B.

1 Introduction

Thefirst part, i.e. Section l, of this Chapter deals with special functions whose
Aomain is the set N, the set of natural numbers 1, 2, 3, and range is the set of...

real numbers. The second part, i.e. Section 1, of this Chapter, i.e. Part II will be
devoted to convergence and divergence of infinite series whose n-th term is the
n-th term of any sequence.

Section I (Sequence)
8.2 Definition of a Sequence
A function whose domain is N, the set of natural numbers and whose range is real
numbers, i.e. symbolically S:N ->R will be called a real sequence.
In other words, a sequence may also be defined as an ordered set of real
numbers whose members can be put in one-one correspondence with natural
number. We denote a sequence as

4or l,, u .
u where n eN
The number of terms in a sequence is always infinite. As for example

() - ,neN

1
etc.
ie.
, 1, u, = 7, 4,=
ii) 4= {(-1)"), n =
1, 2, 3, ..

0, 4 - 1 , u, = 1, u, = -1, u= 1, etc.
ie. this set has only two distinct elements -1 and 1.

8.3 The Range

The se without repetidono
distinct elements of
a sequence, This
Onsisting of all set of a set.
without regard to the position of a term is
called the range or range

tange may be finite or infinite.

 Bounds of a Sequence
8.4 if there exists
is said to be
bounded above sts a re: a.

(a) A sequence {u,.} number M,

such that
vn eN.
S M
of the sequence.
It is also called an upper bound
below if there exists
is said to be bounded a
real number
ro:

(b) Asequence (u,}

m, such that
m Vn eN.
2
It is also called lower bound of the sequence. As for example, for the seso
equence
,=, the upper bound = 1 and the lower bound =0.
The bounds may or may not be attained by the sequence.

8.5 Convergence of a Sequence

A sequence {,} is said to converge to a real number if , , 1 , a

i.e. lim 1, =l
n-

ie. 4,-<e
for all n 2 m, where m
is a positive integer (depending on e).
As for example, if u, =
4t,
n+2'
then

lim u
241)
lim + 1
=

lim 2
Thus the sequence is
convergent and converges to 2.
8.6 Monotonic Sequence
sequence u, is saíd
to be monotonic increasing
decreasing ", if S Sng itif u u,, u, 22
n, and
u, yV n, ana
monotonic

u, y n. It is said to be
increasing or monotonic monotonic if it is either "
nonotoni

decreasingg.
Illustration: (i) Consider the
U, n, sequence {n).
(n+1)
SO
So 141,= (n +
1)2- n2 =
2n + 1> 0Vn
So eN.
u= {n} is a monotonic
increasing sequence
 Consider
the sequence {u,} =

(i)

1+1
Now
-1
n(n+1)
O , Vn eN

So,

Hence u,) =
is a monotonic decreasing sequence.

Out Examples
6.7 Worked
Example 1. Examine the convergence of the following sequences:
1 1 2
(a) 1,2 3** (b)2 5( 1, 2, 2, 2,..

Solution:

(a) The n-th term x, of the sequence is

Now, limx,=lim = 0.

Therefore the limit of the sequence is 0 when n>co and hence the sequence
converges to 0.
() The n-th term x, of the sequence is

n+1

Then, limx, -lim N +1

= = lim- 1.

Hence limit of the sequence is 1, when n>co, i.e. the sequence converges
to 1.
c) The n-th term of the
sequence is

, 2".
Now lim x, = lim 2" =
So, the o
limi f the sequence is when n 0o and hence the sequence is

divergence.
o

Example 2. Show that the sequence infinitely

a) {n(-1)") oscillates
4*,= {1 + (-1") oscillates finitely (b)x =

if nis even
0, if n is odd.
Solution:
(a) Here, , {1 + (-1)"}
=

i.e. the sequence is {0, 2, 0, 2, ...

Note that when n is odd x,->0 and when n is even x,- 2.
Thi s shows
show.that
x) does not tend to a definite limit a s n > o . It oscillates betw
and 2 finitely. two points
(b) Here, , = {n(-1)7
ie. the sequence is (-1, 2, -3, 4, ...).
It is not bounded both on left and right. It has infinite
number of limi
on left and right. So, lower limit is - o and upper limit is +oo
the sequence oscillates infinitely between - o to +o, when
which showpoithat
nts
n-
(c) Here, ,, if n is even
0, if n is odd
=

i.e. the sequence {0, 1, 0, 2, 0, 3, ..} is bounded on

the left but not on the roh
It has infinite number of limit
limit is +00. Hence the
points 1, 2, 3, ... So, lower limit is 0 and upper
sequence oscillates infinitely.
Example 3. Show that the following sequences {x) are
divergent:
(a)x, =n (b)x, = -3"
(c)x, log
=

Solution :
(a) Here the
sequence is {x,), where x, =
yn, ie. the séquence is {1,/2,3,
clearly when n>o, ,+0. So, the sequence
{x,) diverges to +0
(b) Here, -3
So, the sequence is
l-3,-3, -3,.J.
Clearly here
x,-o when n->o. So the d it
diverges to -0. sequence is divergent a
(c) Here, x,= log
So the
sequence is

ie. 0, -log 2, -log 3, -log 4,

Hence when .)
nco,
to-0 *,>-o. So the sequence isis divergent and it dhvE erges

divergent
Example 4. Show that the not

converge. sequence1eN
U. where U 2-1)", does
where =
Iw.B.U. Tech. 200
 S o l u t i o n :

u = 2(-1)
Here
i.e. , = 2 whenn is even
= -2 when n is odd.
two subsequences
So. fU} represents
(a) 1-2,-2, .)
and
(b) 12, 2,..
Clearly sequence (a) converges to 2 and sequence (6) converges to 2.

Since the above two subsequences or

{u, do not
converge to the
therefore the given sequence {u} does not converge.
same limit,
Evample 5. Show that the following seguence {x}, where

(3+1)(n-2)
n(n n(n +3)
is convergent and find their limit.
Solution

Here, lim x = lim (3n+1)(n-2)

n(n +3)

= lim = 3, a finite quantity.

1-
1
Therefore, the sequence is convergent and converges to the limit 3.

Example 6. Show that the seguence defined by x, = is bounded.

Solution
Here,

2 , then 2n 2 < 2n, which is true for all n.

P and hence the sequence is bounded.

4mple 7. Ifr. = 4 find the least integer m such that |*,
tor n> m.
Solution
Here we have

for n>m
ie. 2+5
6n-11 1000
1
for
n > m

EMA
 or, 26 <
3(6n-11) 100
or, 3(6n-11) > 1000., for n > 1 and for n> m
26

2600011 - 400, for n> 1 and for n > m

or,
6n>3 3

or, n> 26U55

18 1446,for
n>1 and for n >

Hence the least integer is m = 1446.

Example 8. Ifx = prove that the sequence {x,} is monotonic increasine

and bounded.
Solution:

Here, 3n-1
n+2

So 3(7+1)-1 3n+2
n+1+2 n+3

Now, n41
Sn+2 3n-1
n+3

n+2)(3n+2)-(3n-1)(n +3)
(n+2)(n+3)
3n +8n+4-(3n +8n-3)
(1+2(n +3)
7
(n+2 n+3>0
for all positive integral values of n, i.e. x., > x,. Hence the sequence (x,} is monoto
increasing
Again, h+23Z

i.e. x, < 3, since is Also

positive for any positive integral values or
2
2 .Therefore, s1, s3. Hence the sequence (r,) is bounded.

Example 9. If x, = 2 + 2 3 t 3 t . +1T
1
then show that {r} is a
bounded monotonic n(n+1)
increasing sequence.
S o l u t i o n

Written as
written a
be
can
Here ,

-)-8-3;44-)
1-1n+1
Hence

7+1
NoW, n+2 n+1

= (n+1)-n(n +2)
(n +1)(n +2)
1
(7 +1n +2>0
values of
for all positive integral
n

ie. X,
Hence the sequence {r,} is monotonic increasing.

n
Again since x, =

n+1
> 0.

Also 1 , for all positive integral values of n. Therefore 0 < x, < 1.

1+1
Here the sequence
lr,} is bounded.
Example 10. Show that the sequence x, where x, =* . f o r all
eN, is convergent.
Solution
Here,
n+1

1 for all n
(n+ 1 ) 0
i.e. > *,
Hencs Sequence {x} is monotonic increasing
Again,
*m1**
1-21-2
2/
2.
 So 0<x <2
1e. the sequence is bounded.
Therefore the sequence {x} is bounded and monotonic increasing..
ng, so it
is
convergent.
(r,, where
Example 11. Show that the sequence
1 +..7
+
+1'n+2
for all n eN, is convergent.
Solution:
1
Here, , +2*n+3t.+1+n+1
-T .

n+1

1
>0 for all n

2(n +1)(2n+1
ie. X,>*,
and hence the sequence is monotonic increasing.

Again, - 1
ie.
0< x, < 1.
So, the sequence is bounded.
Since the sequence is bounded and monotonic increasing, so it is convergent

Example 12. Show that the sequence x,l, where x, =

1+ ,
is convergent.
Solution:
Here,
-(1
= 14n.1, n).,n-1=2)4
3!
+2(-1)...3:2-1.
n!

-1 1 - - ) - 3 - -

)--}
 Cince each term, except irst two terms on the right-hand side, is an increasing
ion of
function
it follows that {x,} is a monotonic
n, it
of n, ,

increasing sequence.
Again, since each bracket on the right-hand side is positive, therefore

2x,1+î*2t.+
<1+1+7
1
= 1+ <1+ T 3.
1-2
Hence 2<, <3, 1.e. 1x,} is a monotonic increasing sequence and bounded above.
So the sequence is convergent. The limit of the sequence generally denoted by e.

Example 13. Show that the sequence 2,2+/2,2+v2+/2, tends to

a definite limit and find the 1limit.
Solution:
Let x, be the n-th term of the sequence, then

2+
or, * 1 X 2 =0 . (1)

Again, x = 2+ X-1
Or, - - 1 -2 = 0 .(2)
From (1) and (2), we get

Or, +r),, -x)= , Y

which implies that x > x, if x,>xand r,< I, ifr, <X Thus the sequence
Here obviously
nonotonic increasing or decreasing according as x,>i, or,X, <X.
H e n c e the sequence is monotonic increasing. Again from (1)

- 2 <0, r, X, since <

or, (x, 2)(x, + 1) < 0.

-

<2. Hernce the sequence is bounded.

lies between -1 and 2, ie. -1 <x,
Since and bounded, it must tend to a
definite
is monotonic increasing
limit Equence
m(say).
Then, m, X. = m as n 0.
Hence from (1)
m2 m -2 = 0
or, m2)(m + 1) = 0
So, are positive, therefore
m 2.
m
=-2, 1 . Since all the terms of the sequence
18.5. Limit of a Sequence.
sequencea,} of real numbers is said to tend to a limit 1, if for
Pvery G>0, there exist a positive integer N depending on e, such that for

everyn> N., Ja, -/|<

e.

Then we write lim a,=l or simply lima, = l1

n->

thatis a , > / a s n c o ,

18.6. Convergent, Divergent and Oscillating sequences.

Convergent Sequence. A sequence {a,is said to be Convergent if
lim a, is finite.

Illustration.

Thesequence i.e., the sequence {a,

1
where a,= i s convergent, since lim a, = lim =0. 1
n 3"

Divergent Sequence. A sequence {a,is said to be Divergent if lim a,

is not finite i.e., if lim a, =

+00 or-0,
Illustration.
i) The sequencea,where a, =n is divergent, as

lim a, = lim n' =+o.

n

i) The sequence4"is divergent as

lim a, = lim(4")=-o.

Osci
Oscillating Sequence. A sequence which is neither convergent nor
vergent is called an Oscillating sequence.
llustration.
he sequence {-1, 1,-1,1,... thatis.(-1" is oscillatory.

