H OW CAN WE U N DE R S T A N D OUR W ATER R E S O UR C E S ?

Teaching The Science

Process Skills
What Are the Science Process Skills? attitude is a respect for the methods and
values of science. These scientific methods and

S
cience and teaching students about
values include seeking to answer questions
science means more than scientific
using some kind of evidence, recognizing the
knowledge. There are three dimensions
importance of rechecking data, and under-
of science that are all important. The first
standing that scientific knowledge and theories
of these is the content of science, the basic
change over time as more information
concepts, and our scientific knowledge. This
is gathered.
is the dimension of science that most people
first think about, and it is certainly
very important. SIX BASIC PROCESS SKILLS

The other two important dimensions of science The science process skills form the foundation
in addition to science knowledge are processes for scientific methods. There are six basic
of doing science and scientific attitudes. The science process skills:
processes of doing science are the science • Observation
process skills that scientists use in the process
• Communication
of doing science. Since science is about asking
• Classification
questions and finding answers to questions,
• Measurement
these are actually the same skills that we all
use in our daily lives as we try to figure out • Inference
everyday questions. When we teach students • Prediction
to use these skills in science, we are also
These basic skills are integrated together when
teaching them skills that they will use in the
scientists design and carry out experiments
future in every area of their lives.
or in everyday life when we all carry out fair
The third dimension of science focuses on the test experiments. All the six basic skills are
characteristic attitudes and dispositions of important individually as well as when they
science. These include such things as being are integrated together.
curious and imaginative, as well as being
The six basic skills can be put in a logical
enthusiastic about asking questions and
order of increasing sophistication, although
solving problems. Another desirable scientific
even the youngest students will use all of the

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skills alongside one another at various times. grade includes content from all areas of
In the earliest grades students will spend a science, organized in strands across these
larger amount of time using skills such as grade levels, the science process skills SOL
observation and communication. As students falls in the Scientific Investigation, Reasoning,
get older they will start to spend more time and Logic strand. For grades 7–12 (Life
using the skills of inference and prediction. Science, Physical Science, Earth Science,
Classification and measurement tend to be Biology, Chemistry, then Physics) the SOL are
used across the grade levels more evenly, no longer organized in vertical strands, but the
partly because there are different ways to do first SOL at each of these grade levels still
classifying, in increasingly complex ways, and defines the science process skills to be taught
because methods and systems of measuring and practiced at that grade level. For all grade
must also be introduced to children gradually levels K – 12, the intention is that the science
over time. process skills be taught and practiced by
Integrating the basic science process skills students in the context of the content SOL
together and gradually developing abilities to for that grade level. Students will work on
design fair tests is increasingly emphasized in different content areas of science during the
successive grade levels, and is an expectation year, and all year long they will continue to
of students by fourth grade. The Virginia use and develop further the science process
Standard of Learning (SOL) 4.1 for fourth- skills for their grade level.
graders includes, for example, creating
hypotheses and identifying and manipulating SCIENCE BEGINS WITH OBSERVATION
variables in simple experiments. At this level,
Observing is the fundamental science process
the students are beginning to really ask and
skill. We observe objects and events using
answer their own questions in a scientific
all our five senses, and this is how we learn
sense. The following Designing an Experiment
about the world around us. The ability to
and Analyzing Experimental Data sections will
make good observations is also essential to
focus on using the integrated science process
the development of the other science process
skills to design experiments and reach
skills: communicating, classifying, measuring,
conclusions.
inferring, and predicting. The simplest obser-
In the Virginia Standards of Learning, the first vations, made using only the senses, are
science SOL (x.1) at every grade level K – 12 qualitative observations. For example, the leaf
tells which of the science process skills should is light green in color or the leaf is waxy and
be introduced and emphasized at that grade smooth. Observations that involve a number
level. For grades K–6, where the SOL at each or quantity are quantitative observations. For

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example, the mass of one leaf is five grams

