ESSENTIAL

COLLAGE

ENGLISH

2021
1
PREFACE
English has been an important role in our daily life it is an our country people give those
importance who speak in English without English nobody give respect and it is a way of
convey the People English is spoken more than 100 countries English language is used
almost all countries where we are go for business of the other word we are speak in English.

Knowing English increases your chances of getting a good job in a multinational

company within your home country or for finding work abroad. It’s also the language of
international communication, the media and the internet, so learning English is important
for socializing and entertainment as well as work.

If you speak English You will also be able to travel around the entire world. Even if
you’re not going to an English speaking country, it is very likely that locals will understand
you if you speak in English. Being able to travel and fully immerse yourself in the country
and culture is a fantastic way to holiday. English is one of the most dominating language of
the world which is having its impact on every field of work. Undoubtedly, English play a
much greater role in the world that it is inevitable for people to ignore it fully.

2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The world is a better place thanks to people who want to develop and lead others. What
makes it even better are people who share the gift of their time to mentor future leaders.
Thank you to everyone who strives to grow and help others grow.

Having an idea and turning it into a book is as hard as it sounds. The experience is
both internally challenging and rewarding. I especially want to thank the individuals that
helped make this happen. Thank you so much for the endless support and patience.

3
UNIT 1
Reading

• Using a dictionary
• Identifying contextual clues to extract information
from text given.
• Responding to WH-Questions using complete
sentences.
• Identify main idea, topic sentence, and supporting
details.
• Transferring information from linear to non-linear.

4
1.0 USING DICTIONARY

Of the approximately 1 million words in the English language, the average English speaker
knows 60,000 of those words. Besides helping with spelling and word meanings, being able
to use a dictionary effectively and regularly is a perfect way to improve your English
language skills through the dictionary's range of other helpful information on everyday
language usage and grammar With a good dictionary you can do the following:

• look up the meaning of an English word you see or hear

• find the English translation of a word in your language
• check the spelling of a word
• check the plural of a noun or past tense of a verb
• find out other grammatical information about a word
• find the synonym or antonym of a word
• look up the collocations of a word
• check the part of speech of a word
• find out how to say a word
• find out about the register of a word
• find examples of the use of a word in natural language

5
Finding the right meaning of an English word

Very often when you look up a new English word, you find that it has more than one
meaning. If you are not sure which one is correct, here’s what you can do:

First, check through all the meanings and find the one that makes most sense in the context
where you found the word. (Very often, many of the different meanings are similar and this
should be enough to give you a good idea what the word means.)

Second, if you really want to make sure, think what the word is in your own language and
look it up in a bilingual dictionary. If one of the English translations is the original word you
looked up, then you can be satisfied that you have found the right meaning.

Finding the right spelling

Another problem you may have is when you want to check your spelling but you can’t find
the word you’re looking for. What can you do?

If you are sure of the first few letters, just look down the page until you find the right
spelling. (Again, it is helpful to check the meaning is the one you expect.)

If you are not sure of the first few letters, try some other possibilities. You know for
example that some words that start with an -n sound have k as their first letter; e.g. knife,
knight. So if you can't find the word under N, try looking in the K pages.

If you still can’t find the word, think what it is in your language and look it up in your
bilingual dictionary.

6
Finding the right English translation of a word in your language

When you look up a word in your own language in a bilingual dictionary, you will probably
find that there is more than one English translation. If you are not sure which to use, you
could try a back translation. This means that you look up the English translations one by
one in a monolingual dictionary. If a word has a definition that matches the word in your
language, you are safe to use it.

Knowing when to use the dictionary

If you look up every new word you see or hear, you will spend your whole day with the
dictionary in your hand. That’s no good! You have to be clever and choose the right words
to check and the right time to do it. Try to follow the advice below and you will become a
much more efficient language learner:

• When you find a new word while reading, finish the sentence (better: the paragraph).
If you haven’t guessed the meaning and it still seems important, then you can look it
up. To avoid interrupting your reading for too long, you should find its meaning in
your own language using a bilingual dictionary.
• When you hear a new word in class (or the teacher has written it on the board), wait
and continue listening. What the teacher says next may help you to understand the
word. If you look in your dictionary, you will not hear what comes next, and this will
make understanding the lesson more and more difficult.
• If you think the word is very important, you could copy it from the board or write
how you think it is spelled. Then later you could ask the teacher or another student
what it means.

7
EXERCISE 1

Look at the word, ’set’ (in italics) and check in your dictionary and write down, what part of
the speech word belongs to.

1. Set a book on a table.

2. He set his jaw and concentrated on flying the plane through the storm.

3. Set a place for a dinner guest; set a table.

4. A set time for the launching.

5. The sun set at seven that evening.

6. Followed set procedures for filing a grievance.

7. "The mental set of an audience is crucial to his performance" (Psychology Today).

8. The set of her cap.

EXERCISE 2

In your dictionary look up definitions for the following words and write down the
abbreviation for part of speech for the word’s definition.

Example: Gap v.tr., n, v. intr

1. Psyche ______________________________

2. Blade______________________________

8
3. Context______________________________

4. Special______________________________

5. Example______________________________

SKIMMING AND SCANING

Skimming and scanning are reading techniques that use rapid eye movement and keywords
to move quickly through text for slightly different purposes. Skimming is reading rapidly in
order to get a general overview of the material. Scanning is reading rapidly in order to find
specific facts. While skimming tells you what general information is within a section,
scanning helps you locate a particular fact. Skimming is like snorkeling, and scanning is
more like pearl diving.

Use skimming in previewing (reading before you read), reviewing (reading after you read),
determining the main idea from a long selection you don't wish to read, or when trying to
find source material for a research paper.

Use scanning in research to find particular facts, to study fact-heavy topics, and to answer
questions requiring factual support.

9
Skimming to save time

Skimming can save you hours of laborious reading. However, it is not always the most
appropriate way to read. It is very useful as a preview to a more detailed reading or when
reviewing a selection heavy in content. But when you skim, you may miss important points
or overlook the finer shadings of meaning, for which rapid reading or perhaps even study
reading may be necessary.

Use skimming to overview your textbook chapters or to review for a test. Use skimming to
decide if you need to read something at all, for example during the preliminary research for
a paper. Skimming can tell you enough about the general idea and tone of the material, as
well as its gross similarity or difference from other sources, to know if you need to read it at
all.

To skim, prepare yourself to move rapidly through the pages. You will not read every
word; you will pay special attention to typographical cues-headings, boldface and italic type,
indenting, bulleted and numbered lists. You will be alert for key words and phrases, the
names of people and places, dates, nouns, and unfamiliar words. In general follow these
steps:

10
 • Read the table of contents or chapter overview to learn the main divisions of ideas.
• Glance through the main headings in each chapter just to see a word or two. Read
the headings of charts and tables.
• Read the entire introductory paragraph and then the first and last sentence only of
each following paragraph. For each paragraph, read only the first few words of each
sentence or to locate the main idea.
• Stop and quickly read the sentences containing keywords indicated in boldface or
italics.
• When you think you have found something significant, stop to read the entire
sentence to make sure. Then go on the same way. Resist the temptation to stop to
read details you don't need.

Read chapter summaries when provided.

If you cannot complete all the steps above, compromise: read only the chapter overviews
and summaries, for example, or the summaries and all the boldfaced keywords. When you
skim, you take a calculated risk that you may miss something. For instance, the main ideas
of paragraphs are not always found in the first or last sentences (although in many textbooks
they are). Ideas you miss you may pick up in a chapter overview or summary.

Good skimmers do not skim everything at the same rate or give equal attention to
everything. While skimming is always faster than your normal reading speed, you should
slow down in the following situations:

11
When you skim introductory and concluding paragraphs

When you skim topic sentences

When you find an unfamiliar word

When the material is very complicated

Scanning for research and study

Scanning, too, uses keywords and organizational cues. But while the goal of skimming is a
bird's-eye view of the material, the goal of scanning is to locate and swoop down on
particular facts.

Facts may be buried within long text passages that have relatively little else to do with your
topic or claim. Skim this material first to decide if it is likely to contain the facts you need.
Don't forget to scan tables of contents, summaries, indexes, headings, and typographical
cues. To make sense of lists and tables, skim them first to understand how they are
organized: alphabetical, chronological, or most-to-least, for example. If after skimming you
decide the material will be useful, go ahead and scan:

Know what you're looking for. Decide on a few key words or phrases–search terms, if you
will. You will be a flesh-and-blood search engine.

Look for only one keyword at a time. If you use multiple keywords, do multiple scans.

Let your eyes float rapidly down the page until you find the word or phrase you want.

When your eye catches one of your keywords, read the surrounding material carefully.
12
Scanning to answer questions

If you are scanning for facts to answer a specific question, one step is already done for you:
the question itself supplies the keywords. Follow these steps:

1. Read each question completely before starting to scan.

2. Choose your keywords from the question itself.
3. Look for answers to only one question at a time.
4. Scan separately for each question.
5. When you locate a keyword, read the surrounding text carefully to see if it is
relevant.
6. Re-read the question to determine if the answer you found answers this question.

Scanning is a technique that requires concentration and can be surprisingly tiring. You may
have to practice at not allowing your attention to wander. Choose a time and place that you
know works for you and dive in.

CONTEXTUAL CLUES

In reading and listening, a context clue is a form of information (such as a definition,

synonym, antonym, or example) that appears near a word or phrase and offers direct or
indirect suggestions about its meaning. Context clues are more commonly found in
nonfiction texts than in fiction, although they are sometimes found in children's literature,
often with the goal of building readers' vocabulary. Words can have multiple meanings, so

13
being able to infer the correct definition from context is a valuable reading comprehension
skill.

Types of Context Clues

One way to learn new words is through the context of the words around them. We infer the
meaning of these words from what's going on or what has already been established in the
text. Clues for deciphering a word's meaning can be rendered in the form of anything from
a subtle hint to a straight-out explanation, definition, or illustration. Context clues can also
take the form of synonyms, antonyms, word-structure clues, comparisons (such as
metaphors and similes), and contrasts. For example:

Synonym context clues offer words nearby with the same meaning:

• Synonym: The annual bazaar is scheduled for the last day of school. It's always a fun
festival.
• Synonym: "That charlatan!" he cried. "That absolute fake!"

Antonym context clues offer nearby words with opposite meanings.

Antonym: "You look pretty content about it, not like you're all bent out of shape at all," he
noted.

Antonym: "No, no, that didn't literally happen," she said. "I was speaking figuratively."

14
 • Definition context clues just spell out the meaning in a straightforward manner:

Definition: In Britain, they call the trunk of a car the "boot."

Definition: "The lingerie department," she directed the confused customer, "is where you'll
find the bras and panties."

An explanation or illustration can also show the context of the word:

• Explanation: She looked at the random collection that had been thrown in the
packing box at the last minute—from toothpaste and razors to spatulas and sticky
notes. "Well, that's quite a melange, isn't it?" she remarked.
Explanation: "No, no, that's just a crane fly, not a gigantic mosquito," he explained.

• Word-structure clues
Word-structure clues are understood in two ways: a reader or listener understands a base
word and a prefix (or suffix) and infers the meaning from the combination of the two, or
the reader knows a word origin and upon hearing a word of similar origin, infers its
meaning.

For instance, if you know that "anti-" means against, it's easy to infer the meaning of the
word "anti-establishment."

Word-structure: The anti-establishment protesters picketed the town hall.

15
Likewise, if you're aware that a "memorial" is something in remembrance for a person who
has died, you might readily intuit the meaning of the following sentence, even if you'd never
previously heard the term "in memoriam."

Word-structure: The book was dedicated in memoriam of his father.

• Comparison context clues show the meaning of a word through similarities to other
items or elements, similies or metaphors:

Comparison: He looked absolutely flummoxed, like a toddler staring down at his feet on
the floor who just isn't sure about this whole "walking" thing.

Comparison: "No," she said, "I'm as carefree about it as a bird floating among the clouds."

• Contrast context clues show meaning through dissimilar elements:

Contrast: "It isn't exactly the melee that I expected from your description," he said. "The
kids are just roughhousing a little. I expected them to be bruised and bleeding."

