Dynamometry and Testing of Internal Combustion Engines

Seminar
June 26-2008
University Science Malaysia
Dr. Horizon Gitano-Briggs

3750
P=0.3 D=0.0 P=0.3 D=0.3
3500
3250
3000
P=0.3 D=1.0
2750
2500
2250
2000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

1
 OUTLINE
Part 1 Basics
What is a Dynamometer? - The Basics
Dynamometer Designs
Mechanical Details

Part 2 Measurements
Measurements: Cycle Averaged vs. Crank Angle Resolved
Instrumentation Issues
Testing: Steady State vs. Transient
Controllers
Dynamometer Dynamics

Part 3 Drive Cycles Analysis

Drive Cycles
Test point Determination and Weighting

Part 4 Dynamometry Case Studies

USA
Philippians
Malaysia
2
 OBJECTIVES
This course was designed for engineers working on engines testing

The hope is that after attending this course you will be better able to:

Understand the strengths and weaknesses of the various dynamometer designs

Interpret data from dynamometer testing, and how it applies to a vehicle

Design more effective dynamometer tests

Trouble shoot dynamometer problems more effectively

Design and build dynamometer and Engine Test solutions

3
 Part 1: Dynamometer Basics
A Dynamometer is a LOAD device
It applies a load to an engine so we can test the performance of the engine
under a variety of circumstances (Power, Speed)

4
 Dynamometer Components

Bearings
Additional
Sensors

Coupler Dyno

Engine
Speed
Shaft
Sensor
Torque
Data Sensor
Acquisition
System

Controller

5
 Dynamometer Basics
Engine Torque Vs. Dyno Torque
The system operates where Engine Torque equals torque absorbed by the
Dynamometer
By varying the engine throttle and load we can test any point under the
engine’s max torque curve

6
 Dynamometer Basics: Demo
Engine Torque Vs. Dyno Torque
The BOLD curves represent the full throttle torque curves of the Dyno and
Engine. The finer curves are the throttled curves. The indicated box represents
the operation point (Torque and Speed) of the system.

7
 Why Dyno test an Engine?
At the USM Engines Laboratory we design and modify engines for improved
fuel economy and emissions

WHY DYNO TEST?

We need DATA to quantify the improvements in Fuel savings and Emissions

reductions. This data will be used to help us “tune in” our designs. It is also
required as proof for customers, and government officials making policy
decisions.

IT IS CRUCIAL THAT WE HAVE GOOD DATA!

It is difficult to get data on the road with sensitive lab equipment (Road
conditions, weather, traffic vary over the time required for a given test point)

It is easy to gather this data on a Dyno BUT: It’s not the same!
Wind load, vibrations, temps, losses, H2O…

We need to understand the differences in order to properly interpret the results.

8
•A Dynamometer is load device used to measure an
engines torque and speed. We often measure Fuel
Consumption, Emissions and other parameters as well.

•A dynamometer can also be used to control the speed of

the engine by varying the load placed on the engine.

•Dynos are often used to test different engine designs at

the same load settings (Torque and Speed) for comparison
purposes.

•We want to test the engine under conditions similar to the

actual conditions (speed, torque) in the field, or even
“simulate” an actual drive cycle with the dynamometer
9
 Dynamometers
There are 2 basic kinds of dynamometers:

Absorption Dynamometers
These are devices that absorb the mechanical power from the test engine.

Transmission Dynamometers
These are basically torque measurement devices placed in a power transmission
link (ie. a shaft). They can be used to measure torque and speed, and thus power.

We will consider only Absorption dynamometers here.

10
 Dynamometers
All Absorption Dynamometers share some basic features:

The shaft is connected to a Rotor housed in a Stator. There is some form of

coupling (mechanical, hydraulic, aerodynamic, electromagnetic) between
the Rotor and Stator.

Equal and opposite torques are induced on the Rotor and Stator:

Stator
Coupling
Force on
Medium
Stator
Rotor

Rotation
Force
Force Measurement
on Rotor Device (Load Cell)
Shaft

11
 Various Dyno Designs
There are many different designs used in dynamometers.
Here are the most common ones (discussed below):

Frictional (Break)
Hydraulic
Generator
Eddy current
Fan
Vehicular

Motored Dynos
12
 Frictional (Prony Break) Dyno
The shaft spins a disk or drum. A break pushes a frictional lining against the disk,
resisting rotation. The force on the break is equal and opposite to the force on the
disk. Sometimes a rope is wound around the drum as a break.

Break
Force on Break

Disk Force on Disk

Rotation Rotation

Break

13
 Hydraulic Dyno
The shaft drives the impeller of a pump. The working fluid is pumped through a
hydraulic circuit including a throttle valve. Hydraulic drag resists motion of the
impeller. The throttle valve must be adjusted to vary the mechanical load.
Hydraulic dynamometers typically have the highest power densities.

