Unit-IV

Computer Software System:-

A set of instructions that achieve a single outcome are called program or
procedure. Many programs functioning together to do a task make
a software.
For example, a word-processing software enables the user to create, edit
and save documents. A web browser enables the user to view and share
web pages and multimedia files. There are two categories of software −

• System Software
• Application Software
• Utility Software

System Software:-
Software required to run the hardware parts of the computer and other
application software are called system software. System software acts
as interface between hardware and user applications. An interface is
needed because hardware devices or machines and humans speak in
different languages. Based on its function, system software is of four
types −

• Operating System
• Language Processor
• Device Drivers

Operating System
System software that is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts
and their interoperability to carry out tasks successfully is
called operating system (OS). OS is the first software to be loaded into
computer memory when the computer is switched on and this is
called booting. OS manages a computer’s basic functions like storing
data in memory, retrieving files from storage devices, scheduling tasks
based on priority, etc.

Language Processor
As discussed earlier, an important function of system software is to
convert all user instructions into machine understandable language.
When we talk of human machine interactions, languages are of three
types −
• Machine-level language − This language is nothing but a string of
0s and 1s that the machines can understand. It is completely
machine dependent.
• Assembly-level language − This language introduces a layer of
abstraction by defining mnemonics. Mnemonics are English like
words or symbols used to denote a long string of 0s and 1s. For
example, the word “READ” can be defined to mean that computer
has to retrieve data from the memory. The
complete instruction will also tell the memory address. Assembly
level language is machine dependent.
• High level language − This language uses English like statements
and is completely independent of machines. Programs written
using high level languages are easy to create, read and
understand.
Program written in high level programming languages like Java, C++, etc.
is called source code. Set of instructions in machine readable form is
called object code or machine code. System software that converts
source code to object code is called language processor. There are
three types of language interpreters−
• Assembler − Converts assembly level program into machine level
program.
• Interpreter − Converts high level programs into machine level
program line by line.
• Compiler − Converts high level programs into machine level
programs at one go rather than line by line.

Device Drivers
System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific
device on computer is called device driver. Each device like printer,
scanner, microphone, speaker, etc. that needs to be attached externally
to the system has a specific driver associated with it. When you attach a
new device, you need to install its driver so that the OS knows how it
needs to be managed.

Application Software
A software that performs a single task and nothing else is
called application software. Application software are very specialized in
their function and approach to solving a problem. So a spreadsheet
software can only do operations with numbers and nothing else. A
hospital management software will manage hospital activities and
nothing else. Here are some commonly used application software −

• Word processing
• Spreadsheet
• Presentation
• Database management
• Multimedia tools

Utility Software
Application software that assist system software in doing their work is
called utility software. Thus utility software is actually a cross between
system software and application software. Examples of utility software
include −

• Antivirus software
 • Disk management tools
• File management tools
• Compression tools
• Backup tools

Software development process:-

Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a process used by the
software industry to design, develop and test high quality softwares. The
SDLC aims to produce a high-quality software that meets or exceeds
customer expectations, reaches completion within times and cost
estimates.
• SDLC is the acronym of Software Development Life Cycle.
• It is also called as Software Development Process.
• SDLC is a framework defining tasks performed at each step in the
software development process.
A typical Software Development Life Cycle consists of the following
stages −

Stage 1: Planning and Requirement Analysis

Requirement analysis is the most important and fundamental stage in
SDLC. It is performed by the senior members of the team with inputs from
the customer, the sales department, market surveys and domain experts
in the industry. This information is then used to plan the basic project
approach and to conduct product feasibility study in the economical,
operational and technical areas.
Planning for the quality assurance requirements and identification of the
risks associated with the project is also done in the planning stage. The
outcome of the technical feasibility study is to define the various technical
approaches that can be followed to implement the project successfully
with minimum risks.

Stage 2: Defining Requirements

Once the requirement analysis is done the next step is to clearly define
and document the product requirements and get them approved from the
customer or the market analysts. This is done through an SRS (Software
Requirement Specification) document which consists of all the product
requirements to be designed and developed during the project life cycle.