Contrast: I know she said she could reconstitute the dried fruit, but a soggy raisin just isn't a
grape.

16
EXERCISE 1

Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word, and identify the type of context clue.

1. Our baseball team's pitcher has a few eccentric habits, such as throwing exactly thirteen
warm-up pitches and never wearing socks.

A) normal

B) strange

C) messy

clue:

2. After the heavy rains, the stream became murky; in fact, the water was so cloudy you
couldn't see the bottom.

A) cloudy

B) bottomless

C) clear

Clue:

3. The debris on the stadium floor included numerous paper cups, ticket stubs, and
cigarette butts.

A) products

B) papers

C) trash

17
clue:

4. The coach takes every opportunity to censure his players, yet he ignores every
opportunity to praise them.

A) approve of

B) criticize

C) choose

clue:

5. The newlyweds agreed to be very frugal in their shopping because they wanted to save
enough money to buy a house.

A) economical

B) wasteful

C) interested

clue:

6. Although Alex usually looks unkempt, he had a very neat appearance at his job
interview.

A) orderly

B) handsome

C) messy

clue:

18
In the sentences below, which type of context clue is provided for the underlined word?

7. I'm looking for a unique gift for my boyfriend; he appreciates unusual things.

A) example

B) synonym

C) antonym / contrast

8. Expecting that his license would be renewed, the pilot was surprised when it was revoked
instead.

A) example

B) synonym

C) antonym

ANSWERING WH QUESTION USING COMPLETE SENTENCE

WH- questions (Question Words)

There are two main types of questions: Yes/No questions and WH- question. WH-
questions are questions starting with WH-words including: what, when, where, who, whom,
which, whose, why and how.

19
Question words are used to ask about specific qualities, times, places, people and so on.
Below is a list of question words and example sentences:

Question
Usages Examples
words

- What are you doing?

What Used to ask about things
- What do you think about the movie?

- When will the meeting start?

When Used to ask about time
- When are you leaving?

- Where’s my bag?
Where Used to ask about places
- Where do you live?

- Who do you love the most in your family?

Who Used to ask about people
- Who told you that story?

- Whom did you see in the morning? I saw

Used to ask about people Mr. Mark, my English teacher.
Whom
(object of verb) - Whom was Jim talking to? He was talking
to Jack, his new roommate.

- Which one do you choose? The left or

right?
Which Used to ask about choices
- Of all the drinks in the menu, which one
would you like?

- Whose pencil is this? Is it yours?

Whose Used to ask about possession
- Whose books are these?

Used to ask about reasons/ - Why did it happen? I didn’t understand.

Why
causes - Why is he crying?

How Used to ask about manner/ - How can you explain this problem? Please

20
Question
Usages Examples
words

process tell us.

- How can you get here?

Answering Questions in Complete Sentences

What Does It Mean?

When you are asked a question, it is sometimes appropriate to answer in a complete

sentence.

What does it mean to answer a question in a complete sentence?

➢ Answer using the same words used in the question.

➢ Avoid one-word answers.

➢ Avoid sentence fragments (sentences must include a subject and predicate).

Example 1:

How would you describe Tom’s relationship with his mother? (loving)

➢ Complete Sentence: I would describe Tom’s relationship with his mother as loving.

➢ Not a Complete Sentence: Loving

21
Example 2:

What does Miles’ decision not to gossip about the new student demonstrate about Miles?
(willingness

to stand alone)

➢ Complete Sentence: Miles’ decision not to gossip about the new student demonstrates
his

willingness to stand alone.

➢ Not a Complete Sentence: Willingness to stand alone

Example 3:

Do you agree with Sophie’s decision to join the volleyball team? (yes)

➢ Complete Sentence: Yes, I agree with Sophie’s decision to join the volleyball team.

➢ Not a Complete Sentence: Yes agree.

Example 4:

Why did Olivia fall asleep at the kitchen table? (stayed up late studying for her math test)

➢ Complete Sentence: Olivia fell asleep at the kitchen table because she stayed up late
studying

for her math test.

➢ Not a Complete Sentence: Because of her math test

22
EXERCISE 1

Complete the following questions with appropriate question words.

1. _________ is your math teacher? Mr. Dundee.

2. _________ is his cat? The blue one.

3. _________ is my backpack? In the living room.

4. _________ is Hannah doing? She is watching TV.

5. _________ is an engineer? Nora.

6. _________ color is the new bus? Red.

7. _________ is that? That is an old coin.

8. _________ are my shoes? In front of the door.

9. _________ is the the captain of the team? Julia.

10. ________ is the captain? She is at the gym.

Identify main idea, topic sentence, and supporting details.

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop a main thought, or idea, about a
single topic. The structure of a paragraph is not complex. There are usually three basic
elements: (1) a topic, (2) a topic sentence, and (3) supporting details. The topic sentence
states the main, or controlling, idea. The sentences that explain this main point are called
supporting details. These details may be facts, reasons, or examples that provide further
23
information about the topic sentence. As a writer, these paragraph elements provide you
with an easy-to-follow structure for expressing your ideas clearly and effectively. As a
reader, these same elements help you know what to look for and ensure that you will
understand and remember what you read. This chapter will show you how to identify topics
and topic sentences as you read, how to select topics to write about, and how to write clear
and concise topic sentences

The main idea in a paragraph is the most important idea. It is the central point that an
author is trying to get across to the reader.

The supporting details describe the main idea. They make the main idea stronger and
clearer.

Keep in mind that the main idea is often the first or last sentence of a paragraph.

To find the main idea, answer two questions:

(1) What is the paragraph mostly about?

(2) Which sentence best tells what the paragraph is about?

Example:

Mother gorillas do a lot for their babies. They nurse their babies. They protect them from
danger. And they teach the tiny gorillas how to get along with other gorillas.

(1) The paragraph is mostly about what mother gorillas do.

(2) The first sentence tells what the paragraph is about. It is the main idea

24
Main Idea

Mother gorillas do a lot for their babies.

Supporting Detail #1

They nurse their babies.

Supporting Detail #2

They nurse their babies

They protect them from

danger.

Supporting Detail #3

And they teach the tiny

gorillas how to get along with

other gorillas.

Read the following paragraph and use it to answer pretest questions 1-4.

Robots are being used in sumo wrestling contests. Sumo wrestling is a sport that started in
Japan. It takes place in a ring. Two players try to score points by holding each other down
or pushing each other out of the ring. Robot sumo uses robots instead of humans. The
robot that scores the most points wins.

25
1. Which of the following is a supporting detail of this paragraph?

a. Robots are being used in sumo wrestling contests.

b. Robot sumo contests are better than human sumo contests.

c. Robot sumo uses robots instead of humans.

d. Watching robot sumo is boring.

2. Which term best describes the supporting details of a piece of writing?

a. Structure

b. Substance

c. Majority

d. Descriptive

3. Which term best describes the main idea of a piece of writing?

a. A detail

b. A central point

c. A broad topic

d. An aspect

4. What is the main idea of this paragraph?

a. Sumo wrestling is a sport that started in Japan.

b. Sumo wrestling takes place in a ring.

c. The robot that scores the most points wins.

26
d. Robots are being used in sumo wrestling contests.

Reading: Locating Topic Sentences

You learned earlier that the topic sentence of a paragraph is its most important point. It is
also the most general statement the writer makes about the topic. Pick out the most general
statement among the following sentences.

1. Animals differ according to when they sleep.

2. Some animals sleep during daylight while others sleep during darkness.

3. Animals’ sleeping habits differ in a number of ways.

4. Hibernation is another kind of sleep for some animals.

Did you choose sentence 3 as the most general statement? Now we will change this list into
a paragraph by rearranging the sentences and adding a few facts.

1. Animals’ sleeping habits differ in a number of ways. 2They differ according to what
time of day they sleep. 3Some animals sleep during daylight hours while others sleep
during darkness. 4They also differ in the length of time they sleep. 5Other animals
sleep for weeks or months at a time when they hibernate

In this brief paragraph, the topic sentence appears first in the paragraph. Notice that it is the
most general statement in the paragraph. All the other sentences are specific details that
explain it.

27
Here are some tips that will help you find topic sentences.

1. Identify the topic. As you did earlier, figure out the general subject

of the entire paragraph. In the preceding sample paragraph, “animals’

sleeping habits” is the topic.

2. Locate the most general sentence (the topic sentence). This sentence

must be broad enough to include all of the other ideas in the paragraph.

The topic sentence in the sample paragraph (“Animals’ sleeping habits

differ in a number of ways.”) covers all of the other details in that

paragraph.

3. Study the rest of the paragraph. The topic sentence must make the rest of the
paragraph meaningful. It is the one idea that ties all of the other details together. In
the sample paragraph, sentences 2, 3, 4, and 5 all give specific details about how
animals’ sleeping habits differ.

Writers often place their topic sentence first in the paragraph—a position that enables the
writer to state his or her main idea and then move on to explain it. The topic sentence can
also be placed last or in the middle. On occasion a writer may choose to state the main idea
once at the beginning of the paragraph and restate it at the end or use both sentences to
fully explain his or her main idea. Although a topic sentence can be located anywhere in a
paragraph, it is usually first or last

28
Exercise

Underline the topic sentence and highlight the supporting details in each of the following
paragraphs.

1. The United States has a severe fire problem that if not addressed, will continue to
worsen drastically. Fire statistics show that our nation, one of the richest and most
technologically sophisticated countries in the world, lags behind its peer nations in fire
security. Nationally, there are millions of fires, thousands of deaths, tens of thousands of
injuries, and billions of dollars lost each year—figures which far exceed comparable statistics
for other industrialized countries. In 2001, for example, the direct value of property
destroyed in fires was $11 billion ($44 billion if the World Trade Center loss is included).
More recently in 2004, direct property losses from fires were estimated at over $9.8 billion.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. The star system has been the backbone of the American film industry since the mid
1910s. Stars are the creation of the public, its reigning favorites. Their influence in the
fields of fashion, values, and public behavior has been enormous. “The social history of a
nation can be written in terms of its film stars,” Raymond Durgnat has observed. Stars
confer instant consequence to any film they appear in. Their fees have staggered the public.
In the 1920s, Mary Pickford and Charles Chaplin were the two highest paid employees in
the world. Contemporary stars such as Julia Roberts and Tom Cruise command salaries of
many millions per film, so popular are these box-office giants. Some stars had careers that
spanned five decades: Bette Davis and John Wayne, to name just two.

29
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. For decades, we have looked at our steadily increasing life expectancy rates and proudly
proclaimed that Americans’ health has never been better. Recently, however, health
organizations and international groups have attempted to quantify the number of years a
person lives with a disability or illness, compared with the number of healthy years. The
World Health Organization summarizes this concept as healthy life expectancy. Simply
stated, healthy life expectancy refers to the number of years a newborn can expect to live in
full health, based on current rates of illness and mortality and also on the quality of their
lives. For example, if we could delay the onset of diabetes so that a person didn’t develop
the disease until he or she was 60 years old, rather than developing it at 30, there would be
a dramatic increase in this individual’s healthy life expectancy.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. Are you “twittered out”? Is all that texting causing your thumbs to seize up in protest? If
so, you’re not alone. Like millions of others, you may find that all of the pressure for
contact is more than enough stress for you! Known as technostress, the bombardment is
defined as stress created by a dependence on technology and the constant state of being
plugged in or wirelessly connected, which can include a perceived obligation to respond,
chat, or tweet.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
30
5. In the past, exposure to liability made many doctors, nurses, and other medical
professionals reluctant to stop and render aid to victims in emergency situations, such as
highway accidents. Almost all states have enacted a Samaritan law that relieves medical
professionals from liability for injury caused by their ordinary negligence in such
circumstances. Good Samaritan laws protect medical professionals only from liability for
their ordinary negligence, not for injuries caused by their gross negligence or reckless or
intentional conduct. Most Good Samaritan laws protect licensed doctors and nurses and
laypersons who have been certified in CPR. Good Samaritan statutes generally do not
protect laypersons who are not trained in CPR—that is, they are liable for injuries caused by
their ordinary negligence in rendering aid.

31
 Unit2
Speaking

• Planning short oral presentations

• Participating in social interactions
• Expanding given points using supporting details,
examples etc.
• Using non-verbal clues for effective oral presentations
• Cooperating in group discussion/forum
• Maintaining flow of conversation/discussion

32
Planning Oral Presentation

When conversations flow smoothly, people feel comfortable sharing even without an
invitation. They'll chime in whenever they have something they want to share and feel
encouraged to share it.

This means that in order to create conversational flow, you should:

Make your partner comfortable

Inspire your partner to want to share

Making your partner comfortable is pretty straightforward. Be friendly, pay attention to

their body language, and give good invitations so they know you really want to know them
better.

But what do I mean by inspiring your partner?

Well, picture two artists taking turns while painting together. The first artist might tell the
second artist, "Hey, why don't you put some blue here?" and the second artist might
respond with "Ok, then you should put some yellow over there."

That's an invitation, and you can certainly make a painting (or a conversation!) using
nothing but invitations.

What is a Group Discussion and social interaction?

Group Discussion plays a major role in selecting the final candidate in any interview. It is a
method used for testing the potential and the behavioural aspects of the candidates. It is
also a method used to test the fluency of the candidate. As the name suggests, it’s a group
33
activity and it is carried out by the individuals who participate in the activity. It is an activity
in which the participants exchange their views on a particular topic. It is regarded as one of
the best tools to assess the potential of the candidates who participate in this activity. In a
group discussion, personal abilities like team skills, reasoning ability, leadership, flexibility,
assertiveness, creativity, inspiring ability ad awareness are displayed. Hence it is important
that one speaks clearly and audibly. One should voice one’s idea logically and cohesively,
always working with other members to build a consensus. Thus group discussion facilitates
leadership skills, communication skills, interpersonal skills, persuasive skills, problem
solving skills and conceptualizing skills.

Role of Participants in a Group Discussion

The Group discussion is a task, which is generally aimed at understanding and evaluating
candidate’s behavior in a group. Through this method, interviewers can compare and assess
a candidate’s knowledge, communication, and mental strength. It is quite obvious through
the name that Group discussion involves more than one members and it happens within a
group.

There could be different kind of participants in the group in terms of the roles that they
play. Some of them are:

Starting point: You will notice that in the group, there will be some member who likes to
initiate. One who is confident enough to start the discussion and set the tone right at the
very first beginning is called the initiator. This position is a bit risky. If you are the one who
is starting the discussion you have to be extra conscious. But do not think that if you have

34
begun the discussion, you will keep your mouth shut during the whole conversation. You
have to be active throughout the discussion.

Clear Facts: Few members of the group will be data driven. They provide precise data and
facts and support their statement with statistics. They provide all the data in a logical
manner and make their point stronger with facts. But it is also true that with only data you
cannot win a discussion. You have to believe in those figures and put your mind enough to
interpret it well. And yes...all your facts should be clear and truthful.

Controller: Some members in the group like to control the discussion. They think whatever
they are saying should be approved by others as well which may or may not be the case.
Others in the group can very well disagree to the point you are putting forth.

Moderate Referee: This category of the people acts as a coordinator. They ensure that each
member gets sufficient time and chance to speak. When an argument gets heated up, they
try to keep them calm and bring to a normal discussion by helping others putting across
their words. This person is generally a good listener but might not be taken very favorably
by others lest he should take all the leadership.

Born Leaders: They are born to lead. They do not have to put in much effort to lead a
team. Their voice, their calm head, their gestures say it all. They do not fall in the trap of
arguing rather support their points by strong logic, facts, and adequate examples. They have
the ability to manage the flow of discussion and give it a right direction. Towards the end, a
leader summarizes the entire discussion and squeeze out the conclusion.

Provocative: This person considers himself All in All. They give orders to others in the
group and want everyone to act according to them. Sometimes they are annoying and
provoke others with a high pitch or irritating voice. They eat up time of others by saying
35
something which is not so relevant to the topic. They are poor listener and cannot
comprehend what other’s points are.

Fault Finder: There are some group members who intentionally find fault in everything that
the other person is saying. They have objection on anything and everything about other’s
pint of view. They criticize almost every other point.

Followers: This is just contrary to the above-mentioned category – fault finder or criticizer.
This category of people generally agree and support other’s point. They show their
agreement by nodding their head or with some other gesture which normally means that
they cannot agree more to the point. This kind of people generally do not score well as
they do not show their own significant points and logics and merely depend on other’s
views

Question Mark: This kind of people, always question others. He/she sometimes irritate
other group members by questioning even for a simple understood fact. Rather than
putting their own opinions, they tend to interrogate and raise a question in other’s points.

Stopwatch: These kinds of people are quite interesting to observe. During the discussion,
they just do not get swayed by the flow of topic, rather keep a check on every other aspect,
such as how much time has passed, how much time is still left, who all have had the chance
to give their opinions and who have not, etc. They are keen to maintain the order and
dignity. But it is better for these category people to come up with their own impactful views.

Aggressive: These members easily get annoyed and get antagonistic at times. They care less
about other’s points, sentiments, feelings, and values. They attack verbally in their
counterparts and harsh in their tone.

36
Audience/Viewer: They do not have their own substantial views and opinions. They hardly
speak up and hardly make any difference. They just see and listen what others are speaking
and never put their own views forward.

Indecisive: This category of people are unlikely to get selected as they are very much
indecisive and having a fickle mind. They sometimes contradict their own words and
statements. They are unable to express their ideas in an organized manner. They also get
too emotional during the conversation and unnecessarily divert the topic from the main
point. They agree or disagree with anyone and everyone.

Capturer: This kind of people record every point what others are saying. They take down
notes and facts, details, etc. They can be referred later on when someone in the group has
forgotten any point.

The Settler: They can be referred as Harmonizer and can find a mid-way of any problem.
They avoid extremes and contribute in releasing tension within the group when an
argument heats up.

Gist Maker: This defines the position as someone who summarized the entire discussion
and draws some valid conclusion through the topic of group discussion.

Blockhead: This kind of group members does not take any initiative to present their views.
They are lacing innovative or rather any ideas, opinions and logical views. They do not
contribute any positively to the group.

Each of these roles is a part of a Group discussion and plays an important role within that.
Their behavior and the role they are playing can talk a lot about their personality, mindset
and their thinking.

37
Here are some of the tips for participating in a group discussion.

Listen Carefully: Listening is very important in any discussion. So, you should try to listen
to others very carefully.

Fluency: If you want to participate in a group discussion, you should have excellent spoken
English skills. You should be able to talk very fluently in English. In a group discussion you
are required to speak on a topic and that is why you should have good communication
skills.

Good Pronunciation: you should speak clearly and confidently. Good pronunciation is
essential when you participate in a group discussion. As others will be listening to you, so
you should speak very clearly without any hesitation.

Supporting Ideas of a Speech

What are Supporting Ideas?

It's easy to make a claim like, say, 'the moon is made of green cheese'. After all, how many
people have ever been there to refute the statement?

But just saying something is not enough. Your speech should be based on something more
than your own opinion. It should contain supporting ideas that supplement the thesis or
main idea of your speech.

38
Supporting ideas paint the picture of what the speech will be about. Now, don't confuse
these with main ideas. A main idea is the overall central point of the speech, which differs
from supporting ideas in many ways.

Unlike main ideas, supporting ideas back up the central theme of the speech.

So, you claim the moon is made of cheese. Here are a few ways you can support this idea:

• Examples
• Definitions
• Narration
• Comparisons
• Contrasts
• Statistics
• Testimony

Wow, that's quite a list. Not to worry, you would not use all of them; just what fits best into
the overall main idea.

How Supporting Ideas are Used

An example is a representation of a person, place, action or thing.

You can do this by showing the audience a replica of the moon dangling from a string. The
replica of the moon will give the audience members a good idea of what the moon looks
like close up.

Next, you can provide a definition of the moon. This is a statement of the meaning of a
word.

39
Telling the audience that the moon is actually a natural satellite of the Earth will help you
make your point. After all, it might be hard to make your points if members of your
audience think the moon is actually a planet.

Using narration may be helpful. That is telling a story or describing actions that can be used
to support your speech.

Perhaps the speaker can talk about folklore that is based on the moon's milky make-up.

Comparisons are a popular tool. Use these to point out similarities between two or more
things.

Take a trip to your local cheese monger and fetch a large wheel of Gorgonzola. Then,
place it next to the replica of the moon.

When the audience sees the similarity in color and shape, they are sure to agree with your
claim.

You could also do the opposite. Contrasts point out the differences between two or more
things.

Use these to force the audience to think in new ways. This can be done by showing a mock
solar system that depicts the differences between all planets and the moon.

Statistics is the study of the collecting, analyzing and interpreting data. Now, this may not be
so useful in the moon/cheese argument but it can be useful to prove other points.

Did you know that the moon's surface is about 14.6 million square miles, which is about
92.6% less surface area than the Earth's surface. This is about 4 times the surface area of
the United States.

40
This is important if one was planning on traveling to the moon to take a sample of its
surface. Don't take too much, it's not that large.

Nothing beats the word from the street. Testimony is the statements of a witness. Just find
someone who people respect who will also say that the moon is made of cheese.

Did you know that in 1546, English writer John Heywood even wrote a poem about a
cheesy moon? Oh, I mean that the moon was made of green cheese.

Now, let's see about putting them into the speech.

Did you know that approximately 93% of messages are interpreted by vocal and visual
signs, rather than verbal communication? This means that how you say something, and how
you look or what you are doing while you are saying it, is exponentially more important
than what you say.

Recently, the SimV Academy presented the second class of the presentation skills series,
“Physical Aspects of Presentations,” with instructor Katherine Groves. It is very common
to be concerned with only the content when preparing for a presentation. This class
showed participants the importance of how non-verbal communication can impact the
message being presented and gave tips and advice on what body language to focus on, in
order to add credence to a presentation while creating trust, clarity, and interest with the
audience.

41
There are 6 categories that make up non-verbal communication. Each category is equally
important, as they all work together to create the message you want (or don’t want) to get
across.

Facial Aspects – Your face will say something before your mouth ever does. It can be hard
for your face not to show what you are really thinking on the inside, so become aware of
what it is doing as you speak. If you do not, you may become a victim of a face that
contradicts the message coming out of your mouth. Some examples of facial aspects to
consider are eye contact, eyebrow movements, and smiling/frowning. When controlled, it
can be a great asset to your presentations by conveying your emotions, creating interest, and
complementing the content you share.

Paralinguistic – These are aspects of spoken communication that do not involve words.
Tone of voice, speed and breathing, pronunciation, articulation, pauses, and punctuation
are a few examples of paralinguistic communication. Breathing techniques can be used to
help calm nerves while presenting. Look them up online or YouTube and practice. You
may even think about joining a meditation or yoga community (such as the yoga class SimV
Fit has every Tuesdays and Thursdays at noon). Paralinguistic communication can also be
used in presentations to add emphasis, give meaning to words, and create emotions in the
audience.

Posture/Body Language – This is the position of your spine and strategically changing your
location to connect your message with the audience. Posture, stance, pace, and personal
space all fit into this category. Use this communication in your presentations to convey
openness, feelings of confidence, and comfort. Remember to stand up straight!

42
Personal Space – Closely related to body language, spatial awareness affects control and
interest of your audience. You can use proximity to your audience to control those all-so
common side-bar conversations. Have you ever been in a presentation or class where the
instructor came right up next to you? It can definitely get your attention! Movement
toward your audience while listening to and answering questions will convey interest in your
audience and what they have to say. By walking toward the audience, you are showing
them you want to engage with them. But be careful – it can also create an uncomfortable
environment when you put yourself in someone’s personal space.

Gestures – This communication is moving part of your body, usually your head or hands,
to express and emphasize an idea. This includes pointing at a slide, holding up a number in
conjunction with a number displayed on the presentation, nodding, and using your hands
to mimic your words, such as conveying size. This is helpful for adding emphasis,
repeating, showing clarity, and directing attention in your presentations.

Appearance – Like it or not, first impressions matter! This consists of physical traits and
features you notice about someone before they ever speak. Clothes, hair, shoes, and make-
up all fit into this category. Your appearance can support the presentation by showing
credibility, demonstrating you care, and building trust. As the saying goes – Dress for the
job you want, not the job you have! But in this case, dress for the impression you want to
make! Until you have the reputation of Steve Jobs, don’t wear flip flops and shorts (unless
you are speaking to a bunch of surfers – then it might make sense!)

43
Asking and Giving Opinion

Giving Opinion

• In my opinion...

• The way I see it...

• If you want my honest opinion....

• According to Lisa...

• As far as I'm concerned...

• If you ask me...

Asking Opinion
• What's your idea?
• What are your thoughts on all of this?
• How do you feel about that?
• Do you have anything to say about this?
• What do you think?
• Do you agree?
• Wouldn't you say?

44
Expressing Agreement and Disagreement in English

What is an agreement and disagreement?

Agreement is when people have and share the same opinion and feelings.

Disagreement is when people have different opinions about something and often argue.

In English, there are many expressions we can use to express both agreement and
disagreement.

Agreement
• I agree with you.
• I totally agree.
• She can’t disagree more.
• I share the same opinion.
• I have the same perspective.
• That’s exactly what I was thinking of.
• I absolutely agree.
• They think you are right.
• I simply must agree with that
• You said it all

Disagreement
• I disagree with you.
• He totally disagrees with.
45
• I don’t have the same idea.
• I don’t have the same perspective.
• That’s not what I was thinking of.
• I absolutely disagree.
• I’m not sure I agree with you.
• She is not sure we share the same idea.
• I object
• I can’t perceive your point to be right

Interruptions

• Can I add something here?

• Is it okay if I jump in for a second?

• If I might add something...

• Can I throw my two cents in?

• Sorry to interrupt, but...

• (after accidentally interrupting someone) Sorry, go ahead. OR Sorry, you

were saying...

• (after being interrupted) You didn't let me finish.

46
Asking for an explanation

• Could you explain to me….?

• Could someone please tell me….?
• Just tell me the reason why….?
• I don’t really understand….?
• I just don’t see why/what/how….
• Are you saying that….?
• What do you mean by that?
• I beg your pardon?
• I didn’t quite get that. Excuse me, did you say that…?

Giving an explanation

• Look, it’s like this:

• What I mean is…
• The reason for this is…
• The main problem is….
• Just let me explain….
• Well, the reason is…
• Well, the thing is …
• Above all we must keep in mind that….

47
48
 Unit 3
Writing

• Writing simple and compound sentences.

• Using appropriate punctuation and spelling.
• Using discourse markers/liners
• Developing paragraphs through topic sentences and
supporting sentences.
• Writing narrative, and descriptive essay.

49
Sentences: Simple And Compound

There are mainly three kinds of sentences in English: simple, complex and compound.

Simple sentence

A simple sentence consists of just one clause. Examples are given below.

• The dog barks.

• The kettle boils.
• Birds live in nests.
• The boys are singing.

In its simplest form, a simple sentence consists of a subject and a verb.

We can add more meaning to the sentence by including qualifiers, objects, complements
etc.

Sitting on a branch, the monkey gibbered.

The little girl was carrying a basket on her head.

Compound sentence

A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses.

The boys sang and the girls danced.

This compound sentence consists of two simple clauses connected by the coordinating
conjunction and.

50
Another example is given below.

Men may come and men may go, but I go on forever.

This compound sentence consists of three independent clauses.

We make compound sentences by joining independent clauses with the help of

coordinating conjunctions.

More examples of compound sentences are given below.

• You may watch TV or you can go out to play.

• You should either sit quietly or go out.
• The old man could neither see nor hear.
• He took the test several times but he couldn’t pass.
• He is famous, yet he is very humble.
• She was angry, still she kept her cool.
• The thieves not only robbed the man of his possessions, but also inflicted injuries on
him.

Notes

The words however, therefore and nevertheless are not conjunctions. They cannot be used
to connect two independent clauses.

My car broke down on the way; therefore, I hired a taxi. (NOT My car broke down on the
way, therefore I hired a taxi.)

He lost all his money; nevertheless, he is cheerful.

51
Two independent clauses need to be connected with a coordinating conjunction or
separated with a full stop or a semicolon.

Exercise

Combine each pair of simple sentences to make a compound sentence. Use the
conjunction in parenthesis.

1. A small kitten followed me home. I gave it a bowl of milk. (so)

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. We were lost in the woods. My brother had a map in his backpack. (but)
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

3. The girls were painting animal pictures. Katrina spilled the paint. (and)
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

4. Would you like to go to the movies? Would you rather stay home tonight? (or)
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

5. Mr. Sanchez loved his new office. He didn't like the view. (but)
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

52
6. Ivana's bicycle had a flat tire. She had to walk to the grocery store. (so)
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

7. José wants to be an astronaut when he grows up. Maria wants to be a nurse. (and)
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Punctuation

Punctuation is simply about a series of conventions that make it easier for readers to follow
your train of thought. A complete sentence (one thought or idea) is indicated by a full stop
(.). A pause in the flow of thought, for example, to allow additional information, is indicated
by a comma (,). A semicolon (;) is used to indicate a fuller pause than a comma, but not the
final endof the sentence. A colon (:) is used to indicate the beginning of a list.

Full Stops

Full stops are used to divide text and create boundaries by marking the end of a sentence.

• Make sure that your full stops look like full stops and that they are distinct from commas.

• Make sure that the letter following a full stop is always a capital letter and looks like one.

• Remember, feedback from your lecturers that points out that there are too many
commas in your writing may well mean that your commas are doing the wrong job. After
you have completed one sequence of thought, indicate this with a full stop. Then move on
to the next one.

53
Commas

Commas are used to divide up groups of words within a sentence. They are extremely
important and help to keep units of writing together. This helps to clarify understanding
and avoids frustrating the reader.

The main function of the comma is to:

• Break up parts of longer sentences - for example:

After the main points had been presented, the students were asked for their comments.

(N.B. The comma in this example neatly divides the meaning into two parts. If there were
no comma, the reader would read, “presented the students6.” As a word group, and this
would not make sense without re-reading for clarification.) There would, however, be no
comma in the following sentence:

They decided to go to the library and find further information about the topic of the essay.

In this case, a pair of ideas is linked by the word ‘and’, no pausing occurs in speech, and no
punctuation (i.e. comma) is needed to clarify the meaning.

• Present items in a list. For example:

I would like to watch the video, take notes and then be ready to ask questions.

• Divide words which refer to the subject of a sentence.

For example:

• The President of the Society, Julie Jones, received a standing ovation after her
speech.

54
Punctuate certain relative clauses (i.e. parts of a sentence beginning with ‘who’, ‘which’, or
‘whose’).

For example:

• The College, which is situated in the centre of Canterbury, has an excellent academic
reputation.

In this example, the part of the sentence between the commas is designed to add extra
information to the statement about the college.

A comma is not always used with words like ‘who’ or ‘which’.

Consider the following example:

• I like lecturers who give high grades for my work.

In this example the meaning is derived from linking up the ‘lecturers’ and ‘who give high
grades…’, not from separating out these two parts of the sentence.

Try reading this sentence with a comma (pause) before the word ‘who’. Does the sentence
make sense with this comma? Some words or phrases (in traditional grammar, at least!)
expect a comma after they have been used: e.g. However, nevertheless, for example, etc..

55
Colons and Semi-Colons

Colons should be used only:

To introduce a list.

For example:

An essay usually includes the following components: an introduction, a main body of text
and a conclusion.

• To show a link between the units of meaning, like a hinge.

For example:

The results of the referendum were very clear: there was a need for a change in policy.

Semi-colons are extremely useful in long sentences, but be careful not to over-use them.

They are typically used as follows:

In the library there were several students reading journal articles; a couple of lecturers
checking the stock, and a librarian returning books to the shelves.

• To provide a break in a sentence, while showing the relationship between the two parts.

For example:

Night was falling; he knew all was lost.

To express an idea which is too short to merit a new sentence.

56
For example:

Wherever possible, students should try to organise their academic work by using ‘planning
tools’; these can help to clarify ideas. In some cases semi-colons are followed by linking
words, as in:

Using discourse markers/liners

Use of Discourse Markers in English Language

Discourse markers are words and phrases used in speaking and writing to ‘signpost’
discourse. Discourse markers do this by showing turns, joining ideas together, showing
attitude, and generally controlling communication. In speech, words like ‘actually’, ‘so’,
‘OK’, ‘right?’ and ‘anyway’ all function as discourse markers as they help the speaker to
manage the conversation and mark when it changes. However, discourse markers are an
important feature of both spoken & written English. The skilful use of discourse markers
often indicates a higher level of fluency in both spoken and written English. Use of
discourse markers are very helpful.

Function:

Discourse markers are expressions that are used to show how discourse is constructed.
They can show the connection between what a speaker is saying and what has already been
said or what is going to be said; they can help to make clear the structure of what is being
said; they can indicate what speakers think about what they are saying or what others have
said. There are a very large number of these ‘discourse markers’, and it is impossible to
57
give a complete list. Here are a few of the most common. Some of these words and
expressions have more than one use; for more information, look in a good dictionary.
Some discourse markers are used mostly in informal speech or writing; others are more
common in a formal style. The functions or use of discourse markers are very helpful

Analysis:

Discourse markers form a group of linguistic expressions that are inseparable from
discourse and fulfil important functions in spoken and written discourse interpretation. The
analysis of discourse markers is a part of the more general analysis of discourse coherence”
which is always associated with discourse cohesion. While cohesion is represented by
formal linking signals in text, coherence is the underlying relations that hold between the
propositions of a text on the one hand, and relations between text and context, on the other
hand. Every coherent text has some sort of structure and its communicative purpose. The
communicative event which is characterized by a set of communicative purposes” is called a
genre. The concept of genre is more effective in representing that theoretical construct
which intervenes between language function and language form.

Patterns:

Generally, discourse is divided into two broad units, the spoken and the written. Despite
the fact that there is no an absolute dividing line between spoken and written discourse,
speech and writing are not interchangeable modes of communication with no distinctive
features at all. A number of commonly held views on differences between spoken and
written language devised as following:

58
a) Writing is more structurally complex and elaborate than speech. However, it is
argued that speech is no less highly organized, and it has its own kind of complexity.

b) Written discourse tends to be more lexically dense than spoken discourse;

c) Written texts typically include longer noun groups than spoken texts
(nominalization);

d) Writing is rather more explicit than speech;

e) Writing is more decontextualized than speech (speech depends on a shared situation

whereas writing does not depend on such a shared context);

f) Spoken discourse is often produced spontaneously (it contains more half-completed

and reformulated utterances than written discourse);

g) Speaking uses more repetition, hesitation and redundancy than written discourse
(the use of pauses and fillers).

59
Examples of the Discourse Markers

ON THE OTHER HAND , While, Whereas,

EMPHASIZING A CONTRAST

However, ,nevertheless ,mind you,still ,yet, in spite of this,

CONCESSION

it is true, of course ,certainly ,if may

COUNTER-ARGUMENT

However , even so ,but, nevertheless, nonetheless, all the same, still

CHANGE OF SUBJECT

by the way, incidentally ,right, all right ,now ,

STRUCTURING

first(ly), first of all, second(ly), finally, to begin with to start with, in the first/second/third
place, for one thing, for another thing

60
ADDING

moreover (very formal), furthermore (formal), in addition, as well as that ,besides, in any
case

GENERALIZING:

on the whole, in general in all/most/many/some cases, broadly speaking, by and large ,to a
great extent, to some extent, apart from, except for

GIVING EXAMPLES

for instance, for example, in particular

Summing up

in conclusion

61
Developing paragraphs through topic sentences and supporting
sentences.
Defining Paragraphs

A paragraph is a group of sentences that deals with one particular idea. Paragraphs are
defined by the point that they support, the controlling idea, and not just by how long they
are. This is the fundamental rule in writing paragraphs: only one idea should be discussed
per paragraph.

