2
c −v
2
c v
2
11.20
1− 2
c

( )
2
2L v
L= 1− 2 11.21
c c

ct
If L0= 2 11.22

Lo
L= 11.21
γ

1
γ= ≥1
Recall Equation 11.15, where
√
2
v
1− 2
c

v
If β= c

1
γ= 11.22
√ 1−β 2
Summary

The transformations, which are given in Cartesian coordinates, correspond to two

frames of reference, S and S΄, whose axes coincide at t = tᶦ = 0 and which are in
relative motion to each other, such as the velocity of S΄ relative to S is V =V x^ .

For relativistic kinematics, we have: