ENG02 (2021-22)

I. Academic Writing

Academic writing is formal writing used to communicate ideas, information and research to the
academic community. Journal articles, essays, dissertation, text books and research papers are
examples of academic writing.

Academic writing is a formal style of writing because it has specific conventions in terms of style,
structure and content.

Academic writing is meant for academics. It is a study of other people's findings on the subject matter.

Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual
boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing
include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a
clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice.  
(Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A
Practical Guide. New York: Routledge, 2008.)

Characteristics of academic writing

1. Formal and unbiased

Before you begin writing or even researching your paper, read the assignment sheet thoroughly and
understand what you are being asked to do. Most of the time, when someone makes a mistake in
regard to the academic writing task, it is because they did not understand what was being asked of
them. If you don’t understand, you could end up doing the whole assignment wrong.

Academic writing should be unbiased or balanced. Meaning, you give considerations to all
sides of the issue. Bias can be avoided if you represent the work of other researchers and the results of
your own research fairly and accurately. You have to clearly outline your methodology and be honest
about the limitations of your research.

The goal of academic writing is to base arguments and all claims on evidence. This can be really
challenging because you have to show your stance on a particular topic and support it with your
evidence. It can be done by using phrases such as the evidence suggests…, this could be caused by… or the
research indicates that… You can base your writing on information from experts in the field. By doing so,
you have to cite your references appropriately.

The support for your thesis statement is what persuades your reader. You should be able to argue your
main points using the information that you researched. Without evidence or proof, your points aren’t
going to persuade the reader (or the marker). Advancing an argument is one of the most important
aspects of a paper.

Academic writing is more formal than everyday writing. Here, you should use longer words
and more complex sentences. The formal style is used so that studies can be assessed objectively. Avoid
using slang, clichés, contractions and conversational phrases.

The formality of your writing depends on the vocabulary that you use.

Examples:

Informal Formal
a bit similar somewhat similar
not enough evidence insufficient evidence
didn’t recognize the needs for… did not recognize the needs for…
 strong proof strong evidence
wrong reasons less convincing reasons
2. Clear and precise

A clear and precise writing ensures the readers’ understanding of your texts. You have to make
sure that your readers will be able to know exactly what you mean. Be specific as possible and avoid
vague language.

Example:

 People have been interested in this stuff for such a long time.

 Researchers have been interested in this phenomenon for at least 10 years.

 The school must also consider the mental health of the youth during online classes.

 The school authorities must take into consideration the effects of online classes on students’ academic
performance and behavior during online classes.

Avoid jargon and obscure or outdated words. Use words that are as close to everyday language as
possible, while still maintaining an academic tone. With word choice, it is also important that you
choose the right word for your intended point. For example, choosing affect when you should have
chosen effect. It affects the clarity of your writing. Writers need to understand the difference and
choose the right terms.

3. Focused and well-structured

Your thoughts need to be explained in a logical sequence as outlined in your introduction. Structure
the body of your paper in a manner that flows. Ideas should be grouped according to how they relate
to each other, not all over the place.

An academic text needs to have a clear objective. The emphasis is focused on the arguments and
information, not on the writer. For example, instead of writing “I believe the model is valid, based on these
findings”, write, “These findings indicate that the model is valid”. Use nouns and noun phrases more than
verbs and adverbs. Use more active structures rather than passive voice.

Example:

 The phenomenon was observed by scientists for five years.

 The scientists observed the phenomenon for five years.

In organizing your ideas, pay attention to structure at three levels: the structure of the whole
text, paragraph structure, and sentence structure.

Overall structure  You must always include an introduction and a

conclusion.
 Present information in a logical manner.
Paragraph structure  Start a new paragraph when you move onto a new idea.
 Use a topic sentence at the beginning of each paragraph to
indicate what you are going to discuss or talk about.
 Make clear transitions between paragraphs. Do not just
simply move on to the next idea without introducing it.
 Make sure that every paragraph is relevant to your topic.
Sentence structure  Use transition words to show the connections between
different ideas within and between sentences.
 Punctuate your sentences appropriately to avoid sentence
fragments or run-on sentences.
 Use a variety of sentence structures.
A sentence, at its most basic, consists of one main clause and writers should limit each sentence to one
idea. If a writer doesn’t properly construct a sentence, readers will have a hard time understanding the
point being made.

Each paragraph is a unit and should have only one clear idea. Often times there are too few paragraphs
in a paper. Instead of breaking large paragraphs into smaller ones, they attempt to fit too much
information in one. It is important that each main idea has its own paragraph so that it can be fully
explored. When a new idea arises, start a new paragraph.

4. Well-sourced

In academic writing, writers use sources to support their claims. Do not simply accept
everything you read as fact. Apply the skills you learned in Information Literacy by analyzing and
evaluating the information you are writing about. Use your critical thinking skills. Decide wisely on
how to integrate your references into your own writing. It requires a great deal of research in order for
you to develop a deep understanding of your topic.

It is essential that you consider which sources are credible and appropriate to use in academic
writing. Do not rely on websites such as Wikipedia for information; instead, use academic databases
and your university library to find credible sources. As mentioned earlier, you have to acknowledge
your sources whenever you quote or paraphrase someone else’s work by means of in-text citations and
a reference list.

Forgetting to cite, or citing improperly, makes you guilty of plagiarizing. With all of the information
handed out at the beginning of each academic term about plagiarism, students can no longer claim
ignorance. It’s important that all ideas borrowed from other work, even if paraphrased, are cited
properly in a paper, using an accepted academic style.

II. Professional Writing

“Professional Writing commonly refers broadly to texts written for business purposes. In turn, “technical
writing” refers to documents that often explain technical processes or explain how to do something,
such as technical descriptions and instructions and process reports.” – Moxley, n.d.

Professional Writing commonly refers broadly to texts written for business purposes. In turn, “technical
writing” refers to documents that often explain technical processes or explain how to do something,
such as technical descriptions and instructions and process reports.

Professional and Technical Writing texts share many similarities with traditional academic writing
genres, such as an emphasis on clarity, brevity, and thesis-driven, deductively organized texts. The
skills you learned writing expository, persuasive, and argumentative documents serve as a useful tool
chest for workplace documents. (writingcommons.org)

How is academic writing different from other forms of writing?

Academic Writing Business/Professional Personal Writing

Writing
Purpose -to show what the -to communicate -to share personal
person has learned information about a thought or feelings
-to analyze or product
critique another -to discuss new
academic work strategies related to
business
Audience Very limited, meant larger than academic Receiver of the letter
for a specific writing
 audience (people in business,
(the professor or consumers,
other members of the producers, etc.)
academe)
Style quite formal, without Follows a format Informal but may
colloquialisms and follow a format
contractions
Basis Based on extensive Based on statistics, Based on personal
research and studies research experiences

Components of Academic and Professional Writing

Context

It refers to the situation where professional writing is performed; includes the people involved,
relationship of the people involved, time, place, and interference.

4 Types of Context in Writing (MasterClass, 2021)

1. Historical context: Providing the time period and its current events can inform the general
mood of the era, setting the stage for the tone of your piece of writing and creating an
understanding of the society at the time. Historical context can inform the atmosphere for
your audience, giving them context for how people felt and behaved during that period in
history, the clothing styles of the time, or even the specific word choice (like slang) that was
used in that era.
2. Physical context: The attributes of a place can also inform how a plot unfolds or how
characters develop. The physical environment you establish for your writing will influence
how certain characters act and how the audience understands them. A story about characters
escaping a natural disaster in Tacloban City will have a different setup than if they were
escaping one in Baguio City. Your environment can dictate how a plot unfolds, but it’s
important to provide readers with enough detail for them to understand why.
3. Cultural context: Beliefs, religion, marriage, food, and clothing, are all elements of cultural
context that sometimes need to be provided in order to fully understand an author’s story.
4. Situational context: Situational context is why something is happening based on the event
itself. With situational context, the audience is able to understand how the circumstances of
the occurring event affect those involved.

Message

It refers to the content of your document. It is the subject matter in a text. For instance, if we
take an essay, all three components, the introduction, the body and the conclusion can be taken as the
content. 

The main difference between context and content is that content refers to the topics or matter treated in
a work, particularly a written work whereas context refers to the components of a text that surround a
word or passage and help the reader to understand its meaning. (Source: www.pediaa.com , 2015)

Purpose

The goal of your paper is to support the argument you posed as your topic. Your argument gives you a
purpose. The most common purposes in academic writing are to persuade, analyze/synthesize, and
inform.

In academic and professional writing, your purpose may be to inform and/or to persuade.
There are two levels of purpose; general (level of purpose that aims to inform and persuade) and
specific (level of purpose that talks about the reason why you want to inform and persuade). As a
writer, your knowledge and expertise will be demonstrated by your purpose. You should be fully
aware of the purpose of your writing as it is a decisive factor.
General: to persuade Grade 11 students to save money

Specific: to teach Grade 11 students how to control spending money on online purchases

Language

It refers to the channel used to convey the message; visual or textual, formal or informal, verbal
and non-verbal.

Audience

As with all writing, academic writing is directed to a specific audience in mind. Unless your instructor
says otherwise, consider your instructor as your audience. So you will have to engage her with your
ideas and catch her interest with your writing style. Imagine that she is also skeptical, so that you must
use the appropriate reasoning and evidence to convince her of your ideas.

Before you start writing, you should consider the receiver of your message, or your audience.
Since you are students, your audience will either be your classmates or your teachers. Taking your
audience into account will affect the content of your writing. For instance, your teacher has definitely
some expectations which you will have to meet. If you know your audience, you will have an idea on
whether or not to provide much background information about your topic.

Product

These are the outputs you intend to produce after considering all other components.

Academic writing Professional Writing

Academic essay Instructional manuals
Thesis/dissertation Brochure
Library research Business correspondence
Reaction paper Business and technical reports
Book review Resume
Literature review Cover letters
Research report Emails
Project proposal
Position paper

General Tips in Writing

Academic texts Professional Texts

1. Follow the basics in the writing process. 1. Follow the basics in the writing process.
a) Be clear with the assignment. a) Be clear with your purpose and target
b) Analyze the context of writing. reader.
c) Have a clear purpose and audience in b) Consider the context of writing the
mind. document.
d) Make your thesis evident. c) Use cohesive devices in organizing
e) Stay focused on your topic. your ideas.
f) Read some academic texts that are d) Be direct to the point and avoid
similar to the one you are writing. unnecessary details.
g) Use sufficient cohesive devises, but do e) Be objective and factual.
not overuse them. f) Use brainstorming strategies to
h) Avoid wordiness and redundancies. overcome writer’s block.
i) Use brainstorming strategies to g) Edit your work. Eliminate all
overcome writer’s block. grammatical and typographical
j) Edit your work. Eliminate all errors.
grammatical and typographical
 errors.
2. Use quotations sparingly. Paraphrase 2. Anticipate the readers’ beliefs, values,
information. Do not plagiarize. motivations, and possible objections.
3. Avoid using an imperative tone. 3. Adjust your language based on your
 Remember the objectives presented in this relationship with the receiver of the
introduction, as these are instrumental to the document.
analysis of the results.
 The objectives presented in this
introduction are instrumental to the analysis
of the results.
4. Avoid excessive font effects such as 4. Study the format used by your
boldface, underlines, and italics. organization.
5. Be consistent with the type of English you 5. Avoid excessive font effects such as
use. In the Philippines, we use the Standard boldface, underlines, and italics.
American English.
6. Plan wisely. Allot ample time in preparing 6. Be consistent with the type of English you
your writing assignment. use.

Academic Writing in the Discipline

A. Book Review or Article Critique

-a specialized form of academic writing in which a reviewer evaluates the contribution to knowledge of

scholarly works such as academic books and journal articles.

-may consist of 250 to 750 words but is not a summary.

A summary of a research article requires you to share the key points of the article so your reader can get
a clear picture of what the article is about. A critique may include a brief summary, but the main focus
should be on your evaluation and analysis of the research itself.

Instead of simply summarizing the main points of the article, you must critique them. This is where
most students make a mistake; they offer a mere summary of the research article they read. Journal
articles already have summaries. Your professor doesn’t want to get that. They want your unique
opinion and discussion.

-different from a movie review that you see in newspapers

-a critical assessment, analysis or evaluation of a work.
You cannot critique a research article before you read and understand it. These journal articles can be
quite lengthy, and they often involve terms you don’t understand. That’s why simple reading won’t be
enough. You’ll have to engage in active and close reading, accompanied with some research, so you
can define and understand the terms that are new to you.

When you close read, you observe facts and details about the text. You may focus on a particular
passage, or on the text as a whole. Your aim may be to notice all striking features of the text, including
rhetorical features, structural elements, cultural references.

-involves skills in critical thinking and recognizing arguments.

You cannot critique a research article before you read and understand it. These journal articles can be
quite lengthy, and they often involve terms you don’t understand. That’s why simple reading won’t be
enough. You’ll have to engage in active and close reading, accompanied with some research, so you
can define and understand the terms that are new to you.

When you close read, you observe facts and details about the text. You may focus on a particular
passage, or on the text as a whole. Your aim may be to notice all striking features of the text, including
rhetorical features, structural elements, cultural references.
-addresses a more specific audience.
-offers a critical response to a published scholarly work.
-uses proof and logical reasoning to substantiate or prove opinions.
You should provide not only your impressions of the article, but evidence that backs them up as well.

-processes ideas and theories, revisits and extends ideas in a specific field of study, and presents
analytical responses.
An article critique, also known as a response paper, is a formal evaluation of a journal article or another
type of literary or scientific content. Your main goal is to show whether or not the author provided
reasonable arguments and facts for their main points.

 Book reviews must not be mistaken for book reports which are focused on describing the plot,
characters, or idea of a certain work

The main purposes of writing an Article Critique 

 Describe the main ideas and what the author wants to express
 Analyze each important and interesting point and develop an explanation of the article
 Interpret the author’s intention
 Summarize and evaluate the value of an article, stating whether you agree or disagree with the
author, with supporting evidence.
The article critique is not a summary; it’s an analysis from a critical point of view. Although your main
purpose is not persuasion, you still have to develop a convincing discussion.

B. Literature Review
- provides an overview of a specific topic.
A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of
current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing
research.

-surveys scholarly work such as:

 academic books (but not textbooks),
 computerized databases,
 conference proceedings,
 dissertations/theses, (A dissertation or thesis is a long piece of academic writing based on
original research, submitted as part of a doctoral, master’s, or bachelor’s degree.)
 empirical studies, (Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena
and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or
belief. Empirical studies that describe what is happening based on direct observation,
focus group discussions, and in-depth interviews are defined as qualitative
studies. These include case reports and research studies. Empirical studies that aim to
highlight statistical associations between variables or to establish the occurrence or
incidence of a phenomenon should utilize quantitative methods.)
 government reports,
 historical records,
 journal articles,
 monographs, (A scholarly monograph is a book of 200-300 pages that is written by one or
more authors. Monographs contain considerably more information than conference
papers or journal articles. The author did extensive research about the topic. Monographs
provide an exhaustive examination of the subject, an in-depth treatment.)
 statistical handbooks
-an advanced form of academic writing
A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources – it analyzes, synthesizes, and critically
evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

-critically analyzes the relationship among different scholarly works and the current work
-can be written as a stand-alone paper or as part of a research paper explaining a theoretical framework
and related studies.
When you write a thesis, dissertation, or research paper, you will have to conduct a literature review
to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

 Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context

 Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
 Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
 Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

On the other hand, the purpose of a stand-alone paper is to evaluate the current state of research and
demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

-tests your ability to evaluate studies for their validity and reliability.

 Unlike an annotated bibliography (An annotated bibliography is a list of citations for various

books, articles, and other sources on a topic. ) which presents a summary of a book or article, a
literature review combines both summary and synthesis (i.e., linking different sources)

A synthesis is a written discussion that draws on one or more sources. Your ability to write
syntheses depends on your ability to infer relationships among sources - essays, articles, fiction, and
also non-written sources, such as lectures, interviews, observations. This process is nothing new for
you, since you infer relationships all the time - say, between something you've read in the
newspaper and something you've seen for yourself, or between the teaching styles of your favorite
and least favorite instructors. In fact, if you've written research papers, you've already written
syntheses. In an academic synthesis, you make explicit the relationships that you have inferred
among separate sources.

An executive summary is a thorough overview of a research report or other type of document

that synthesizes key points for its readers, saving them time and preparing them to understand
the study's overall content. It is a separate, stand-alone document of sufficient detail and
clarity to ensure that the reader can completely understand the contents of the main research
study. 

Functions of a literature review

 Justifies a research question, method, or theoretical and conceptual framework
 Establishes the relevance of a topic
 Provides necessary information to better understand a specific topic or study
 Shows reviewers familiarity and mastery of the topic
 Establishes the niche of the study
 Resolves conflict among contradictory studies
A literature review will enable you to identify other research that supports or corroborates your
findings as well as results that differ, enabling you to position your research in the field. Conducting
a literature review is essential for developing a research idea, to consolidate what is already known
about a subject and to enable you to identify any knowledge gaps and how your research could
contribute to further understanding.

Structure of a literature review

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review. Give some
background on the topic and its importance, discuss the scope of the literature you will review (for
example, the time period of your sources), and state your objective. What new insight will you draw
from the literature?

 Introduction
 Purpose for writing the literature review and the importance of the topic being
reviewed
 Scope of the review
 Criteria used for selecting the literature
 Organizational pattern of the review
 Body
 Historical background
 Relevant theories
 Relationship between and among the studies, and how each study advanced a
theory
 Strengths and weaknesses of each paper
 Various viewpoints on the topic
As you write, you can follow these tips:

 Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine
them into a coherent whole.
 Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers—add your own interpretations
where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
 Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
 Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw
connections, comparisons and contrasts.

 Conclusion
 Restatement of the main argument or thesis
 Main agreements and disagreements in the literature
 If stand-alone paper: conclusions, implications, and direction for future studies
 If part of a thesis or research paper: linking of the literature review to the
research questions
 Overall perspective on the topic
In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature
and emphasize their significance. If you are writing a stand-alone paper, you can discuss the
overall implications of the literature or make suggestions for future research based on the gaps
you have identified.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread
thoroughly before submitting.

Sample Literature Review

Body image issues have been widely associated with social media usage, particularly in young
women. The relation between media depictions and body image concerns is well-established; a meta-analysis by
Grabe, Ward and Hyde (2008) concluded that exposure to mass media is linked to body image dissatisfaction
among women. However, in an era of rapidly changing digital technologies, the mass media paradigm is no
longer adequate for understanding how people engage with images, and the findings of older studies like this
one may not be generalizable to younger generations.  In light of this changing landscape, researchers have
become increasingly interested in the specific effects of social media. Perloff (2014) theorizes that the interactive
aspects of social media may influence its impact on body image, and mentions that young women are among the
most active social media users. Several empirical studies have focused on Facebook usage in adolescent girls
(Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014) and in young adult women (Smith, Hames, & Joiner, 2013;
Fardouly et al., 2015; Cohen, Newton-John & Slater, 2017), while a systematic review by Holland and Timmerman
(2016) confirmed a relationship between social networking and body image for both women and men. Across
these studies, there is consistent evidence that body image issues are influenced not by social media usage in
general, but by engagement with the visual and interactive aspects of these platforms.  Nonetheless, there is a lack
of robust research on more highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram and Snapchat that have gained
more recent popularity among younger generations.