Identifying the Parts of a Paragraph: The Topic Sentence

To compose a paragraph effectively, you should be familiar with its parts: the topic
sentence and supporting details.

▪ A topic sentence tells the reader the main idea of your paragraph. It reveals

what you generally plan to propose, argue, or explain. When it is part of a longer
essay, the topic sentence contains a main point that supports the thesis statement.
Think of the topic sentence as a mini thesis statement for the paragraph. In the
following paragraph, the topic sentence has been underlined:
▪ Put together, paragraphs are used as building blocks in organizing longer pieces of
text into prose. They basically function it I order to introduce a new idea, develop an
old one, compare and contrast information, or provide readers with a pause.
▪ The circumstances which brought about the Filipino’s adoption of the [American]
jeep are nearly providential. For here was an ideal, economic carrier suited to the

62
 extremes of tropic heat and rain and the bumpiness of Philippine highways, narrow
dirt roads, and towpaths. In the farms, it became an indispensable wheelhorse,
unresisting despite all kinds of inhuman abuses. In the city, the jeep evolved into
something its inventors never dreamed of. the phenomenon that has been rattling
around Manila for decades-the jeepney.
▪ As you can see, the details in the paragraph expound the circumstances surrounding
the Filipino’s adoption of the American jeep. The topic sentence can be found
anywhere in the paragraph: in the beginning, at the end, or in the middle. The topic
sentence in the previous paragraph is found in the beginning. It is usually a good
practice to include the topic sentence near the start of the paragraph so your readers
have an idea of what you are talking about early on.

▪ A topic sentence can be explicit, or clearly states the ideas that will be elaborated on
in the paragraph. The previous paragraph makes use of an explicit topic sentence,
which plainly reveals to the reader what the paragraph will be about.

▪ However, a topic sentence can also be implied. Read the paragraph below for an
example:
▪ Called the jeep, it was small in stature, easy to operate, hardy and compact, practical.
Its capacity for carrying any kind of cargo—animal, vegetable, or mineral—in just
about any shape or size, just so you could cram it all in, was practically limitless. In
the early days of the Liberation, we wide-eyed children starved for gum and Hershey
bars would watch uniformed soldiers gallivant all over town in these jeeps loaded

63
 with GI goodies, like tinned K-rations, cigarettes, duffel bags bulging with beer cans,
and sometimes women. In time the American servicemen disappeared, but the jeep
remained.
▪ A topic sentence is implied if there is a clear controlling idea of what the paragraph is
about. The reader will be able to determine the focus of the paragraph because all of
the details, as seen above, are linked by an organizing theme. In the case of the given
example, the implied topic sentence is how the American servicemen used the jeep
for carrying cargo.

▪ Also, a good topic sentence reveals your attitude toward the subject. It is helpful to
include details like facts and examples that turn the topic sentence into something
more specific and concrete.

Identifying the Parts of a Paragraph:

Supporting Details

▪ Every paragraph needs supporting details to elaborate on the topic sentence. These
supporting details may range from facts, examples, or instances. Good supporting
details expound on the main idea and act as adequate support; they are specific and
stem from the general idea established by the topic sentence. How much detail you
should include in a paragraph depends on your purpose and the topic sentence.

64
 ▪ Examine the paragraph below, taken from the same essay. The implied topic
sentence is about the types of passengers one encounters when riding a jeepney.
What are the supporting details in this paragraph? How do they develop the topic
sentence?
▪ s every jeepney rider knows, sitting in a packed jeepney can be both awkward and
uncomfortable, if not actually perilous, specially where the passenger crowd includes
housewives with their market baskets loaded with vegetables and fish, parents with
smelly, yelping brats, provincianos lugging their boxes and burl bags, fat persons with
enormous backsides, etc. The passenger list does not always include the hoi polloi or
the bakya crowd. It also includes middle class commuters with white-collar jobs and
sometimes residents who own cars and even a house in San Lorenzo Village. At any
rate, one never knows beside whom one is sitting. We consider ourselves extremely
lucky to sit next to a shapely co-ed, side by side in a packed jeepney. So you see, a
jeepney ride can be a good instance of democratic togetherness, where the have and
the have-not, the literate and illiterate, may sit elbow to elbow tolerating each other’s
presence without much of a sign of social discontent as a sneeze.
▪ The supporting details in the previous paragraph give specific details about the types
of passengers in the jeepney. These examples give you a better idea of such
passengers; in fact, they enable you to picture yourself sitting beside a variety of
interesting characters from all walks of life.

Making Your Paragraphs Effective

▪ Now that you have identified the parts of the paragraph, the following characteristics
will help you develop your paragraphs into more effective ones.
65
▪ The first characteristic of an effective paragraph is unity. Unity simply means that all
of the sentences in the paragraph are related to the topic sentence. The whole
paragraph should begin and end with one focus only. Each of the details should have
a clear and consistent connection to the topic sentence. Read the following sample
paragraph. The paragraph lacks unity because the underlined point does not support
the main idea.

▪ Ordinary Filipinos can easily promote our country to foreigners via social media by
supporting the Department of Tourism’s (DOT) “It’s more fun in the Philippines”
campaign. First, they can share and like official publicity materials from the DOT’s
Facebook page. Each time a post is shared and liked, it becomes increasingly visible
on Facebook and can reach a wider audience. Next, they can tweet their experiences
in various local tourist destinations on Twitter using the hashtag like
#ItsMoreFunInPH. When many users tweet using a specific hashtag, it becomes a
trending topic and can be viewed by Twitter users around the world. They can also
tell stories to their foreign friends by talking to them and volunteering to tour them
around in our top tourist destinations. Finally, they can share their own travel photos
on Instagram. Because pictures can be worth a thousand words, their pictures can
reveal to foreigners the beauty of the travel destinations the Philippines is blessed
with. These, and so much more, are just some examples of how Filipinos can
participate in the DOT’S campaign through social media.
▪ The second characteristic of an effective paragraph is adequate development. The
topic sentence in the paragraph should be elaborated on using concrete evidence,
66
 different examples, relevant facts, and specific details. Having specific details helps
your readers become interested in your topic, understand your message, and
convince them of the validity of your topic sentence.

The following are two versions of a paragraph:

❖ I dislike Physical Education (PE). Why is it that we have to waste class time playing
sports that we have no choice in? Who said basketball is the best sport? I dislike PE
because it makes me tired. It makes my skin dark. Finally, I dislike it because I look
stupid when I play sports.

❖ The first paragraph has vague ideas; the writer has enumerated reasons for disliking
PE but did not explain them sufficiently. Meanwhile, the second paragraph below
provides specifics; therefore, is more engaging and informative:

❖ I am one student who has a strong dislike for PE. First, I do not like how we have
little choice in the sports we play in. We usually play basketball, volleyball, or other
team sports. I am someone who prefers one-on-one games because I am shy and 1
find it hard to work in a team. Second, most sports we choose involves outdoor
settings. My skin is sensitive to the sun and I get allergies and become dark easily
when exposed to sunlight for too long. Finally, most sports we play are spectator
sports. They are meant to be played before a cheering audience. As someone who is
67
 self-conscious when playing sports (especially since I am not sporty), I am
uncomfortable when all eyes are on me. Overall, I believe I will enjoy this subject
more if we had more options in the sports that we take up.

Writing narrative, and descriptive essay.

A narrative essay is one of the most commonly assigned forms of academic writing. Starting
from school, students of various educational facilities face this type of task quite often,
which is why knowing how to handle it is vital for their success.

The main purpose of the narrative style of writing is to tell a compelling story. It doesn’t
sound like too big of a deal, right? You couldn’t be more wrong. Even if it might seem easy
at first sight, telling an engaging story can be rather challenging. To help you overcome this
challenge, our writers have compiled a comprehensive guide on how to write a narrative
essay step by step.

What Is a Narrative Essay?

A narrative essay is a form of academic writing that aims to tell a story. As the author, your
goal is to create the right atmosphere and a lifelike experience for your readers.

68
As a rule, this type of paper is written from the first person perspective. You have to put
readers at the epicenter of the plot and keep them engaged. To do this, and to ensure the
right atmosphere, narrative writing uses plenty of vivid details, descriptive techniques, etc.

The biggest challenge in writing a narrative essay is that it is always limited in length. Thus,
your task is to take a complex story and narrow it down to incorporate its key points to fit
into a short essay, while at the same time providing enough detail to keep readers engaged.

Purpose of a Narrative Essay

This form of writing is all about sharing stories—that’s the key purpose. As a writer, your
task is to tell readers about a real-life experience and, at the same time, to make a clear
point of why you are telling that particular story and why it matters.

What makes it different from other types of essays? In a narrative essay, all you do is guide
readers through the story; you don’t make arguments, criticize, or attempt to persuade
them. You are just telling a story, letting readers draw their own conclusions. That’s the
most distinctive feature of such papers.

Here are the basic characteristics that define this type of writing:

• Non-fiction – written about events that actually happened;

• Written from the author’s viewpoint (1st person);

• Includes elements of a story, but is written in accordance with a basic structure;

69
• Provides information in chronological order;

• Uses lots of details to describe an event, person, or scene;

• Strives to inform readers of something, not argue or teach.

Here are some narrative essay ideas to help you brainstorm:

1 Overcoming Fear

2 Facing a Challenge

3 A New Experience or Discovery

4 A Moment of Excitement

5 Learning a Tough Lesson

6 A Thrilling Moment of Adrenaline

7 The Moment You Stood Up for Yourself

8 A Relationship Experience

9 A Discovery That Changed Your Life

10 A Rebellious Act

70
Narrative Format and Structure

The narrative essay format and structure are standard. Like other assignments, this type of
paper normally follows a 5 paragraph essay outline: one introductory paragraph, followed
by three body paragraphs, and the last narrative paragraph is the conclusion. However,
unlike other types of essays, a narrative paper’s paragraphs have specifically designated
purposes:

Introduction – makes an insight into the story, states the purpose of writing, and includes
an engaging element to hook the reader;

Main body paragraph 1 – rising action;

❖ Topic sentence
❖ Supporting Detail 1
❖ Supporting Detail 2

Main body paragraph 2 – climax;

❖ Topic sentence
❖ Supporting Detail 1
❖ Supporting Detail 2

Main body paragraph 3 – falling action;

❖ Topic sentence
71
 ❖ Supporting Detail 1
❖ Supporting Detail 2

Conclusion – lessons learned from the story.

Introduction

• The opening clause of your story has to accomplish 3 goals:

• Engage readers in the story with the help of a hook
• To create a powerful hook, you can use a question, fact, quote, or an intriguing
statement that will make readers want to read further.

Example:

“I’m not quite sure whether it is a real memory or just some false belief that grew stronger
and more convincing in me over time, but I remember my sister once trying to kill me...”

Set the scene and give readers an idea of what is happening. However, it shouldn’t tell the
entire story yet, just give a glimpse into it; don’t give it all away, and keep your readers
intrigued.

Example:

“It was another warm summer day when we were making our way back home from the
beach. The next thing I remember was a loud bang and a pounding ache in my head.”

72
Define the purpose of your writing. Finally, your narrative introduction should provide
some insight into what the story is all about. Give readers a sneak peek of what’s to come,
but don’t state the lessons you’ve learned from the situation yet. Keep them engaged!

Example:

“Our memory can be a tricky thing sometimes. Just switch the point of view for a situation
and you will get a completely different picture.”

As a rule, your introduction should contain a thesis statement.

Narrative Essay Thesis Statement

The thesis statement is another important element of your paper. It should be placed in the
introductory paragraph and can later be restated in your conclusion to empower the effect
of the essay.

A thesis statement is your main argument. Its main goal is to introduce the problem or
conflict you are going to investigate in your paper and to spark up the readers’ interest.

A good thesis statement should not be a fact or general truth, and it also shouldn’t be a
suggestion, recommendation, or question. Instead, it should give a sneak peek into the
problem, explain it briefly, and give some hints for the outcome.

73
Main Body

The main body of your paper is the most important part. This is where you tell the story,
share facts and details, and guide readers through the plot.

The body of a narrative essay can consist of 3 or more paragraphs, and its length depends
on the general word count of your paper.