OBSERVATION AND COMMUNICATION
or the leaves are clustered in groups of five.
GO HAND IN HAND
Quantitative observations give more precise
information than our senses alone. As implied already, communication, the
second of the basic science process skills,
Not surprisingly, students, especially younger
goes hand in hand with observation. Students
children, need help in order to make good
have to communicate in order to share their
observations. Good, productive observations
observations with someone else, and the
are detailed and accurate written or drawn
communication must be clear and effective
descriptions, and students need to be promp-
if the other person is to understand the
ted to produce these elaborate descriptions.
information. One of the keys to communicating
The reason that observations must be so full of
effectively is to use so-called referents, refer-
detail is that only then can students increase
ences to items that the other person is already
their understanding of the concepts being stud-
familiar with. For example, we often describe
ied. Whether students are observing with their
colors using referents. We might say sky
five senses or with instruments to
blue, grass green, or lemon yellow to describe
aid them, we can guide them to make better
particular shades of blue, green, or yellow.
more detailed descriptions. We can do this
The idea is to communicate using descriptive
by listening to students’ initial observations
words for which both people share a common
and then prompting them to elaborate. For
understanding. Without referents, we open the
example, if a student is describing what he or
door to misunderstandings. If we just say hot
she can see, they might describe the color of an
or rough, for example, our audience might have
object but not its size or shape. A student
a different idea of how hot or how rough. If a
might describe the volume of a sound but not
student is trying to describe the size of a
its pitch or rhythm. We can prompt students to
pinecone they might use the size of his or her
add details to their descriptions no matter
shoe as a referent. The pinecone could be
which of the five senses they are using. There
either larger or smaller than his shoe.
are other ways that we can prompt students
to make more elaborate descriptions. For exam- The additional science process skill of meas-
ple, if something is changing, students should uring is really just a special case of observing
include, before, during, and after appearances and communicating. When we measure some
in their observations. If possible, students property, we compare the property to a defined
should be encouraged to name what is being referent called a unit. A measurement state-
observed. ment contains two parts, a number to tell us
how much or how many, and a name for

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the unit to tell us how much of what. The out backbones. A binary classification can also
use of the number makes a measurement a be carried out using more than one property at
quantitative observation. once. Objects in one group must have all of
Students can communicate their observations the required properties; otherwise they will
verbally, in writing, or by drawing pictures. belong to the other group.
Other methods of communication that are A multi-stage classification is constructed by
often used in science include graphs, charts, performing consecutive binary classifications
maps, diagrams, and visual demonstrations. on a set of objects and then on each of the
ensuing subsets. The result is a classification
CLASSIFYING INTO GROUPS system consisting of layers or stages. A

Students in the early grades are expected to be multi-stage classification is complete when

able to sort objects or phenomena into groups each of the objects in the original set has

based on their observations. Grouping objects been separated into a category by itself. The

or events is a way of imposing order based on familiar classifications of the animal and

similarities, differences, and interrelationships. plant kingdoms are examples of multi-stage

This is an important step towards a better class-ifications. A useful activity for younger

understanding of the different objects and children could be to create a multi-stage clas-

events in the world. sification of some local animals using physical

and/or behavioral similarities and differences.
There are several different methods of class-
ification. Perhaps the simplest method is serial The Virginia Science SOL match the different

ordering. Objects are placed into rank order classification skills to the different grade

based on some property. For example, students levels. In kindergarten, children are expected

can be serial ordered according to height, or to sequence a set of objects according to size.

different breakfast cereals can be serial ordered The kindergarteners are also expected to

according to number of calories per serving. separate a set of objects into two groups based

Two other methods of classification are binary on a single physical attribute. (See Science

classification and multistage classification. In a SOL K.1.) In first grade, students should

binary classification system, a set of objects is classify and arrange both objects and events

simply divided into two subsets. This is usually according to various attributes or properties

done on the basis of whether each object has (1.1). In second grade, students should classify

or does not have a particular property. For items using two or more attributes (2.1). In

example, animals can be classified into two third grade, students should classify objects

groups: those with backbones and those with- with similar characteristics into at least two
sets and two subsets, and they should also