Pump

Shaft
Inlet

Reservoir

Valve

14
 Generator Type Dyno
The shaft spins the rotor of a generator. As electrical load is applied to the output of
the generator, an electromagnetic force resists motion of the rotor rotation. The
load is usually a resistor bank (heater) either air or water cooled. Generally the
field winding current is controlled to vary the mechanical load.

Field
Windings
Power Supply
Generator

Stator
Rotation Windings

Heater

Water Tank

15
 Eddy Current Dyno
The shaft spins a disk located inside a housing containing large electro-
magnet coils. When current passes through the coils they create a strong
magnetic field in the disk. This creates “eddy currents” in the disk, which
resist rotation, creating a torque between the housing and the disk. Varying
the current varies the torque.

Force on Disk
Electromagnet

M
Eddy
Current Force on Coil
Coil Current

Rotation Rotation
16
 Eddy Current Dyno
Current is typically 1 to several amps, at 50 to 200 Vdc.
The response is almost instant. These dynos are the easiest to control and
quickest to respond.

17
 Fan Dynamometer
The shaft spins a fan which moves air. The fan must be calibrated on a
frictional dynamometer before use, and its load is a function of temperature,
barometric pressure and humidity.
Torque goes as the square of the shaft speed.
These dynos are typically not adjustable, but are very inexpensive.

1000 2.5

900

800 2.0
1.83
Torque = 1E-06 RPM
700

Fan Torque (Nm)

Fan Power (W)

600 1.5

500

400 1.0
2.83
Power = 1E-07 RPM
300

200 0.5

100

0 0.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Engine Speed (rpm)

18
 Fan Dynamometer
Fans have 2 orientations: High load (normal) and low load (reversed).
In the Normal orientation it efficiently pumps air, dissipating more energy.
In Reversed orientation the blades move less air because they are less efficient.
So there are 2 possible load curves:

Air Reversed
Air Flow Normal
Rotation
Rotation

During calibration the air flow should be blocked similar to what it will be during
use Dummy
cowling
Test Frictional
Air Flow Air Flow
Engine Dyno

19
 Fan Dynamometer
Torque Curve from same fan in Normal and Reversed orientations

2.50

2.00

Normal
Fan Torque (Nm)

1.50
Rotation

1.00

Reversed
0.50
Rotation

0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Fan Speed (rpm )

20
 Vehicle Dynamometer
A vehicle may be weighed and instrumented to measure speed and acceleration.
Knowing the acceleration and velocity of the vehicle and the gear ratio we can
calculate the torque and speed of the engine. This technique requires a large
area for testing and is usually only used for coarse measurements of maximum
engine power/torque.

This is a good way to confirm engine level testing.

T 1 , V1 T 2 , V2

A = (V2-V1)/(T2-T1)
F=MxA
T=RxF

21
 Vehicle Dynamometer
This “Torque Sprocket” is a type of transmission Dynamometer. As torque is
transmitted through it the inner and outer races (which are separate) rotate
relative to one another. This shift can be sensed by a speed pickup placed near
by as the sprocket rotates. This allows simultaneous recording of both speed and
torque on a moving vehicle. It is therefore a type of vehicle dynamometer.

1 No Load

3
Loaded

22
 Motored Dynamometers
A dynamometer which also has the ability to drive the test engine is called a
“Motored dynamometer”. This is useful for measuring the friction of an engine.
Generally the dynamometer spins the engine (which is not firing) and the torque
on the motor is measured.

The motor may be integrated with the load device, such as a motor/generator
combination which can operate in either absorbing (ie. like a normal dyno) or
driving mode (ie. a frictional dyno).

Separate “frictional” dynamometers exist which are solely for the purpose of
measuring the frictional load of test engines. These are usually similar to the
generator type dynamometers but with a large electric motor instead of a
generator.

23
 Motored Dynamometers
This is a 3-Phase electrical motor suspended on bearings, and connected to a
load cell. It is used to measure the friction of various engines and components as
a function of velocity as well as operating conditions of the components.

Load Cell

Output Shaft Motor

24
 Comparison of Dyno Designs
Frictional (Break)*
Oldest design. Hard to control. Wear on frictional surfaces is a problem.
Hydraulic
Highest power in smallest package (pump).
Generator*
Inexpensive and easy to control. Fairly large for a given power.
Eddy current*
Easiest to control. Low Inertia and bearing losses.
Fan*
Very inexpensive. Needs careful calibration. Less accurate.
Vehicular*
Requires measurement of vehicle mass. Ignores air drag. Good for vehicular
studies.

* Indicates that we use this type of Dynamometer in our lab here at USM
25
 Mechanical Details
Engine Dynamometer
Couples directly to the engine
No gearbox or transmission
Engine speed = Dyno speed

Dyno

Engine

26
 Mechanical Details
A Dynamometer may also be coupled to the
output of a transmission or gear box.
Speed and Torque of the engine and dyno are
different by the gear ratio (Speed ↓, Torque ↑).

Transmission
Engine
(gear box)
Dyno

27
 Mechanical Details
A Chassis Dyno is driven from the vehicles wheels.
The vehicle is mounted so the drive wheels are on
a large roller, and locked down so it can not move.
The dyno is connected to the roller, either directly
or through a transmission of its own.

Driven Wheel

Roller
Dyno

28
 Mechanical Details
Chassis dynos are used for testing of in-use
vehicles with out requiring disassembly or
modification of the vehicle.

Foto: Wikipedia

29
 Mechanical Details: Coupling
A coupler is used to connect spinning shafts to compensate for
misalignment.

U (Universal) Joints
“X” shaped bearing configurations at both ends of a shaft. Common on drive
shafts of rear-wheel drive vehicles. The 2 ends should be “offset” somewhat
to avoid wearing a flat on bearings.
These must be used in pairs (single joint velocity not constant)

30
 Mechanical Details: Coupling

CV (Constant Velocity) Joints

Similar to U-joints but single joints have constant velocities. These are
common components on front-wheel drive and 4-wheel drive vehicles.

Foto: Torvec.com

31
 Mechanical Details: Coupling
Sprocket
Simple “quick-connect” for existing sprocketed systems (like motorcycles)
Allows misalignment due to “slop” between fingers and sprocket teeth

32
 Mechanical Details: Coupling
Belt/Chain
Allows for misalignment and can incorporate a gearing ratio as well
We will use this between the chassis dyno roller and the dyno.

33
 Mechanical Details
Bearings
The body of the dynamometer must be free to rotate, so it is supported on
bearings.

Bearings suspending
Generator Housing

34
 Mechanical Details
Load Cell Mounting
The rotation of the dynamometer housing is resisted by a load cell which measures
the force. The Load cell should be loaded in only one direction (ie. axially) to avoid
biasing the output. Generally the load cell is mounted so the force is perpendicular to
the axis of the shaft.

Load Cell mounts via

ball-joint ends

35
 Equations
Torque = F x R
Power = T x w
w = RPM * 2 pi /60
Transmission:
T2 = T1 x Ratio
w2 = w1 / Ratio
Spur gear losses (per stage) ~2%
Tire losses ~ 10%
Chassis or Vehicular Dyno typically reads 15-25%
less than engine dyno due to transmission losses.

36
 Dynamometer Test Schematic
Operator Display
Lights Controller
The controller tries to maintain the
dynamometer at the proper speed, while
the operator maintains the proper torque,
and the Technician runs the data
recording devices.

Fuel Meter
Load
Coil Power
Cell
Throttle
Coil Technician

Speed
Dynamometer Pump
Engine

Cycle Coolant
Reservoir
Operator
37
 DEMO: Magtrol Dynamometer
In this demo we will demonstrate the measurement
of speed and torque, unit conversion and
calculation of power.

38
Part 2: Testing

39
 Testing
Commonly Measured Parameters
Torque
Speed
Fuel Consumption
Emissions
Temperatures (Head, Exhaust, coolant)

Occasionally Measured Parameters

Combustion Pressure
Ignition Timing
Dynamics (accelerations, vibrations, stress)
Knock
Intake/Exhaust Pressures
Valve Lift
Acoustics

These parameters can be measured manually or automatically.

We will be focusing exclusively on automatic (computer assisted)
measurements.
40
 Cycle Averaging Data
Typically averaged: Speed, load, throttle, Temps
Some parameters are averaged over several cycles.
Often the signals are “low pass filtered” to remove higher frequency
fluctuations.

For example Torque is negative during the compression stroke, and positive
during the power stroke. What we’re interested in is the average torque
output of the engine.

This can be done electronically or in code in a data acquisition system.

41
 Electronic Averaging
Electronic averaging (low pass filter):

Input Filtered
Signal R Output

Vaverage

The time constant is 1/RC. For a 6000 rpm signal (100 Hz) we would want to
low pass at <10 Hz, so 10 < RC x 2π, or RC ~ 1: R = 10,000 ohm, C = 100 µf

42
 Exponential Averaging Code
Code for an exponential average (60-40 weighting):

Torque = 0.6 * Current_Torque + 0.4 * Previous_Torque

Code segment for exponential averaging in Vee:

43
 Speed Measurement
Typically comes from an inductive (variable reluctance) sensor reading a number
(n) of teeth of a rotating gear (directly connected to the dyno’s shaft) as they pass.
Sinusoidal output is measured for period. Period is then inverted for frequency, and
converted to rpm. 60-tooth gears are common as the frequency (in Hz) is equal to
the rpm:

Speed Pickup Signal

Period

RPM = 60 / (n x Period)

If n = 60:
RPM = 1 / Period
44
 Speed Measurement Demo
Typical Results

Speed Pickup Signal

Averaged Speed History

45
 Throttle Position Measurement
Measurement of the throttle position usually comes from a throttle mounted
potentiometer (variable resistor) which is connected between 5V and ground. This
gives a Throttle Position Signal (TPS) as a voltage directly proportional to the
throttle position.

Throttle Cable

+ 5V

VTPS

Potentiometer

46
 Torque Measurement
Torque is almost always measured with a strain gage instrumented “load cell” or
force transducer. This is a mechanical member which undergoes significant strain
with an applied force. Semiconductor or wire foil strain gages on the surface are
stretched or compressed, changing their resistance. Often several gages are
oriented in a “whetstone bridge” giving greater sensitivity and reduced susceptibility
to temperature variation effects. Excitation voltage of bridge is usually 5V to 10V.

Load cells almost always require a specific amplifier which can be adjusted to
“zero” the load, and adjust the “span” (calibration factor).

+ 10V

RE RC

∆V Load Cell

RC RE 2 gages are placed in

compression (Rc) and
2 are in tension (Re)

47
 Emissions Measurements
The most common tool is a 5-gas analyzer measuring CO, HC, CO2 with a non-
dispersive Inferred sensor. There is a separate sensor for O2 and NOx. These
units are fairly inexpensive (<30k RM) and reasonably accurate.

For other Diesel applications separate SOx sensors are available, as well as
“smoke” analyzers. The common Smoke analyzers are based on exhaust gas
opacity.

For further identification of exhaust components FTIR (Fourier Transform Inferred

Spectroscopy) is common. Gas Chromatography (GC) is another useful device
useful for identifying various exhaust components.

Most measurements are taken directly from the exhaust tract. Water is usually
condensed out, yielding “dry” exhaust gas numbers (ie. Excluding water from the
exhaust gasses).

Occasionally exhaust gas samples are bagged for “off line” analysis.

48
 Fuel Consumption
Fuel consumption is usually measured gravimetrically. The engine is
operated at a constant speed and load for 1 to 10 minutes. Fuel weight is
measured once (Wt1), and re-measured again (Wt2) after a time t. Fuel
consumption is then calculated by:

FC = (Wt1 – Wt2) / t

Typical units are grams per second or grams per minute. This value is an
average fuel consumption for the duration t.

Inexpensive and accurate digital scales can often be interfaced to

computerized data acquisition systems via a serial port connection,
allowing automated measurements to be made easily. It may alternatively
be measured volumetrically.

49
 Fuel Consumption
For comparison purposes it is common to calculate the Break Specific
Fuel Consumption (BSFC). This is the Fuel consumption divided by the
power output during the FC measurement:

BSFC = FC / Break Power

Typical Units are gm/kWh (grams of fuel per kilo-Watt hour)

BSFC obviously depends on your operating speed and torque. BSFC is

used to compare the relative efficiencies of different engines or engine
designs. Lower BSFC means better Efficiency.

Typical best automotive BSFC ~ 300 gm/kWh

Good Diesel DI BSFC ~ 200 gm/kWh
Carbureted Two-stroke BSFC ~ 400 gm/kWh

50
 Temperature Measurements
Thermocouples are fairly linear, compact and have a wide temperature
range, so they typically are the sensor of choice for temperature
measurements in engines.
Unfortunately their output is very small (mV) so they require a special
amplifier.

Some data acquisition units have special front ends and can read
Thermocouples directly.

51
 Crank Angle Resolved Data
Some parameters are measured as a function of crank position.
These are “high speed” parameters that are a function of crank
position.
Such parameters include:
Ignition Timing
Combustion Pressure
Knock
Valve Lift

Although Engine Speed is generally measured as a cycle-averaged

value the engine speed does change significantly over each cycle.
During the compression stroke it slows, and then speeds up again
during the exhaust stroke.

To compensate for this data must be synchronized to crank-shaft

position. This is generally done by reading a shaft encoder
connected directly to the crank shaft.

52
 Shaft Position Encoders
“Missing tooth” encoders (60 – 2) Index
“60 – 2” wheels with 58 teeth on 1/60th rev spacing's
Missing teeth indicate Index (eg. TDC)

Index + Timing channel

256, 512, or 1024 pulse per revolution timing channels plus
a separate index pulse (set for TDC or BDC) used to synchronize

Absolute position Encoder

Typically 8, 9 or 10 bits are used.
Usually encoded as “grey code”

53
 Crank Angle Resolved Data
Individual data points can be read triggered by the encoder channel, or data
from several channels can be streamed in along with the encoder channel,
and resynchronized to crank position:

54
 Crank Angle Resolved Data
At each LSB transition (ie. timing signal) the pressure is read into an array.
The array index is set to zero (TDC) at the MSB (Index) transition.

55
 Crank Angle Resolved Data
Here is a sample of VEE code for re-synchronizing the data to a timing
channel (LSB) starting from a known position of the index channel (LSB):

56
 Pressure Sensors
Cylinder Pressure
Requires a special Piezo-Electric transducer and amplifier. These
expensive units must be precision-mounted to combustion chamber.
Various designs are available including very small (~4mm) sensors
and some with integrated water cooling.

Kistler
Pressure
Sensor

Pressure Sensor Mounting

57
 Pressure Sensors
For intake and exhaust pressure low-cost MEMS devices are widely available
which can measure fractions of a bar to tens of bar.
Both differential and absolute pressure sensors are common.

These are inexpensive and easy to wire up and use.

MEMS Atmospheric
Pressure Sensor

58
 Pressure Data
Combustion Analysis can highlight problems with ignition stability, timing,
air/fuel mixing… Addition of exhaust and intake pressure sensors can give
details of the gas exchange process including backwash and back pressure.

Notice the irregularity of the peak pressure.

This indicates an ignition stability problem caused, in this case, by retarded
timing.

900
800 Combustion Chamber Pressure
700
Pressure (kPa)

600
500
400
300 Intake Exhaust
200
100
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time (sec)

59
 Pressure Data
Here we can see how the combustion chamber and exhaust pressure “ring”
after blow down (Exhaust Valve Open). There is a spike in the intake pressure
during valve overlap when Exhaust pressure washes back into intake.

Valve Overlap
200
180 Exhaust
160 “Blow Down”
140 Exhaust open
Pressure (kPa)

120
100
80
60
40
20 Backwash into Intake Intake open
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time (sec)

60
 Steady State Testing
Constant speed, load, throttle
Time required for accurate measurement of:
Fuel Consumption
Emissions
Usually 1+ minute per point.

Test Points – Several speed/load points weighted to simulate a given

drive cycle (explained further below) eg.:

Point RPM Torque Power Weighting

1 1000 0 Idle 10%
2 2500 1.5 Low power 35%
3 3000 3 Cruising 50%
4 5000 6 High power 5%

This 4-point test is weighted to assume the vehicle is used mostly for
cruising and low-power driving (85% of the time), idling 10% of the time,
and accelerating hard only 5% of the time.
61
 Steady State Testing
Dyno Throttling
Slowly changing the dyno load (dyno throttle) at constant
Engine Throttle allows tracing out the Motor Torque curve.

A common test is to measure the “Wide Open Throttle”

Power and Torque curve for an engine.

Engine Throttling
Slowly changing the engine throttle at constant Dyno
Throttle allows tracing out the Dyno’s torque curve

62
 Torque Curve of a 4-stroke Motorcycle Engine

6000 8

7
5000
6
4000
5

Torque (Nm)
Power (W)

3000 4

3
2000
2
1000
1

0 0
1000 3000 5000 7000
Engine Speed (rpm )

The motor’s torque varies as a function of engine speed and throttle. Spark ignited engines
usually have a peak torque at a medium-high speed, while Diesel engines have a relatively
flat curve. Electric motors can have ascending, descending or flat torque curves.
63
 Torque Curve Demo
We will now demonstrate the torque curves as a function of speed
for a motor and the dynamometer on a small electric motor
dynamometer demonstration unit.

64
 Dynamometer Controllers
The Controller controls the load (Dyno throttle). The set point can be
electronically generated, or manually. They are usually set up to operate
in 1 of 3 modes:
20 kW Dyno Controller

DIY Dyno Controller

Open Loop
This allows manual setting of load. It will vary as speed of the system varies.

Speed Control
The controller adjusts the load to maintain a constant speed.

Torque Control
The controller adjusts the load to maintain a constant torque.
65
 Dynamometer Controllers
Speed Control Mode

The Controller continuously measures the Speed and adjusts load to maintain speed
at desired set point.

It is generally a full PID controller and must be tuned for the appropriate engine-dyno
combination.
It can either be a stand-alone controller or integrated with the data acquisitions
system.

66
 Dynamometer Controllers
Torque Control Mode

Same as the Speed mode, but now controller maintains constant Torque.

The Controller continuously measures the Torque and adjusts load to maintain
Torque at desired set point.

67
 Dynamometer Controllers
Various techniques are used in controllers depending on the system under test.
Simple set-point control won’t generally work due to inertia in the system as it
leads to overshoot and instability.