Stage 3: Designing the Product Architecture

SRS is the reference for product architects to come out with the best
architecture for the product to be developed. Based on the requirements
specified in SRS, usually more than one design approach for the product
architecture is proposed and documented in a DDS - Design Document
Specification.
This DDS is reviewed by all the important stakeholders and based on
various parameters as risk assessment, product robustness, design
modularity, budget and time constraints, the best design approach is
selected for the product.
A design approach clearly defines all the architectural modules of the
product along with its communication and data flow representation with
the external and third party modules (if any). The internal design of all the
modules of the proposed architecture should be clearly defined with the
minutest of the details in DDS.
Stage 4: Building or Developing the Product
In this stage of SDLC the actual development starts and the product is
built. The programming code is generated as per DDS during this stage.
If the design is performed in a detailed and organized manner, code
generation can be accomplished without much hassle.
Developers must follow the coding guidelines defined by their
organization and programming tools like compilers, interpreters,
debuggers, etc. are used to generate the code. Different high level
programming languages such as C, C++, Pascal, Java and PHP are used
for coding. The programming language is chosen with respect to the type
of software being developed.

Stage 5: Testing the Product

This stage is usually a subset of all the stages as in the modern SDLC
models, the testing activities are mostly involved in all the stages of
SDLC. However, this stage refers to the testing only stage of the product
where product defects are reported, tracked, fixed and retested, until the
product reaches the quality standards defined in the SRS.

Stage 6: Deployment in the Market and Maintenance

Once the product is tested and ready to be deployed it is released
formally in the appropriate market. Sometimes product deployment
happens in stages as per the business strategy of that organization. The
product may first be released in a limited segment and tested in the real
business environment (UAT- User acceptance testing).
Then based on the feedback, the product may be released as it is or with
suggested enhancements in the targeting market segment. After the
product is released in the market, its maintenance is done for the existing
customer base.

SDLC Models
There are various software development life cycle models defined and
designed which are followed during the software development process.
These models are also referred as Software Development Process
Models". Each process model follows a Series of steps unique to its type
to ensure success in the process of software development.
Following are the most important and popular SDLC models followed in
the industry −
 • Waterfall Model
• Spiral Model

Overview for Report Designers

A report consists of a data model, a layout, and a set of properties. Optionally, a
report may also include a style template and a set of translations. A report designers
performs the following tasks:

• Design the layout for the report. The layout can be created using a variety of tools.
The output and design requirements of a particular report determine the best layout
design tool. Options include the Layout Editor, which is a Web-based layout design
tool and enables interactive output, Microsoft Word, Adobe Acrobat, Microsoft Excel
• Set runtime configuration properties for the report.
• Design style templates to enhance a consistent look and feel of reports in your
enterprise.
• Create sub templates to re-use common functionality across multiple templates.
• Enable translations for a report.

Master and Transaction file:-

1. Master file
 A master file is the main that contains relatively
permanent records about particular items or
entries. For example a customer file will
contain details of a customer such as customer
ID, name and contact address.

Transaction file
A transaction file is used to hold data during transaction processing.
The file is later used to update the master file and audit daily, weekly
or monthly transactions. For example in a busy supermarket, daily
sales are recorded on a transaction file and later used to update the
stock file. The file is also used by the management to check on the
daily or periodic transactions.

Data File Types:-

1. Master File
2. Transaction File
3. Work File
4. Audit File
5. Backup File
6. History Files

Data File Structure:-

A file is a sequence of records stored in binary format. A disk drive is
formatted into several blocks that can store records.
File Organization
File Organization defines how file records are mapped onto disk blocks.
We have four types of File Organization to organize file records −

Heap File Organization

When a file is created using Heap File Organization, the Operating
System allocates memory area to that file without any further accounting
details. File records can be placed anywhere in that memory area. It is
the responsibility of the software to manage the records. Heap File does
not support any ordering, sequencing, or indexing on its own.

Sequential File Organization

Every file record contains a data field (attribute) to uniquely identify that
record. In sequential file organization, records are placed in the file in
some sequential order based on the unique key field or search key.
Practically, it is not possible to store all the records sequentially in
physical form.

Hash File Organization

Hash File Organization uses Hash function computation on some fields
of the records. The output of the hash function determines the location of
disk block where the records are to be placed.