Here are 4 important points to consider in the body paragraphs of your narrative essay

Include vivid and relevant detail: A narrative essay is all about creating a scene as well as a
mood to follow. Even the best essay writers can spend hours writing and are meticulous
when it comes to including details. However, don’t spam your sentences with literary
symbols. As long as each sentence serves a purpose, then you are good to go.

Incorporate dialogue: Throwing the reader into dialogues is an effective way to refresh their
attention. Dialogue is a great way to give a story life and support the story’s atmosphere.
Again, use this technique constructively.

Example:

If you have two New Yorkers talking to each other, using British slang won’t be a great
choice.

Write chronologically: It’s hard for readers to understand the timeline of events in a paper
unless the author is blunt. Keeping things sequential is the best way to keep your paper
organized.

74
Avoid narration deviation: If you are talking about a personal experience, the first-person
voice will work best. If this is a story you heard from a friend, writing in third-person will
make more sense.

To find a compelling narrative paragraph example, keep on reading.

Conclusion

In the conclusion of your paper, you are expected to give some final comments about your
story. This is where you can restate some of the key details and ideas mentioned in the
body. In addition, you should stress the lessons you’ve learned from a particular situation
and leave readers with something to think about.

Example:

“As I go through these events over and over in my head, I realize how much it has taught
me. Everything that happens in our lives has at least two sides. To see the real image, it is
necessary to collect all of the details piece by piece—to see both sides. And, not all
memories should be trusted. Sometimes, it is just our brains that try to make up false
stories, isn’t it?”

Example

Moments of Adrenaline 1 was just listening to some music in my car as I rested and
waited for my grandmother to finish up so that we could drive off. From the other side of
the roadё there were some kids playing football, and I had not given it much thought since
they were just playing-a regular activity. For а moment, 1 thought I had heard а sound

75
made Ьу а hard-kicked ball, followed Ьу some noise from the children. Then, 1 decided
to look through the window to see how far the ball had gone.

Before 1 could even move an inch, another even louder sound, which shook my car,
came from the playground. That is when I felt fear all throughout the body and I started
sweating profusely, even though I was still not quite sure enough about what had just
happened. 1 slowly raised my head to check out what was going on. То ту surprise, two
boys, both of whom were about the same height, were lying in а pool ofЫood. 1 realized
that there was а Ыасk vehicle parked just behind my car, and, within the Ыink of an еуе,
the car drove past те as quickly as it could. 1 couldn't even gather my strength, and my
heart was beating so fast that I could hear it pumpшg.

А crowd had now started to gather around, but then I realized that my grandmother
was nowhere to Ье found. Му legs started shaking and questions started rushing through
my mind. Could it have been Grandma? Could she have been taken Ьу the whomever had
done it? Or perhaps, was she too frightened to соте out of the house? 1 collected myself
and started slowly walking toward the house. Before I got far, 1 heard а voice calling out for
me.Of course, it was my grandmother. We were both walking in opposite directions. 1 had
quickly tumed and had started walking toward her when the same vehicle I had seen some
few minutes ago came speeding across the street again. As they navigated their way off of
the street to avoid other cars, they started driving toward my.

Grandmother at high speed. I couldn't open my eyes and couldn't process what was
happening in the moment. 1 heard а loud sound, and I knew ту granny was in trouЫe.
Fortunately, the саг had lost control, but hadn't hit her. The саг hit а tree in one of the
compounds. All of this had shaken me up. Ву the look of the саг, the accident was fatal-
76
since they were speeding and the саг had been crushed. 1 reached out for my grandma and
took her to my саг. She was also in shock and it was too much for her to take in. I did not
feel comfortaЫe simply driving away and leaving the injured culprits. 1 went back and
asked if there was anyone from the vehicle that was stil alive. Only one had survived the
accident, but unfortunately, his leg was stuck between the seats.

I waited а bit longer as others came to help me try to save the man. It took us а
couple of minutes, and since no medical service had соте to our rescue, 1 drove the victim
to the hospital. 1 tried my best, but couldn't keep my hands on the steering wheel. 1 asked
forhelp; the whole time tremЫing as my heart was racing.

77
Do’s and Don’ts of Narrative Writing

To make the writing process less stressful, keep the following do’s and don’ts in mind:

Do’s

a) Preferably write your story in the first-person point of view (or third-person if
necessary).
b) Begin with a hook in the form of a fact, quote, question, definition, etc. to grab the
readers’ attention.
c) Make a clear statement of your point: what are you going to say with this paper?
d) Follow the proper narrative format.
e) Spice up your story with some kind of conflict.
f) Try to address all five senses at the same time – tell the readers not only what
characters of a story saw, but also what they smelled, heard, felt, etc.
g) Follow a logical sequence of presentation – ideally, move from one event to another
in chronological order.
h) Keep your language clear and easy-to-read.
i) Don’t hesitate to use different descriptive techniques such as power words,
transitions, etc.

Don’ts

a) Do not write a narrative essay in the second-person perspective.

b) Don’t create fictional stories, write about events that really happened.
c) Don’t use exceedingly formal language, arguments, slang, etc.

78
 d) Don’t write about everything – too many details are also not good, so be sure to be
specific only about the main ideas and details that drive the plot of your story.
e) Don’t tell a story, show it!

What is a Descriptive Essay?

The definition of a descriptive essay is a type of composition or paper which describes an
object, person, process, or event. The writer’s goal is to create a vivid reading experience,
or to show instead of tell (metaphorically).

Descriptive writing usually appeals to the five senses: taste, touch, smell, hearing, and sight.
(Ex: Jack’s coffee mug exploded into tiny shards of glass, catching the attention of everyone
at the office.) Always appealing to the senses is key to writing a good descriptive essay.

When writing a descriptive essay, your goal will be to paint a comprehensive picture for the
reader by appealing to the five senses. Last but not least, your work should have a purpose.
It could be anything from a lesson you learned from an experience, to a story of how an
object impacted your life. It’s all about making your bright ideas come to life.

Difference Between a Description and a Descriptive Essay

When writing this type of paper, you should know the difference between a description and
a descriptive essay. A description can be just a simple paragraph, or several ones with no
specific structure, meanwhile, a descriptive essay has five or more paragraphs and a clear

79
and complete structure. A descriptive essay is usually written coherently, has a good thesis
statement at the end of the introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. A
description however, does not necessarily have a structure. Its main purpose is to just
describe an object, or something else, without having any extra academic layers.

The Issues that Could be Described in Your Paper

A person. In this paper, you can talk about a person. It can range from simply writing about
their appearance to more complex descriptions like actions, behaviours, mood, and
qualities of your chosen individual.

A place. The main thing you should do when describing a place in your work is to describe
it interestingly and originally. Your reader(s) should feel, for example, the beauty of your
chosen cities—perhaps New York or Rome.

An event. Here you need to describe the story of what happened. It can be your last
vacation, concert, wedding, anniversary, summer music festival, graduation day, or so on.

An animal. In this type, you need to describe the animal. It may be its appearance,
behaviour, or biology.

An occupation. Here you need to write about a job or occupation.

A behaviour. This is the type of descriptive writing you should go for if you would like to
write about someone’s behaviour. Perhaps you want to describe the strange behaviour of
your friend, or highlight how certain people act under different conditions.

80
Two Classic Approaches to the Descriptive Essay

1. Personal Essay

Here you need to describe an experience using your feelings and responses. This work can
awake empathy in readers. It can also be vague and disorganized. If you want to write a
good personal essay, you should try to focus only on those aspects that most fully express
your experience. Do not shy away from vivid, evocative language in this type of assignment.

A few examples of personal essay topics might be:

Describing the experience of swimming in the azure sea in summer

Explaining your favourite movie and its impact on you

Reflecting on your birthday and all the things that have shaped you in the past

2. Formal Description

This type of descriptive writing resembles an argumentative essay. Your main goal should
be communicating a set of key points or describing something in detail—according to a clear
structure. Rather than focusing on your own experience, you need to use specific categories
of information to provide the fullest possible portrait of what you are describing. This
approach can also be engaging, especially when the reader is more curious about the
subject of the paper than the writer's response to it. Still, try not to make it dull with too
formal language.

81
Topics for formal descriptions can include:

A descriptive essay about climate change, politics, or historical events.

A news story that provides a summary of an event or information about the place where it
occurred.

Descriptive Essay Topics & Ideas

Finding descriptive essay topics isn’t hard. You can describe pretty much anything—from
your favourite car to today’s weather. We’ve gathered some ideas to help you get started.
Hopefully, you’ll find good descriptive essay topics to spark your imagination.

Describe a Person

Pick a person who you know well—doing so gives you a lot to write about. Choose from
family members, friends, teachers, etc. You can even write about a celebrity who exposes
most of their private life to the media: The Kardashians, Kanye West, or Taylor Swift for
instance. A famous superhero like Spider-Man is also interesting. Such fictional figures
have undergone many character studies from both academic and non-academic
perspectives.

Examples:

• Why my father is my favourite person.

• How Kim Kardashian changed my life.
• Describe an Object or a Place

82
 • You may also describe an object or a place with which you have a special connection.
This could be your high school, a playground, or a toy which used to scare you as a
kid. Fictional places also count!

Examples:

• My native city – Paris

• My trip to London
• Describe an Emotion
• Remember the most sincere emotion you’ve experienced and turn it into a
descriptive essay writing. You may choose a strong feeling like anger, happiness, loss,
desire, or rage. It doesn’t have to be a personal emotion, it could be an observed
one.

Examples:

• How love changed me

• Hatred and love – how they are similar
• You can also write a descriptive essay about anything you can describe according to
human senses: touch, sight, taste, smell, or hearing.
• Creating a Descriptive Essay Outline
• When thinking about descriptive essay writing, remember that a structured paper
outline is your golden ticket. Not only does it help you organize thoughts, but it will
also help your essays flow better.
83
A descriptive essay outline is composed of the following

An introduction Body paragraphs A conclusion

Hook sentence Topic sentence Summary of all main points
Context/Background Sensory details
information Actual details
Thesis statement

Introduction

The introduction serves to introduce your subject to the reader and give them enough
context to fully understand your work—but keep it brief and interesting for the reader(s).
When learning how to write a descriptive essay introduction, remember – the first
paragraph of your paper is the part that can make your descriptive essay stand out from the
others.

As with any college paper, a descriptive essay introduction must contain the following
points:

Hook Sentence: Although the entire paper should be full of exciting and vivid descriptions,
grabbing the reader's attention from the very beginning is ideal.

Context/Background Information: Tell the reader what you’re about to describe and
explain why it is crucial to you. Give them a brief context for your paper.

84
Thesis Statement: The descriptive essay thesis should be a short yet concise summary of
the work. It must include the subject of your description, and your purpose for describing
it.

For further information on how to write a thesis for a descriptive essay, check out the
examples below.

• Place.

If you were to write about Buckingham Palace: “Even though the monarchy is long gone,
Buckingham Palace serves to remind us of the aesthetic beauty which that era had built.”

• Person.

For describing Spider-Man: “The defining characteristics of Spider-Man are his

youthfulness, New York City, and the fact that he talks to himself more than Hamlet.”

• Emotion.

A piece about a personal experience of fear: “For many reasons, the dark forest is my
greatest fear, though not a fear which I would necessarily like to venture into.”

Body Paragraph(s)

There are usually three body paragraphs in a paper. They cover three different points or
arguments. How many body paragraphs to include in your descriptive essay is entirely up to
you—or your professor. Sometimes it only takes a paragraph to tell a story, while other
times it takes books.
85
How to write a body paragraph:

Start with a topic sentence. ex. The orange looks familiar; it is a round citrus fruit whose
colour matches its name.

Add sensory details. When describing the orange, appeal to relatable senses.

Include actual details. Always include descriptive information within your body paragraphs.
Finish a body paragraph by introducing the next. Transition sentences are essential because
they create immersion within your writing. Your writing will become better and it won’t
appear as if you are reading a list of facts.

Conclusion

According to the descriptive essay format, your conclusion should be a summary of all of
the main points in the body text. It is a good idea to write a final sentence that relates to the
main point of your paper. Once this is done, the paper is now complete. We advise that
you proofread your descriptive essay to correct any grammatical errors.