Proportional Pulse Width Modulation of control signal is common with

Generator and Eddy Current type dynos. Their Torque response is almost
instantaneous, but again, inertial loads will cause dynamic problems.

The most common control schemes involve PID (Proportional, Integral,

Differential) controllers. They must be tuned for appropriate response from the
full system.

Hydraulics dynos respond slower as they have a mechanical valve that must
opened or closed. Also as their torque curve is very non-linear, they are more
difficult to control. PID controllers are still common, but some times Fuzzy Logic
must be used.

Often Mathematical models of the system are useful in developing control

systems.

68
 Dynamometer Control: PWM
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a common technique for controlling the load of a
eddy current and generator type dynamometers. The control current going to the
coils is pulsed on and off at a high frequency (typically 10 kHz to 300 kHz). In the
“high” state the full current is applied to the coils, in the “low” state the coils are off.
The resulting load is therefore proportional to the duty cycle of the pulses.

This allows for the use of an inexpensive digital controller running an efficient
switching unit such as a transistor (BJT) , field effect transistor (FET) or IGBT.
Control Signal

Low Load

Half Load

High Load

69
 Transient Testing
Sometimes we want to measure various parameters during
throttle transient, or engine acceleration-deceleration. This
is important for investigation of:
Air/fuel ratio changes due to fuel “hang up”
Accelerator pump action / Transient enrichment
Knock
…

This is referred to as “Transient Testing” as the dyno is no

longer being held to a single operating point.

For Transient Testing we need fractional cycle resolution in

our data, so data acquisition must occur at 10kHz+.

70
 Transient Testing
How can we perform transient testing on a dyno?
Two methods are common:

Inertia only
We add a large rotating mass to the dyno to simulate the
effective “inertia” of the vehicle. This is easy to fabricate, as
you just add inertia to dyno shaft, but less realistic.

Inertia + Load
Inertia may be added to improve system stability, but we
also use a Computer controlling the dyno to simulate actual
road load (Inertia, Rolling resistance, air drag) based on a
model of load versus speed for the vehicle.

71
 Dynamometer Controller Dynamics
Velocity of Dynamometer during controlled step with various differential gains

3750
P=0.3 D=0.0 P=0.3 D=0.3
3500
3250
Speed (rpm)

3000
P=0.3 D=1.0
2750
2500
2250
2000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (s)
The controller needs differential control to avoid Overshoot but too much
differential gain gives a long “settling” time. This hydraulic dynamometer has a
large inertia and responds very slowly.
72
 Dynamometer Controller
One final control method is “road load” simulation control. This requires a computer
which has a “model” of the vehicle (weight, rolling resistance, aerodynamic
resistance). As the vehicle speed is increased, the load is increased to simulate the
actual load when driving on the road.
7000

6000
Chassis Dyno should hold engine to "max
speed" at engine's peak power. This should be
5000 adjustable based on dyno settings (ie. should
be able to stall out engine at lower speed by
Power Demand (W)

adding more load)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Speed (kph)

Modeled load vs. Speed for a typical small motorcycle and rider
73
Part 3: Drive Cycle Analysis

74
 Drive Cycle Determination
What speeds and loads should we test at?
What speed and load does the engine normally experience when it is being used?

To determine this we must know how the vehicle will be used.

Will it be driven on the highway, or just around town?
Heavily loaded, or with a single passenger?

This information is collectively known as the Drive Cycle.

An example of a drive cycle could be a “commuter” cycle from a suburb to a city

center 30 km away, (ie. from Parit Buntar to George Town).

Typical drive cycles are:

Highway
City
Commuter (suburb to city center)
Country Side
Delivery Run

75
 Drive Cycle Determination
It is common for regulatory agencies to specify drive cycles very carefully. For
example the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines the Highway
drive cycle as:
140

120

100

Speed (kph)
80

60

40

20

0
0

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

275

300

325

350

375

400

425

450

475

500

525

550

575

600
25

50

75
Test Time (s)

The older “Federal Test Procedure” was designed in the early 1970’s and only
updated in 2006. The newest drive cycle features peak speeds of 130 kph and
cruising at 110 kph.

We need to ask our selves, do these US drive cycles really reflect how vehicles
are used here? What about motorcycle and other “light” vehicles?

76
 Drive Cycle Determination
140

120

100

Speed (kph)
80

60

40
FTP US06
20

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

275

300

325

350

375

400

425

450

475

500

525

550

575

600
Test Time (s)

100
90
80
Malaysian Motorcycle Commute
70
Speed (km/h)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Tim e (s)

The answer is: The US Drive Cycles do not reflect how vehicles are used here.

This is why we need to define our own “Malaysian” drive cycles.

