Essay

An essay is a short literary composition, which clearly expresses the author's personal opinion about a
definite subject of general interest with the aim of shaping the reader's opinion. From this definition it is
easy to infer that the basic distinctive features of the essay are brevity, the clarity of the message (given
explicitly), personal touch, appeal to a wide audience, strong impact (logical and/or emotional).

There are several types of essays, for example:

- narrative essays (e.g. auto-/biographies, memoirs, character sketches);
- descriptive essays (e.g. travelling notes, feature portraits);
- critical essays (e.g. book reviews, film reviews);
- interpretative essays (e.g. offering interpretations of a proverb, saying, quotation);
- argumentative essays (e.g. supporting a disputable point, as "Too Much Knowledge is a
Dangerous Thing");
- analytical essays, and so on.

Semantic focus
Essays belong to expository prose, which is designed to "expose", i.e. to set forth facts, ideas and
opinions in an orderly fashion.
Exposition means explanation, an exposing of information or ideas. Written exposition is used
throughout our working lives - in research papers, business and professional reports, scientific articles,
letters, memoranda, and so on. It is also used throughout college and university - in term and graduation
papers, reviews, essay examinations.
In essay writing there can be distinguished at least three types of exposition: 1) informational, 2)
analytical and 3) persuasive.
Informational exposition implies setting forth orderly arranged facts; analytical exposition implies
delving into ideas stimulated by facts; persuasive exposition implies defending opinions, feelings and
judgements aroused by those ideas.
On the whole, expository style focuses the reader's attention on the objective world rather than on the
world created by the writer.

Pragmatic Segmentation (Structural Division)

An essay centres round the message which is communicated in the way that facilitates its comprehension.
One of such ways is a clearly conceivable structure of the text. Traditionally, an essay has Beginning
(introduction, opening), Middle Part (or body) and Ending (final part, closing). Such a logical structure is
very typical of expository writing, thus – of an essay.

Introductions may vary in length from one sentence in a short text to several paragraphs. Good
introductions in expository writing have the following functions:
- They identify the subject and set its limitations, thus building a solid foundation for unity. This
function usually includes some indication of a central theme, letting the reader know what point is
to be made of the subject. Sometimes, the introduction lays out the message of the essay.
- They interest the readers, and thus ensure their attention. The opening lines of an article are
sometimes called the lead: each sentence of the lead must induce the reader to proceed to the next
sentence. The lead needs to capture the readers' attention and force them to keep on reading. This
can be done with a fresh, novel, paradoxical, humorous or surprising idea, or with an interesting
fact or question.
- They set the tone of the rest of the writing. Tone varies greatly in writing, just as the tone of a
person' voice varies with the person's mood. It can be indignant, solemn, playful, enthusiastic,
belligerent, sarcastic, involved, detached, judgmental, amused, sympathetic… – the list could be
as long as a list of "tones of voice". One function of the introduction is to let the reader know the
author's attitude since it may have a subtle but important bearing on the communication.

1
The middle part, or body, presents a detailed discussion where the message is developed and its validity
is made clear. The order of arranging body paragraphs can be varied. For narrative essays the most natural
order is a historical or chronological one (first to last); descriptive essays might use a spatial order - front
to back, top to bottom or right to left. In other types of essays there is no "natural" order, but usually the
writer gives background information first and then supports it with current examples. Or, one might start
with examples and follow with various explanations and definitions. But whatever the order, every
paragraph amplifies the one that preceded it. Thus, very often the last sentence of the paragraph is a
crucial springboard to the next paragraph.

The final part, or closing, summarises the main paragraphs and echoes the central idea, or contains a
specific conclusion, which urges acceptance of the writer's point of view. The general function of closings
is to tie the entire writing into a neat package, giving the final sense of unity to the whole endeavour.
There is no standard length for closings. A short text may be effectively completed with one sentence – or
even without any real closing at all. A long piece of writing, however, may end more slowly perhaps
through several paragraphs. There are several closing techniques available to writers and often used in
combination:
- using word signals - e.g. finally, at last, thus, and so, in conclusion - as well as more original
devices;
- changing the tempo - e.g. sentence length;
- restating the central idea;
- using climax – a natural culmination of preceding points;
- making suggestions for further discussions;
- showing the topic's significance;
- echoing the introduction – different types of repetition;
- using rhetorical devices – e.g. pertinent quotations, anecdotes, brief dialogues, metaphors,
allusions, and various kinds of witty or memorable remarks.

Coherence/Cohesion
Coherence results from the presentation of all parts of the text in logical and clear relations. It is usually
studied together with unity, but whereas unity refers to the relations of parts to the central theme,
coherence refers to their relation with each other. In a coherent piece of writing, each sentence, each
paragraph, each major division seems to grow out of those preceding it. This is basically ensured by clear
and logical development of ideas.
Patterns of coherence. The basic principle of building coherence is the information structure of the text.
Old (or given) and new information run through the text in certain patterns. These patterns can have the
form of a chain, e.g. "We measure temperatures with thermometers. A thermometer consists of a tube
partially filled with mercury and a scale. The scale is divided into degrees". The cohesive chain here
consists of "thermometers – a thermometer" and "a scale – the scale". This pattern may be called theme
progression.
Information dynamics can also have a ray pattern, e.g. "E-mail is rapidly becoming the dominant form of
business communication. It eliminates phone-tag. It shortens the cycle of written communication. It
improves productivity in interactive activities. It creates flexibility in the workday by reducing telephone
interruptions". This pattern of coherence can be called theme iteration.