Topic Sentence - The first sentence establishes the main point of the paragraph.
Pivotal Study –summarizes a pivotal publication in the field
Critical evaluation- This sentence critiques a weakness of that study – that its findings may not be
relevant to a contemporary context.
Theory - These sentences summarize a more recent theoretical perspective on the topic.
Synthesis - Several empirical studies are synthesized to show a clear pattern of findings in support of
the theory.
Gap - A gap in the literature is identified, making way for the relevance of the author's own research.

Source: McCombes, S. (2020)

Guidelines in writing a literature review

A. Literature Search
 Review the documentation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago) that you will adopt and be familiar
with its format in relation to writing a literature review.
 Choose and focus on a topic that you will explain.
 Determine the kind and number of sources you will be using.
 Survey the available online databases relevant to your topic.
 Use relevant keywords when searching for scholarly documents or articles.
 Always include landmark studies or papers related to your topic.
 Always evaluate the sources for coverage and currency.

B. Evaluation and Analysis of Articles

 Skim the articles and read their abstract
 Group the articles and other documents according to their categories.
 Take down notes. Focus on the research questions, methodology used, major findings and their
explanations, and conclusion.
 Summarize the details using a concept map.
 Write a synthesis of the references you have read before writing the actual literature review.
 Create an outline. You may look for other literature reviews to serve as models for writing the
outline.

C. Writing the Literature Review

 State clearly your thesis or main argument.
 If you say that no studies have been conducted on one aspect of your topic, justify it.
 Direct the readers to other related literature reviews that cover items which you do not intend
to cover.
 Never treat a literature review as a series of annotated bibliography.
 Use headings and subheadings to classify the parts of your topic.
 Use effective transitions to make your review easier to read and understand.
 The body of the literature review can be organized thematically, methodologically, or
chronologically.
 Use direct quotations sparingly.
 Clarify important definitions.
 C. Research Report
-an expanded paper that presents interpretations and analyses of a phenomenon based on experiments
and previous information so that readers can better understand it.
-a laborious work produced through formal investigation and scientific inquiry.
Research report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant people. It is also a good
source of preservation of research work for the future reference.

Research reports present the results of formal investigations into the properties, behavior, structures,
and principles of material and conceptual entities. Almost any physical phenomenon or concept may
be investigated in a research framework. 

D. Project Proposal
The project proposal functions as the working document between agency and client before a potential
initiation of the project. Thus, the project proposal is used to define the objectives and requirements of a
project for the external party. For the internal party, it is a method to analyze the feasibility and
profitability of the project.

A good Project proposal specifies the following:

 Goals and objectives that the project wants to accomplish
 Project plan that details how the set goals and objectives will be accomplished
 Financial, human (e.g., experts, consultants), and technical (e.g., equipment and facilities)
resources useful in implementing the project; and
 Budget that specifies how much money is needed and for what purpose it will be spent.

E. Position paper

 a type of academic writing that presents one’s stand or viewpoint on a particular issue
 Its main objective is to take part in a larger debate by stating your arguments and proposed
course of action.

Sources:

Barrot, J. S. (2016). Academic Reading & Writing for Senior High School. C&E Publishing.

EAP Foundation. (2020). Academic Writing. Retrieved from https://www.eapfoundation.com/.

The do’s and don’ts of academic writing. (2020). Retrieved from https://www.scribbr.com/.

The University of Sydney. (2019). Academic Writing. Retrieved from https://www.sydney.edu.au/.