77
 Drive Cycle to Test Point Conversion

50
Motorcycle Speed Data
Speed (kph), Torque (Nm)

40
30
Calculated
Torque
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (s)
The engine operates at some torque loads more than others. We need to test
at the most common torques and speeds experienced by the bike

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 Drive Cycle to Test Point Conversion

50
40
Common Torque Loads
30
Torque (Nm)

20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (s)
Common Torque (given at Chassis Dyno) loads on this bike are:
0 Nm (idle, or coasting)
7 Nm, 14 Nm, and 22 Nm
NOTE: We have neglected rolling friction and wind friction in the model
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 Drive Cycle to Test Point Conversion

50 Engine Speed 7000

6000
40

Speed (rpm)
5000
Torque (Nm)

30 4000
20 3000
2000
10
1000
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (s)

We need to determine the most common speed/torque points to test at

RED lines indicate common speeds for some common torques:
7 Nm at 1800 rpm, 14 Nm at 4750 rpm, 24 Nm at 5000 rpm

80
 Drive Cycle to Test Point Conversion
Once we have identified the various test points, we need to determine the
approximate weight of each point, based on a typical drive cycle:

Test Load Engine Vehicle

Point (Nm) Speed Speed Weight
1 Idle 1200 0 kph 10%
2 7 1800 15 40%
3 14 4750 30 30%
4 24 5000 45 20%

The average FC (gm/min) is calculated from each test point as:

FCAV = 0.1 FC1 + 0.4 FC2 + 0.3 FC3 + 0.2 FC4 (FC1 is the FC for point 1)

Average Velocity (kph) is:

Vav = 0.1 V1 + 0.4 V2 + 0.3 V3 + 0.2 V4

Field fuel mileage (km/l) is now:

FMfield = Vav / ( FCav x 60min/hr / 720gm/liter )

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 Drive Cycle to Test Point Conversion
For example, if we get the following data:

Test Load Engine Vehicle Measured

Point (Nm) Speed Speed Weight FC (gm/min)
1 Idle 1200 0 kph 10% 2
2 7 1800 15 40% 5
3 14 4750 30 30% 12
4 24 5000 45 20% 18

FCAV = 0.1 (2) + 0.4 (5) + 0.3 (12) + 0.2 (18) = 9.4 gm/min

Vav = 0.1 (0) + 0.4 (15) + 0.3 (30) + 0.2 (45) = 24 kph

Field fuel mileage (km/l) is now:

FMfield = 24 / ( 9.4 x 60 / 720 ) = 30.6 km/l

With careful selection and weighting of test points the predicted mileage should
agree to within ~10% of the actual field mileage for a wide range of vehicles.

82
 Drive Cycle to Test Point Conversion
Many “real world” vehicles and drivers must be measured and analyzed. Wind
load and Rolling Resistance estimates may be introduced in to calculations to
improve the accuracy of the torque load estimates.

Eventually the most common Speed + Torque combinations are selected as

test points, and weighed according to their probability.

Some drive cycles have been divided into as many as 50+ test points!

Obviously there is a limit to the number of test points that can be run practically.
The goal is to simplify testing, and reduce the cost and complexity, while
maintaining a fair basis for evaluating changes (in FC, emissions or etc.)

In the end 5+ points may be sufficient to simulate a given drive cycle.

In our work in the Philippians we defined a 6-point test and had better than 10%
agreement between our Fuel Consumption test results and the actual field FC
numbers.

83
Part 4: Dynamometry Case Studies

84
 Case Study: Colorado State GDI Work
Eddy Current Dyno with loose plates – Had to be rebuilt
Used for GDI development as well as CPDI
Controller: “old-school” hardware PWM. Burned out– Had to be rebuilt

Revo-Power Hub Motor 85

 Case Study: Colorado State Univ.
Dyno re-used as Revo-Power chassis dyno for Bicycle “hub motor”
(motor rotates with wheel)

Chassis Dyno Roller

Revo-Power Hub Motor

86
 Case Study: GDI Testing in Manila
Old Diesel Engine Hydraulic Dyno, rebuilt as chassis dyno for motorbike testing.
Extremely slow ~500 rpm max! Hydraulic valve “spool” time was 13sec stop to stop!
Speed was from DC motor directly driven from roller. Roller–Dyno coupled via U-joint.
Had to build a special controller with PD and fuzzy logic. Data acquisition system was
a 4-channel Serial Port DAQ. Controller-DAQ was all computer controlled.
Water Lines

Hydraulic Dyno

Load Cell

Control Lines Throttle Valve

Motor
Shaft
87
 Case Study: GDI Testing in Manila
During transitions from one test point to another the controller used “Fuzzy” rules to
adjust the Hydraulic Valve. When the speed came within range of the target value, a
PD controller algorithm was used. Fuzzy logic was still used to determine when the
system had achieved stability, and started data taking automatically.