Coherence may be supported or built by markers/means of cohesion (overt markers): lexical,

grammatical means, syntax (parallelism), connectives.
Transitional expressions (connectives) are familiar landmarks that help to link the ideas and assist the
basic organisation by pointing out their relationship. Expository writing often makes use of such
expressions to bridge paragraph changes and improve transitional flow within paragraphs. Standard
transitional expressions indicate the following relationship of ideas: a) time: soon, immediately,
afterward, later, meanwhile, etc.; b) place: nearby, here, opposite, beyond, etc.; c) result: as a result,
therefore, thus, consequently, hence, etc.; d) comparison: likewise, similarly, in such a manner, etc.;
e) contrast: however, nevertheless, still, but, yet, on the other hand, after all, otherwise, etc.; f) addition:

2
also, too, and, and then, furthermore, moreover, finally, first, second, third, etc.; g) miscellaneous: for
example, for instance, in fact, indeed, on the whole, in other words, etc.

Logical focus (logical inferences, argumentation)

Logic is a system of reasoning and argumentation associated with the intellect and opposed to emotions,
feelings, or intuitions. Being logical means “showing consistency of reasoning”. In the process of
reasoning we draw conclusions or inferences from observations, facts or statements. This can be done in
various ways and accordingly there can be distinguished the following types of reasoning which serve the
purpose of argumentation: 1) deductive, 2) inductive, 3) causative, and 4) comparative.
Deduction is a process of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the stated premises;
the inference is drawn from the general to the specific. Induction is a principle of reasoning to a
conclusion about all the members of a class from examination of only a few members; broadly, reasoning
from the concrete to the general. Causation is establishing relations between cause and effect.
Comparison is bringing together two or more objects (facts, notions) and stating whether they are: a)
identical; b) similar; c) different, or d) contrasting. Note that logical comparison is different from the
stylistic device of SIMILE. The former deals with objects (facts, notions) belonging to the same class.
Simile, in its turn, operates through an image, comparing two or more “incompatible” things, for
example: “children are like their parents” (logical comparison); “children are like flowers” (simile).

Emotional focus
Imagery
An image can be defined as a mental picture of something not real or present. Imagery is the production
of mental pictures. In writing or speaking this effect is achieved either by metaphorical representations –
figurative language, the use of stylistic devices (metaphorical imagery), or by illustrative descriptions,
very often based on sensory details (visual, tactile, auditory, olfactory, gustatory – pertaining to five
human senses, and kinaesthetic – muscle memory). These sensory details produce specific reactions in
our mind, e.g. “She gave you the curious impression of having no bones in her body and you felt that if
you pinched her shin your fingers would meet. When you took her hand it was like taking a fillet of sole.
When she sat it was as though she were stuffed, like an expensive cushion, with swansdown. Everything
was soft about her, her voice, her smile, her laugh; her eyes had the softness of flowers; her manner was
as soft as the summer rain” (S. Maugham, “Cakes and Ale”).
More abstract metaphorical images can appeal to our imagination, establishing the most unusual
connections between the facts of reality, e.g. “people, …bred ...to sit up while others lie in bed and look
down on the universe with pity” (Byron, “Don Juan"”).
Imagery can be also created by vivid descriptions that do not employ any metaphors or similes
(descriptive imagery). The effect of building a mental picture is achieved through the use of clear sharp
sensory details only and certain syntactic devices (e.g. repetition) that help to bring them forward, e.g.
“Harris and I started to peel the potatoes. We began cheerfully, but our lightheartedness was gone by the
time the first potato was finished. The more we peeled, the more peel there seemed to be left on; by the
time we had got all the peel off and all the eyes out, there was no potato left - at least none worth
speaking of. George came and had a look at it - it was about the size of a peanut. He said: 'Oh, that won't
do! You're wasting them. You must scrape them.' So we scraped them, and that was harder work than
peeling. They are such an extraordinary shape, potatoes - all bumps and warts and hollows. We worked
steadily for five-and-twenty minutes, and did four potatoes” (Jerome K. Jerome, “Three Men in a Boat”).
Descriptive details call upon the reader's imagination by references to the immediate reality created in the
text. A bright and vivid detail is a snapshot of the fictional world; it easily forms a credible mental picture
which calls forth a whole range of feelings. Descriptive sensory details can sometimes have a stronger
emotional appeal than metaphorical images.
In the broader context of a story/an assay, descriptive details can acquire a symbolic meaning. Wind, rain,
fire, water, pictures of nature can correlate with the mood of the characters and add to their portrayal; or
contribute to the building of suspense, or help to perceive the author's idea. Apart from these conventional
symbols a writer of fiction can resort to more specific details that absorb in themselves some pertinent
features of a character or a situation, e.g. “She was knitting a scarf, the only thing I had ever known her to
knit, a long strip of red, brown, green, yellow, black in sections of random sizes according to the amount
3
of wool she could find or unravel from some previous scarf that none of us could bring ourselves to wear”
(Philip Smith, “The Wedding Jug”).
If mentioned repeatedly, a descriptive detail can become a “trade mark” of a character: remember, for
instance, the famous moustaches of Agatha Christie's Hercule Poirot.