Clustered File Organization

Clustered file organization is not considered good for large databases. In
this mechanism, related records from one or more relations are kept in
the same disk block, that is, the ordering of records is not based on
primary key or search key.

File Operations
Operations on database files can be broadly classified into two categories
−
• Update Operations
 • Retrieval Operations
Update operations change the data values by insertion, deletion, or
update. Retrieval operations, on the other hand, do not alter the data but
retrieve them after optional conditional filtering. In both types of
operations, selection plays a significant role. Other than creation and
deletion of a file, there could be several operations, which can be done
on files.
• Open − A file can be opened in one of the two modes, read
mode or write mode. In read mode, the operating system does not
allow anyone to alter data. In other words, data is read only. Files
opened in read mode can be shared among several entities. Write
mode allows data modification. Files opened in write mode can be
read but cannot be shared.
• Locate − Every file has a file pointer, which tells the current position
where the data is to be read or written. This pointer can be adjusted
accordingly. Using find (seek) operation, it can be moved forward
or backward.
• Read − By default, when files are opened in read mode, the file
pointer points to the beginning of the file. There are options where
the user can tell the operating system where to locate the file
pointer at the time of opening a file. The very next data to the file
pointer is read.
• Write − User can select to open a file in write mode, which enables
them to edit its contents. It can be deletion, insertion, or
modification. The file pointer can be located at the time of opening
or can be dynamically changed if the operating system allows to do
so.
• Close − This is the most important operation from the operating
system’s point of view.

Data Hierarchy

Data hierarchy is a systematic organization of data mainly in a

hierarchical form. Data organisation basically involves fields, records,
files and so on.

So different levels of Data Hierarchy are:

1) Bit: A bit is the smallest unit of the data in a computer and a bit has
 a single binary value either 0 or 1.
2) Character: It is a single visual object used to represent text,
numbers or symbols. And set of character become characters.
Example:
@,%=specialsymbol
1 byte=8 bit

Database Management System:-

Database Management Systems (DBMS) are software systems used to
store, retrieve, and run queries on data. A DBMS serves as an interface
between an end-user and a database, allowing users to create, read,
update, and delete data in the database.
DBMS manage the data, the database engine, and the database schema,
allowing for data to be manipulated or extracted by users and other
programs. This helps provide data security, data integrity, concurrency,
and uniform data administration procedures.
DBMS optimizes the organization of data by following a database
schema design technique called normalization, which splits a large table
into smaller tables when any of its attributes have redundancy in values.
DBMS offer many benefits over traditional file systems, including
flexibility and a more complex backup system.
Database management systems can be classified based on a variety of
criteria such as the data model, the database distribution, or user
numbers. The most widely used types of DBMS software are relational,
distributed, hierarchical, object-oriented, and network.

Distributed database management system

A distributed DBMS is a set of logically interrelated databases
distributed over a network that is managed by a centralized database
application. This type of DBMS synchronizes data periodically and
ensures that any change to data is universally updated in the database.
Hierarchical database management system
Hierarchical databases organize model data in a tree-like structure. Data
storage is either a top-down or bottom-up format and is represented
using a parent-child relationship.

Network database management system

The network database model addresses the need for more complex
relationships by allowing each child to have multiple parents. Entities
are organized in a graph that can be accessed through several paths.

Relational database management system

Relational database management systems (RDBMS) are the most
popular data model because of its user-friendly interface. It is based on
normalizing data in the rows and columns of the tables. This is a viable
option when you need a data storage system that is scalable, flexible,
and able to manage lots of information.

Characteristics of DBMS
Here are the characteristics and properties of Database
Management System:

• Provides security and removes redundancy

• Self-describing nature of a database system
• Insulation between programs and data abstraction
• Support of multiple views of the data
• Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing
• Database Management Software allows entities and
relations among them to form tables.
• It follows the ACID concept ( Atomicity, Consistency,
Isolation, and Durability).
• DBMS supports multi-user environment that allows users to
access and manipulate data in parallel.
 Database Manager:-
A database manager (DB manager) is a computer program, or a
set of computer programs, that provide basic database
management functionalities including creation and maintenance of
databases.
Data Communication:-
Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data
between two or more computers and a computer network or data
network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to
exchange data. The physical connection between networked computing
devices is established using either cable media or wireless media. The
best-known computer network is the Internet.