Try to incorporate the following into your conclusion:

86
The first thing to do at the end is to reflect on the initial purpose of the work. Spill the
beans on why you decided to write about this subject, and how this subject has affected
your life.

Signify the Importance of the Details: Go over some key moments of the paper. Give a
summary of what you have covered, and prepare the audience for the clincher statement.

Clincher Statement: The clincher is the final sentence that reinforces your paper’s overall
purpose or leaves your audience with an intriguing thought, question, or quote. You’ve
probably spent a lot of time thinking of a hook to pull the audience in. Do not allow the
paper to escape your audience’s thoughts right after they have finish reading it.

In archeological excavations there are three main components – these are the
artifacts, features, and ecofacts. These three components are instrumental when describing
the results of the works of the anthropologists, especially those who decide to go to the field
to collect first-hand information that has never been documented in previous records or
archives. Artifacts, by description, refer to objects that are made and used by people within
a given historical period. Features, on the other hand, can be described as non-portable
artifacts; these may include things like soil stains that indicate storage pits, garbage dumps,
or structures along fences that were once in existence.

Ecofacts are natural remains – like plant and animal remains – that can help in
understanding the diet and the subsistence pattern of a given period (Greene, & Moore,
2010).

However, when future anthropologists decide to carry out archeological excavations

in the field, it is certain that they will come across our various artifacts, features, and
87
ecofacts. For instance, when it comes to artifacts which have been previously described as
objects that were made and used by people within a given period, future anthropologists
that study the 21st century will come across forms of technological devices with complex
interiors. This will imply to the future anthropologists that this generation was characterized
by a high degree of civilization, and that they might have been highly educated to the extent
that they were capable of making such elaborate technological devices (Pearsall, 2008). It
can therefore be concluded that people during this time period in subject were/are literate.

On the other hand, when it comes to features, which are non-portable artifacts as
highlighted above, the archeologists in the process of their excavation might come across
structures like mysterious wooden poles with wires joining them at intervals. The
interconnection between the poles by a wire is an indicator that something might have been
passing through it. The conclusion arrived at, in such a scenario, is that the wooden poles,
along with the wires, were used for communication purposes between people and that radio
waves passed through them. Apart from that, the poles were used to hold electrical power,
transferring it from one location or one building to another. Such evidence of the poles
with the wires will thus indicate that the people of the 21st century had scientific abilities,
and that communication was important to them.

Last but not least, let’s look at the last archeological element – the ecofacts. Ecofacts
represent remains from plants and animals. Archeologists of the future. in the course of
their excavations, will find some animal faeces, indicating that there was the existence of
other life forms besides humans (White, 2008). For instance, when archeologists come
across bird faeces, such as Blue Jay or North Cardinal, the inference, in this case, will be
that birds were common during this period of subject. Apart from animal remains,

88
archeologists will likely also come across flower seeds, such as the pansy seeds. This will
indicate that such flowers were common around buildings during this period of subject.

89
 Unit 4
Grammar

Grammar
• Parts of Speech
Nouns, Verbs, Adverb
Adjectives, Pronouns, Articles
Determiners. Prepositions, Conjunctions
• Tenses,• Present,• Past
• Future.• Subject and Verbs Agreement

90
GRAMMAR

PARTS OF SPEECH

There are eight parts of speech in English.

A part of speech is a category into which one places a word depending on how it functions
in a sentence.

The same word may be different parts of speech, depending on the word’s use in the
sentence.

Examples: I have a part in the play. (“part” is a noun.)

I part my hair on the left. (“part is a verb.)

My dog is part collie. (“part” is an adjective.)

My love gave me a ring. (“ring” is a noun.)

I will ring the doorbell. (“ring” is a verb.)

Have you a ring holder? (“ring” is an adjective.)

This is the fast lane. (“fast” is an adjective.)

The man runs very fast. (“fast” is an adverb.)

Only a close examination of what a word is doing in a sentence reveals its part of speech.

91
Parts of speech

Names: Noun Action/State of Being: Verb

Pronoun Mortar of a Sentence: Prepositions
Modifiers: Adjective Conjunctions
Adverb Exclamation: Interjection

THE NOUN

The noun (Latin nomen = name) is the name of:

A person (Rumplestilskin; Claudette Colbert; Fetty Wap)

A place (New York City, Bear Mountain,

Lake Chargoggagoggmanchauggagoggchaubunagungamaugg)

A thing (twig, frog, walnut, sphygmomanometer)

A quality (beauty, happiness, courage)

An activity (swimming, praying, speaking) = GERUND

A concept (friendship, Communism, materialism, spirituality)

A condition (peace, security, joy)

92
Types of Nouns:

Common: the label for any member of a category

(man, novelist, country, soup, city, religion)

In English, one never capitalizes a common noun.

Proper: the label for a specific member of a category

(Cary Grant. Ernest Hemingway, Mongolia, Campbell’s Soup,

Horseheads, Roman Catholicism)

Abstract: the name of a non-tangible thing, an idea

(violence, empathy, catastrophe)

Concrete: the name of something one can sense

(prune, aroma, fire, violin)

General: the broad term naming all members of a group (like a common

noun) (weapon, dwelling, fruit, furniture)

Specific: the name of a particular member of a group

(sword, apartment, grape, sofa)

Collective: the name of a group, written as a common noun and in the

singular (committee, jury, army, club, team, class, murder of

crows, pride of lions, exaltation of larks, pod of whales)

Collective nouns may be consistently singular (referring to a

93
unit) or consistently plural (referring to individuals.

Gender of Nouns:

Since the Middle Ages (since about 1300), English nouns have natural

gender, reflecting the sex of the individual:

Males have masculine gender: actor, man, boy, aviator, bull, rooster.

Females have feminine gender: actress, woman, girl, aviatrix, cow, hen

Sexless objects have neuter gender: tree, box, book, floor, chair

Terms applying to males and females have common gender: worker, friend,

worker, student, assistant)

Note: So-called “sexist” nouns containing the word “man: (chairman,

fireman, mailman) traditionally apply to either sex and are common

nouns, as is the word “man: when referring to the human race.

Number of Nouns:

Nouns may be singular (referring to one) or plural (referring to more than one)

Most nouns form their plural by adding “s” to the singular:

(hat = hats; duck = ducks; name = names)

94
Nouns ending in a sibilant (s,z,sh,ch,x) form their plural by adding “es” to

the singular (class = classes; bushes = bushes; church = churches; ax =

axes) N

Nouns ending in a consonant + y change the y to i form their plural by

adding “es” to the singular (spy = spies; country = countries

Some nouns for their plurals irregularly:

man = men

woman = women

goose = geese

ox = oxen

child = children

foot = feet

tooth = teeth

95
English is an eclectic language, taking words and even their plurals from

other languages: [Note: Use a good dictionary for unfamiliar nouns.]

Latin datum = data

bacterium = bacteria

medium = media

alumnus = alumni

alumna = alumnae

stratus = strata

Greek: criterion = criteria

phenomenon = phenomena

crisis = crises

psychosis = psychoses

French: chateau = chateaux

beau = beaux

tableau = tableaux

Italian: graffito = graffiti

soprano = soprani

concerto = concerti

Hebrew: cherub = cherubim

96
THE PRONOUN

The pronoun (L. pro nomine = for the noun) is a word substituting for a noun or another
pronoun.

The noun for which the pronoun is a substitute is called the ANTECEDENT (ante + cedo
= to go before) of the pronoun, and the antecedent must always be a single word, either
stated or implied. Sometimes, the antecedent can follow the pronoun.

Mark said that Mark would be late.

Mark said that he would be late. (The pronoun “he” substitutes for the noun

“Mark.” “Mark” is the antecedent of “he.”)

After he built the fire, Chuck died. (The pronoun “he” comes before its

antecedent, “Mark.”)

Number: Like nouns, pronouns can be singular (I, one, he, she, it) or plural (we,

they).

Gender: Like nouns, pronouns have natural gender, meaning that the pronouns

and nouns have a gender based on the sex of the person or thing to which

they refer:

Masculine pronouns denote males (he, him, his);

Feminine pronouns denote females (she, her, hers);

97
Neuter pronouns denote inanimate or non-human things (it, its);

Common gender pronouns refer to males, females, and inanimate

objects (they, them, one).

Person: The concept of person in verbs and pronouns refers to which role the

verb or pronoun identifies in the act of communication.

FIRST PERSON (I, me, my, we, us, our, ours) denotes the speaker when

referring to himself.

SECOND PERSON (you, your, yours, thou, thee, thy, thine, ye) denotes

The person being spoken to.

THIRD PERSON (he, him, his, she, her, hers, one, it, its, they, their,

theirs, them) denotes the person(s) or thing(s) being spoken about.

Types of Pronouns:

Personal: refer to the three persons involved in communication (See

concept of Person above) (I, you, he, she, it, etc.)

Impersonal: refer to non-humans ( it, they)

Relative: refer to a person or thing, begin a dependent clause, and relate that person or
thing in the dependent clause to a noun or pronoun in the rest of the sentence (who,
whom, whose, which, what that)

(Example: My doctor whom I trust fell out of bed and died.)

98
Demonstrative: point to something (this, these; that, those)

Interrogative: ask questions (who? which? what? whose? whom?)

Reflexive: repeat or intensify the antecedent (I myself; he himself; she herself; you yourself;
they themselves; we ourselves)

Reciprocal: express mutual action or relationship (each other; one another)

Indefinite: refer to no specific person or thing:

Singular: another, anyone, anybody, anything, someone, somebody, something ,everyone,

everybody, everything ,none, nobody, nothing, each, either, neither

Plural: several, some, many, few, all (at times)

Case: Like nouns, pronouns have case. But the personal pronouns and “who” have distinct
case forms:

Nominative Possessive Objective

I my, mine me, you, ye your, yours you, he his him, she her, hers, it its it, we our, ours us

they their, theirs them, who whose whom

Note: Use the correct form for a specific use in the sentence:

• We (subject = nominative case) love summer.

• It is I (predicate nominative = nominative case).
• Toys are we (predicate nominative = nominative case).
• Just between you and me (object of a preposition =
• objective case), grammar is such fun!

99
 • Is this yours (ownership = possessive case)?

Note: The possessive case of personal pronouns does not use the apostrophe.

THE ADJECTIVE

The adjective (Latin adjectivum = added to) describes, modifies, alters, specifies our
understanding of a noun or pronoun.

▪ Brilliant birds flew by. (“Brilliant” describes and specifies the birds.)
▪ The children are sad. (“Sad” describes the children.)
▪ The hippopotami, which were bathing in the brook, drowned. (The clause describes
the hippopotami and is an adjective clause.)
▪ Potatoes from Long Island taste best. (The phrase describes the potatoes and is an
adjective phrase.)
▪ Running up the stairs, Veronica tripped, fell down, broke her toe, and died. (The
phrase describes Veronica and is an adjective phrase.)

To identify the adjective, take a noun or pronoun and ask, “What kind?” and the answer,
be it a word, phrase, or clause, is an adjective.

The woman with the purple snood won the prize.

(The underlined phrase describes the noun “man” and answers the question,

“What kind of man?”)

Those by the window are the records which I need.

(The underlines phrases are adjective phrases. “By the window” answers the
100
question, “What kind of those?” and “which I need” answers the question,

“What kind of records?”)

The articles (a, an, the) are always adjectives.

In English, the normal position of the adjective is before the noun it modifies:

The broken window let in the cold air.

Occasionally, to draw attention to the adjective, it may be misplaced after the noun,

since anything out of its ordinary place is noticed and stressed:

The window, broken, let in the cold air.

Comparison of Adjectives

Adjectives (and adverbs) have three degrees

Positive (an adjective describes one thing and offers no comparison):

sweet, fine, intelligent, beautiful)

Comparative (an adjective compares two things only):

sweeter, finer, more intelligent, less beautiful

(Use “more” or “less” in the comparative degree if the adjective has more

than two syllables; sometimes, either form is acceptable: costlier, more

costly.)