Personal Touch/Subjective modality

“Objective” and “subjective” writing are distinguishable by the extent to which they reflect the author's
personal attitudes or emotions. The difference is usually one of degree, as few writing endeavours can be
completely objective or subjective.
“Objective” writing, seldom used in its pure form except in business and scientific reports, is impersonal
and concerned almost entirely with straight narration, with logical analysis, or with the description of
external appearances.
“Subjective” writing is more personalised, more expressive of the beliefs, ideals, or impressions of the
author. Whereas in objective writing the emphasis is on the object being written about, in subjective
writing the emphasis is on the way the author sees and interprets the object. Subjective modality can be
expressed in various ways; the simplest way is by giving evaluative definitions, such as “surprising”,
“unbelievable”, “the best” and so on. To sound less categorical, the author may resort to hedging
expressions, such as “I think”, “rather”, “perhaps”, which can make him sound unwilling to commit
himself. On the other hand, such expressions as “obviously”, “crucial”, “as everyone would agree” can
make him sound arrogant or dogmatic.

Level of formality
Language exits in two basic variants, SPEECH and WRITING. Speech is spontaneous, relatively
transient, and implies personal contact of some kind; writing is deliberate, relatively permanent and does
not imply any immediate contact. Linguistic differences associated with these distinctions allow for the
stylistic classification of language according to the level of its formality. Written (formal) language
associates with the neutral or literary vocabulary, well-formed sentences and normative syntax. Spoken
(informal) language associates with colloquial vocabulary, disrupted syntax and elements suggesting
social or idiolectal features.
These distinct, yet overlapping varieties can be exploited for stylistic purposes, for example, when a
specimen of written language shows a number of features that would usually be associated only with
informal speech, or when a specimen of spoken language is found to contain words or constructions
typical of writing. Such “unfitting” elements will become devices by contrast.

Expressive syntax
Syntax is a very broad term referring to the arrangement of words in a sentence. Good syntax implies the
use not only of correct grammar but also of effective patterns. Among them are patterns that provide for
the unity, coherence and emphasis; patterns of subordination and co-ordination; numerous syntactic
stylistic devices, i.e. detached structures, parallelism, repetition, enumeration, gradation, climax,
antithesis, asyndeton, ellipsis, breaks-in-the-narrative, questions-in-the-narrative, rhetorical questions,
exclamations, etc.

Expressive diction
Diction refers to “choice of words” and involves many problems of usage, such as stylistic stratification
(formal diction/colloquial diction); language imagery; connotation/denotation; clichés and many more –
anything, in fact, that pertains to word choices.

For expository writing, expressive diction may imply the following:

1) choosing fresh, strong, expressive words, and 2) making original, witty or clever statements
ingenious in wording.

4
 Guidelines for Analysing an Essay

Before starting your analysis:

- make sure you know the text well: faults in the understanding may lead to logical flaws in your
reasoning;
- decide on the most conspicuous features of the text: humour, satire, persuasion, insights into
human character, philosophy of life, etc. – any of these (either alone or in combination) and many
more, can come into focus in communicating the message, and suggest an effective approach to
the analysis.
As you go on:
- build your analysis around the salient features of the text choosing between the points given
below; do not try to cover all the points, yet do not ignore those that might show significance.
Your analysis should be:
- logical: each statement you make must be backed up with examples, and examples, in their turn,
must be commented on; any commentary must be grounded by language facts (linguistic
evidence);
- concrete: avoid general statements: always look for their concrete realisation in the text; for
example, if you speak about the emotional colouring of an utterance, do not fail to specify the type
of emotion: admiration, frustration, surprise, joy, bitter sarcasm, etc.;
- coherent: make smooth transitions from one point to another; avoid transitions of “as-for-the-
structure...” type: they suggest a commitment to some universal scheme of analysis and rule out
improvisation. Careful paragraphing (or pauses, in oral presentation) can be a sufficient means of
moving from one idea to another;
- complete: wind up your analysis by adding a final touch relevant to the discussion.

SEMANTIC FOCUS:
- summary, message, tone
- types of exposition / types of discourse

FOCUS ON PRAGMATIC SEGMENTATION:

- elements of division (introduction, body, closing)
- opening and closing techniques; techniques of development

FOCUS ON COHERENCE (BUILT BY, MARKED BY):

- patterns of coherence (theme progression, theme iteration)
- markers of cohesion (lexical, grammatical means, syntax, connectives)

LOGICAL FOCUS:
- types of reasoning / argumentation

EMOTIONAL FOCUS:
- imagery (metaphorical; descriptive)
- subjective modality
- level of formality
- expressive syntax
- expressive diction