Components of Data Communication:-

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be

transmitted from one person to another. It could be a text file, an
audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can
be a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or
workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a
computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication
Channels: Communication channels are the medium that
connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be
connected by either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The
sender), it should be understandable to the receiver also
otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali sends a
message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot
understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.

Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that
enables the computer to communicate with another computer and share
their resources, data, and applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer
network is mainly of following types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each
other in a small area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers
through a communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial
cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger
geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger
network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and
private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a
telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay,
ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN(Wide Area Network)
o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans
over a large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic
cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or
country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet
services to the customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their
home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects
the 44 offices. This network is made by using the telephone leased
line provided by the telecom company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large

geographical area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a
different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The
 internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with
another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized.
Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server.
Therefore, the programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted
fast. The web application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you
to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share
the software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then
this gives the high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the
data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of our
company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as

compared to LAN and MAN network as all the technologies are
combined together that creates the security problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the
internet which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the
firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus in our
system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high
as it involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
 o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the
problem is difficult.

Difference between Time Sharing

OS and Real-Time OS:-

Time-Sharing operating system:-

A time-sharing operating system allows several users to use a computer
system from various locations simultaneously. An operating system is a
program that makes a connection between the user and the system
hardware. The time-sharing operating system is built on
multiprogramming concepts, in which multiple jobs are completed
simultaneously by constantly switching between them. Its switching is
lightning quick, allowing users to interact with every program because it
runs without sharing the system.

Time-sharing systems use an interactive computer system to allow direct

interaction between the user and the system. The term 'interactive' refers
to the user's direct instructions to the system or program via an input
device. The results will be shown on the output devices by the system. The
results are generated faster, and the response time must be shorter than
one second.

Real-Time operating system:-

A real-time operating system is a type of operating system designed to
serve real-time applications that process data as it arrives. It completes a
task within a specific time. The logical result of computation and the time
required to produce the result determine the correctness of the system
output. It includes methods for real-time task scheduling. It is primarily
used on embedded systems. It is highly useful for timing applications or
activities that are performed within a particular time limit. It uses strict time
limits to drive task execution in an external environment.
Real-time operating systems require accurate results and timely results,
which means that the results must be produced within a certain time limit,
or the system will fail. It is primarily used in control device applications like
automobile-engine fuel injection systems, industrial control systems,
weapon systems, medical imaging systems, etc.

Online and Offline:-

The distinction between online and offline is conventionally seen as the
distinction between computer-mediated communication and face-to-
face communication (e.g., face time), respectively. Online is virtuality
or cyberspace, and offline is reality (i.e., real life or "meatspace").

Difference between Batch Processing System and Online

System :
BATCH PROCESSING
S.No.SYSTEM ONLINE PROCESSING SYSTEM
An Batch processing system handles An online processing system handles
large amounts of data which transactions in real time and provides
01. processed on a routine schedule. the output instantly.

Processing occurs when the after the When the economic event takes place
02. economic event occurs and recorded. then the processing occurs.

In Online processing system more

In batch processing system fewer number of dedicated hardware
programming, hardware and training resources, processing elements are
03. resources are required. required.

To avoid operational delays certain Immediately all the records pertaining

04. records are processed after the event. to event are processed.

In batch processing system input

data is prepared before the In online processing system data is
05. execution. prepared at time of execution as needed.

In batch processing system the In online processing system the

06. processing sequence is predictable. processing sequence is unpredictable.
 In this the programs and files can not In this the program and files can be
07. be shared. shared.

In batch processing system programs In online processing system programs

08. are scheduled through jobs. are initiated through transactions.

In batch processing system recovery In online processing system recovery

09. and restart is easy. and restart requires additional process.

Batch processing system uses tape Online processing system uses disk
10. storage. storage.

Examples are Inventory query, Examples are month end tax

website shopping transaction, e- calculation, data transformation, data
11. Banking account withdrawal etc. analysis, data transformation etc.