Superlative (an adjective compares more than two things):

sweetest, finest, most intelligent, least beautiful

101
(Use “most” or “least” in the superlative degree if the adjective has more

than two syllables.)

Irregular Comparatives: good, better, best

well, better, best

nigh, near, next

bad, worse, worst

little, less, least

Absolute Adjectives: These adjectives never compare because they identify

characteristics a person or thing either has or does not have; there are no degrees:

dead alive , pregnant full ,empty unique, complete perfect, fatal

Avoid Double Comparatives or Double Superlatives:

Never use more than one form of the comparative or superlative degree

in a sentence:

Wrong: I am more happier than you.

Right: I am happier than you.

Wrong: This is the most sweetest fruit I ever tasted

Right: This is the sweetest fruit I ever tasted.

102
THE ADVERB

An adverb is a word, phrase, or clause describing a verb, adjective, or adverb.

Modification of a Verb: ask of the verb how, when, where, why, how much, to what extent,
under what condition or circumstances?

Jim swam rapidly. (swam how?)

Jim swam yesterday. (swam when?)

Jim swam in the river. (swam where?)

Jim swam for exercise. (swam why?)

Jim swam briefly. (swam how much, to what extent?)

Jim swam despite the chilly weather. (swam under what

condition?)

Modification of an Adjective: the adverb intensifies or specifies the adjective.

Waldo was positively certain that he fed the sapsuckers.

(the adverb “positively” intensifies the adjective “certain.”)

Mildred’s eyes are intensely blue.

(the adverb “intensely” intensifies the adjective “blue.”)

Modification of an Adverb: the adverb intensifies or specifies the other adverb.

Ophelia’s cake baked moderately slowly.

(the adverb “moderately” specifies the adverb “slowly.”

103
How slowly? Moderately slowly.

Usually, adverbs end in –ly, but not always (He spoke fast.)

Usually, one can form an adverb by adding the suffix –ly to the adjective:

beautiful (adj.) = beautifully (adv.)

quick (adj.) = quickly (adv.)

willing (adj.) = willingly (adv.)

sad (adj.) = sadly

deserved (adj.) = deservedly (adv.)

Note: Surly grammarians insist that all words ending in –ly are adverbs. But “surly” is an
adjective, as are “holy,” “silly,” and “wooly.”

Comparison of Adverbs:

Like adjectives, adverbs have degrees of comparison. Most adverbs are

multi-syllabic and use “more” or “less” in the comparative degree and

“most” or “least” in the superlative degree.

Positive: quickly, joyfully

Comparative: more quickly, less joyfully

Superlative: most quickly, least joyfully

104
THE INTERJECTION

The interjection (Latin inter = among, between and iacio = throw) is a word or phrase
thrown into a sentence, like a rock in a pond, to express surprise, anger, glee, or other
emotion, often strong. It is autonomous, bearing no grammatical relationship to other
words in a sentence.

The interjection, if strong, is usually followed by an exclamation point and is not normally
included in formal style.

A quiet or mild interjection in formal prose is followed by a comma.

Ouch! That slap hurt!

Wow! I thought that you died!

Holy pussycats! You look so good!

Indeed, the proposal was in good order.

Well, the situation never improved.

THE PREPOSITION

The preposition is a word “pre-posed” or places before a noun or pronoun to relate that
noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence.

Many, but not all, prepositions show a relationship of space or time.

Give the crust to the birds. (“To” shows the relationship between “give” and “birds.”)

The girl in the autogyro is a student. (“In” shows the relationship between “girl” and
“autogyro.”)

105
The warden fell off his velocipede and into the cement mixer and died.

(“Off” shows the relationship between “warden” and “velocipede”; “into” shows the
relationship between “fell” and “mixer.”)

Common Prepositions:

in of between beside over around through like near by within among

according to above off
with without after against past before beyond behind into under about
across during toward at up down instead of upon for below except
because of since on

Object of the Preposition:

The noun or pronoun that the preposition relates to another word in the sentence is called
the object of the preposition and is in the objective case,

The pussycat on the sofa swallowed the goldfish.

(“sofa” is the object of the preposition “on.”)

106
Willy ate the garlic ice cream with a long spoon.

(“spoon” is the object of the preposition “with.”)

Hansel and Gretel took a crumb cake into the forest with them.

(“forest” is the object of the preposition “into,” and “them” is the object of the preposition
“with.”)

THE CONJUNCTION

Conjunctions (Latin con + junc = join with) link words, or phrases, or clauses, or sentences.

There are two kinds of conjunctions:

Coordinating Conjunctions: connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of EQUAL

grammatical rank, of EQUAL importance.

There are only six: and, yet, but, or, nor, for. (“so” is sometimes listed.)

-They boiled kohlrabis and salsify.

(“kohlrabis” and “salsify” are of equal grammatical importance; they are both direct objects
of the verb “boiled.” Thus, “and” links equal parts of the sentence.)

-Sally bought a new hat, but she dropped it in the mud when she left the shop.

“Sally bought a new hat” and “she dropped it in the mud when she left the shop” are
independent clauses; they are equally important; the “but” therefore links equal ideas.)

107
Subordinating Conjunctions: connect clauses that are of UNEQUAL grammatical rank, of
UNEQUAL importance.

They make a clause subordinate, dependent, less grammatically significant.

Here are some: although, since, if, when, where, how, why, while, whereas, whether,

until, because, after, before, as, unless, than

▪ After we left, the party died.

(“After” makes the clause “we left” less important than the clause, “the part died.”)

▪ Molly smiled when her front tooth fell out.

(The important idea here in “Molly smiled.” “When” makes the clause “her front tooth
fell out” less important.)

108
THE VERB

The verb (Latin verbum = word) is the only essential word in the sentence.

If your sentence lacks a verb, the sentence is not a sentence.

The verb expresses action or state of being.

Types of Verbs:

a) Action Verbs: express a physical, mental,. emotional, or spiritual action.

Peter bent the rod.

We hope for better weather.

We wish you a Merry Christmas!

The students reflected on the lecture.

Tomato pastes ruins oatmeal sandwiches.

b) Copulative Verbs (Linking or State of Being Verbs) connect a subject to a

noun or adjective or pronoun and show the state of the subject’s existence:

Wanda was a flowerpot in the kindergarten play.

The guppy seemed angry.

Coca-Cola tastes better in six-ounce glass bottles.

Billy felt queasy after eating sixty-two hot dogs at Nathan’s Contest.

109
Common Linking Verbs: be, seem, prove, appear, look, taste, sound, feel,, become (when
these verbs show no action)

He tasted the tripe. (Here, “tasted” is an action verb.)

The tripe tasted awful. (Here “tasted” is a copulative verb, expressing the state of the tripe,)

c) Modal auxiliary Verbs (Helping Verbs): are used with action or copulative verbs to form
some tenses, voices, or moods.

Common Modal Auxiliaries: be, do, have, can, may, will, shall, must, ought, might, could,
should, would.

You may submit your essay tomorrow. I should have met you at the station.

Tense of Verbs:

Tense (Latin for “time.”) means the time when the verb’s action or state of being was
performed.

English as six tenses, with variations of meaning within each tense:

Simple Tenses:

a) Present: the action occurs now or approximately now.

Simple Present: I walk we walk you walk you walk

he, she it walks they walk

Emphatic Present (stressing the action):

I do walk, he does walk, etc.

Progressive Present: (action occurs over time):

110
I am walking, he is walking, they are walking, etc.

b) Past: the action occurred before the present.

Simple Past:

Weak Verbs: I walked, you walked\, etc.

Strong Verbs: I sang, we sang, etc. (the stem vowel changes).

Emphatic Past: I did walk, he did walk, etc.

Progressive Past (Imperfect): I was walking, they were walking, etc.

c) Future: the action occurs after the present.

Simple Future:

I shall walk we shall walk

you will walk you will talk

he will walk they will walk

Emphatic Future:

I will walk we will walk

you shall walk you shall walk

he shall walk they shall walk

Progressive Future:

I shall be walking we shall be walking

you will be walking you will be walking

111
he will be walking they will be walking

Perfect Tenses:

“Perfect” means “completed”; these tenses identify action

completed with respect to another actions and use the

helping verb “to have” plus the past participle.

a) Present Perfect: (have or has + past participle); identifies an action that

started in the past but was just completed in the present.

John has helped me every Saturday for a month. (The action began

in the past but was just completed; however, it may continue,)

I have just finished my income taxes. (The action began a week ago

and ended just this minute.)

b) Past Perfect: (had + past participle); identifies an action that started in the

past and finished before another action in the past.

John had finished cutting the lawn before Bill visited. (John’s action of cutting lawn ended
before a second past action— Bill’s visiting—took place.)

I had had haddock before I had a headache. (First came the fish dinner, the haddock, and
after that dinner ended, the headache occurred, also in the past.)

c) Future Perfect (will or shall have + past participle); identifies an action

112
that will finish in the future before another future action occurs.

John will have worked twenty years fixing flats before he will retire. (John’s work ends in
the future before another action

occurs in the future.)

Note: In such a construction, the usual practice is to replace the simple future (“will
retire”) with the present (“retires”).

John will have worked twenty years fixing flats before he retires I shall have visited my
father’s native country before I die. (Both actions take place in the future.

The one that finishes first—the visit—is in the future perfect tense; the one that comes next
is in the simple future (“I shall die”) or simple present tense (“I die”).

Voice of a Verb

Voice is the property of verbs (ONLY ACTION VERBS) identifying whether or not the
subject acts.

Active Voice: the subject acts, acted, will act.

Loiuse ate the kohrabis. (The subject, “Louise,” acted.)

Monica plays the tuba at funerals. (The subject, “Monica,” acts.)

Passive Voice: the subject is, was, will be acted upon; the subjects receive the action.

The passive voice consists of the verb “to be” in various forms + the past participle, and is
followed by “by + the object.)

The kohlrabis were eaten by Louise.

113
The tuba is played at funerals by Monica.

Prefer the active voice, which is direct and simple and stresses the actor. The

passive voice is wordy, hides the actor, and stresses the receiver of an action.

114
VERBALS: THE GERUND

The third and simplest verbal is the gerund.

- The gerund always ends in –ing (like the present participle)

- The gerund is always a noun (the participle is an adjective).

Thus, the gerund functions as a subject, direct object, or object of a

preposition—all jobs of a noun..

Gerunds remain verbs, can take adverbial modifiers, and can take objects.

▪ Preparing the meatloaf properly requires skill.

▪ Gerund Phrase: Preparing the meatloaf properly
▪ Gerund: Preparing
▪ Object: meatloaf
▪ Adverb: properly

The whole phrase acts as the subject of the verb “requires.”

Subjects are nouns or pronouns.

Other examples: Skiing can be dangerous. (The gerund is the subject.)

Lola prefers cheating to studying.

(The gerund “cheating” is the direct object of the verb; the gerund “studying” is object of
the preposition “to.”)
115
By eating sixty hot dogs, Joe won the contest. (the gerund phrase is object of the
preposition “by.”)

PARTS OF A SENTENCE: THE PHRASE

A phrase is a group of words acting together as a single part of speech but containing no
statement (meaning ne subject and predicate).

Prepositional phrase: a preposition + its object and anything modifying the object:

▪ in the summer
▪ around the world
▪ by the beautiful blue sea
▪ over the icebox
▪ without help
▪ through the golden years

Prepositional phrases can be adjectives:

The fuzzy hat on the shelf is mine.

(the phrase describes the noun “hat”)

The chicken with blue lips ate the blueberry pie.

(the phrase describes the noun “chicken”)

116
Give me a drink of Diet Cherry Dr. Pepper.

(the phrase describes the noun “drink”)

Prepositional phrases can be adverbs.

I began the class with vigor.

(the phrase describes the verb “began”: began how?)

I began the class at noon.

(the phrase describes the verb “began:: began when?)

I began the class in the library.

(the phrase describes the verb “began”: began where?)

Hilda went to the fishmonger.

(the phrase describes the verb “went”: went where?)

Louie played the glockenspiel for six hours.

(the phrase describes the verb “played”: played how much?)

117