88
 Case Study: GDI Testing in Manila
In 2007 it was regeared using automotive transmission – much more responsive!

Typical Data from 125cc 2-stroke “Tricycles” looked like this:

Test Direct Fuel Injection Carbureted
Point HC CO AFR HC CO AFR
Idle 500 0.2 25+ 6000 3 13
1 600 0.5 25+ 4000 3 13
2 500 1.5 25 3000 3 14
3 800 3 15 3000 3 14
4 1200 4 14.5 2500 3 14
5 1500 4 14.5 3000 7 14
89
 Case Study: Wind Turbine Controller
This Electric motor – Generator dynamometer was
designed specifically to simulate a wind turbine
output.
It was used in the design of power conversion
circuits for alternative energy systems.

It is being replaced by an actual 1 kW wind turbine

to be online by the end of 2008

Simulated Wind

Variable DC
Power Supply Computer
A-D Board

DC AC
Controller
Motor Generator

Input Input Output Output Load

Voltage Current Voltage Current
Divider Divider
90
 Case Study: 10 kW Diesel Genset
Only Speed, Electrical Power output and FC are measured.
Overall Break-Thermal Efficiency can be directly calculated
Has been used for Fuel Additives Studies

2500 25
Average Fuel Cons.
Fuel Weight

2000 20

RPM -or- W -or- grams

Engine Speed

FC gm/min
1500 15

1000 10
Electrical Power

500 5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (min)

91
 Case Study: USM Automotive Dyno
150 kW U-joint coupled Automotive Engine, a relic of the “Tronoh Days”.
Required minor rehabilitation to return to full effectiveness.
Has subsequently been used in Fuel Additive testing (Note: Fuel additive gave no
significant improvement in FC).
It is scheduled to be refurbished with new controller and DAQ system later this year.

92
 Case Study: DIY Dyno Development
5kW generator suspended by bearings in frame. Coupled to motorcycle engine
via drive sprocket. Electrical power is dumped to water heater.
This dyno has been used extensively in industrial and academic research.

6000 8

7
5000
6
4000
5

Torque (Nm)
Power (W)

3000 4

3
2000
2
1000
1

0 0
1000 3000 5000 7000
Engine Speed (rpm )

Speed Torque Power Outpt

Mechanical Power 1000 rpm 10 Nm 1047 W
x 2 PI / 60 (Torque x Speed rad/sec)
104.7 rad/sec Break Thermal Efficiency
Pout/Pin 23.8%

Fuel Consumption Chemical Energy Power Input

Power Input 6 gm/min 44,000 J/gm 4400 W
/ 60 (Chem Energy x FC gm/sec)
0.1 gm/sec
93
 Case Study: 20kW Tranny Dyno
Eddy Current sprocket coupled dynamometer and controller.
We added instrumentation including combustion analysis.
This has been used extensively in the development of a two-stroke Direct Injection
system for Gaseous Fuels
12000 6.0

Torque 36 deg.
10000 5.0
HC Emissions (ppm C6)

Engine Torque (Nm)

8000 Torque 27 deg. 4.0
HC 36 deg.

6000 3.0

4000 2.0

2000 1.0
HC 27 deg.

0 0.0
260 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 Injector Signal
SOI (degrees BTDC) PFI ECU

Injector Shifted Trigger

Pulse:

Position
Encoder

Phase Shifting Circuit

MSB:

Test Engine LSB:

94
 Case Study: Fan Dynamometer
Automotive aftermarket radiator fan directly coupled to small engine’s crank shaft.
Inexpensive (10 RM) and reasonably repeatable (5 different fans shown in
calibration curve).
Speed was measured from the Back EMF on Kill Switch.
2.5
Torque

2.0
Torque (Nm)

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Speed (rpm)

2800
2600
Ti Piston + TiC Rings
2400
Engine Speed (rpm)

2200
Std. Piston and Rings
2000
1800
1600
1400 Std. Piston + TiC Rings

1200
1000
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time (min)
95
 Case Study: Torque Sprocket
Measures speed and torque on vehicle
Will be used extensively starting Fall 2008 for Drive Cycle Studies

1 Normal Drive Pattern (USM Campus)

Moderate Acceleration

96
 Case Study: 20 kW Eddy Current Chassis Dyno
We are developing a motorcycle chassis Dyno for FC and Emissions
measurements to generate statistics on various designs of in-use vehicles
for economic analysis. Scheduled to be online by late 2008

97
 Questions?

Please be sure to fill out the survey forms.

If you have any questions in the future, or would like

additional help in this are feel free to contact me:

Dr. Horizon Gitano-Briggs

+ (6016) 484-6524
[email protected]

98