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sequence natural events chronologically (3.1). asking students questions about their observa-
In fourth grade, students should classify tions we can encourage the students to think
data to create frequency distributions (4.1); about the meaning of the observations.
in fifth grade, students should identify rocks,
Thinking about making inferences in this way
minerals, and organisms using a classification should remind us that inferences link what
key (5.1); and in sixth grade, students should has been observed together with what is
develop a classification system based on already known from previous experiences. We
multiple attributes (6.1). use our past experiences to help us interpret
our observations.
MAKING INFERENCES AND PREDICTIONS
Often many different inferences can be
Unlike observations, which are direct evidence made based on the same observations. Our
gathered about an object, inferences are expla- inferences also may change as we make
nations or interpretations that follow from the additional observations. We are generally
observations. For example, it is an observation more confident about our inferences when
to say an insect released a dark, sticky liquid our observations fit well with our past exper-
from its mouth, and it is an inference to state, iences. We are also more confident about
the insect released a dark, sticky liquid from its our inferences as we gather more and more
mouth because it is upset and trying to defend supporting evidence. When students are trying
itself. When we are able to make inferences, to make inferences, they will often need to
and interpret and explain events around us, go back and make additional observations
we have a better appreciation of the environ- in order to become more confident in their
ment around us. Scientists’ hypotheses about inferences. For example, seeing an insect
why events happen as they do are based on release a dark, sticky liquid many times
inferences regarding investigations. whenever it is picked up and held tightly

Students need to be taught the difference will increase our confidence that it does this

between observations and inferences. They because it is up-set and trying to defend itself.

need to be able to differentiate for themselves Sometimes making additional observations

the evidence they gather about the world as will reinforce our inferences, but sometimes

observations and the interpretations or infer- additional information will cause us to modify

ences they make based on the observations. or even reject earlier inferences. In science,

We can help students make this distinction inferences about how things work are contin-

by first prompting them to be detailed and ually constructed, modified, and even rejected

descriptive in their observations. Then, by based on new observations.

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Making predictions is making educated guess-

RESOURCES
es about the outcomes of future events. We are
forecasting future observations. The ability • A Key to Science Learning. Yockey, J. A.
to make predictions about future events (2001). Science & Children, 38(7), 36-41.
allows us to successfully interact with the An article at the elementary school level,
environment around us. Prediction is based describing a simple writing technique to help
on both good observation and inferences made students communicate the important science
about observed events. Like inferences, predic- concepts they have learned.
tions are based on both what we observe and
also our past experiences the mental models
• Centimeters, Millimeters, & Monsters.
we have built up from those experiences. So,
Goldston, J. M., Marlette, S., & Pennington,
predictions are not just guesses! Predictions
A. (2001). Science & Children, 39(2), 42-47.
based on our inferences or hypotheses about
events give us a way to test those inferences or An article at the elementary school level,
hypotheses. If the prediction turns out to be describing a humorous way to teach
correct, then we have greater confidence in our metric units.
inference/hypothesis. This is the basis of the
scientific process used by scientists who are • Drawing on Student Understanding. Stein,
asking and answering questions by integrating M., McNair, S., & Butcher, J. (2001).
together the six basic science process skills. Science & Children, 38(4), 18-22.

In summary, successfully integrating the This article, at the elementary school level,
science process skills with classroom lessons describes how children can use drawings
and field investigations will make the learning to communicate their understanding of
experiences richer and more meaningful for animals. In the process, student learning
students. Students will be learning the skills about the animals is reinforced, as the
of science as well as science content. The children are encouraged to think deeply
students will be actively engaged with the about what they know and have observed.
science they are learning and thus reach a
deeper understanding of the content. Finally • Learning and Assessing Science Process
active engagement with science will likely lead Skills. Rezba, R. J., Sprague, C. S., Fiel, R.
students to become more interested and have L., Funk, H. J., Okey, J. R., & Jaus, H. H.
more positive attitudes towards science. (3rd Ed.). (1995). Dubuque, IA:
Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

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A comprehensive text describing both the

basic science process skills and the inte-
grated science process skills in detail, along
with suggestions of activities incorporating
the skills with science content and approp-
riate assessment methods.

• Oh Say Can You See? Checkovich, B. H., &

Sterling, D. R. (2001). Science & Children,
38(4), 32-35.

An article at the elementary school level,

describing a simple strategy for improving
students’ observation skills.

• Teaching & Learning The Basic Science Skills:

Videotape Series. Rezba, R. J. (1999). Office
of Elementary and Middle School Instruc-
tional Services, Virginia Department of
Education, P.O. Box 2120, Richmond, VA
23218-2120. Call media office for copies of
videotapes at 804-225-2980.

• When a Hypothesis is NOT an Educated

Guess. Baxter, L. M., & Kurtz, M. J. (2001).
Science & Children, 38(7), 18-20.

An article at the elementary school level,

discussing the difference between making a
prediction (an educated guess about the out-
come of a test) and forming a hypothesis (an
educated guess about why the outcomes
occurred).

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