Herea, =(-1)".
im a, =
lim (-1)" =|

im a lim (-1)2"+ =-1.

 lim a, does not exist and hence the sequence Is not convergen
rgent
and not divergent also.

18.7. A few Basic Theorems.

In this article six important theorems on sequence will be
discussed
these theorems are useful in solving problems of convergence of
sequences
Theorem I. A convergent sequence determines its limit uniquehy.
Proof: If possible, and l, be two distinct limits of a
convergent se
quencex,}.
Since and l2 are distinct, # l2, we can take -l2 =ð, where
is a non-zero
positive number. Now, let us choose a positive number e,
such that e<ô.

sinceand l2 are two distinct limits of the sequence

x,,
- E for n> and , -l<e for n> N2, where N1 and
N2 depends on the chosen E.

Thus for n>N =

max( N1,N2)
4-al=(-3)-,-4)s, -l+|», -4
E E for n> N
Thus we find 8 and
<E, we arrive at a
contradiction.
Thus, the assumption that the
not true. sequence x,has two distinct limits 1s
Hence, convergent sequence determinenes its limit
a

Theorem II. Every convergent uniquely.

sequence is bounded.
Proof: Let the sequence
xbe bounded having unique limiting value a .
Then x,-|<e, for all n> N, Nbeing a positive integer
E depending on
i.e.-e<X, <l+¬, when n2 N
and L and M be the least and
greatest of the numbers
 Thus we have M for all values of r
Thus the scquence I s bounded both below and above. 1e

t s a bounded sequence
Note: The comerse ot this theorem is not ahvays true

1 As an example let us consider the sequence-1)

1e 0.2.0.2.
Obvsously, the sequence is bounded, but does not converge to a detinite
lurrat

2. Again, the sequence-1--1.1,-1,1.. Is also bounded,but is

not convCT gent

Theorem Ill. A mootonk increasing sequence, whic h is bounded above

s comvergent and coverges to its exact upper boud or supremmum.

Proof: Bcyond the scope ofthe book

Theorem IV. A monotonic decreastng sequence bouned below is
comvergent and comerges to its exaci lower bound

The proof is also beyond the scope of this boxd

Theorem V. A mmonotonic increasing sequence diverges to + . ifit is not

bounded above

Proof: Snce the sequcnce Is monotonic ncrcasung. I,. > , for all
neN
andas {,} is not bounded above, there exusts at least one number
ay of the sequence such that > M, M being a large positive
number and since , 1 s monotonsc ncreasang . , m2 . are all

greater than M
Therefore, ,> M, for all n2 m

1e. linx,
Hence, the sequence { diverges to +
heorem VI. A monotonic decreasing sequence diverges to - . if not
bounded below
The proof is similar to that of Theorem V, taken above
18.8. A useful sequence.
Toprove that the sequence {x,}, where - = is convergent,

Proof: It will be enough to show that the given sequence is monotoniç

increasing and bounded above.

By the Binomial theorem, we have

1 nn-1)1,n(n-1) n 2) 1
-

=1+n.+
n 2!2! n 3!

nn-1)(n-2)..3.21 1
n n"

= 1+14

n (1)
Replacing n by (n +1), we have,

Xn+1=l+1+- .
n+1, (2)
From (1) and (2), we observe that

) the first two terms of x, and xn+1 are equal, each being 1;
(ii) also' 1n+1 n' n+1
1-1and
n
so on, thus except the first
two terms, every term of xn+l is greater than the corresponding term o
(iii) x, involves (n +1) terms, while x+l involves (n +2) terms and
all the terms are positive.
Hence, Xn+12X, for all n eN
i.e. the sequence {x,is monotonic increasing.
 Next, we note that x, 22 for all n EN

i.e. the sequence is bounded below, and 2 is a lower bound.

Also,,=1+1- 1 2

<l+1+,L.
2 3 n!
1
<1+1++t
2 2" -T
2h-1

= 1+-
sum of a G.P. series with common ratio
1

= 1+ = 1+2-2"-1 =3-2-<3
2
1.e. Xn3, for all n eN

i.e. the sequence x is bounded above.

Hence the sequence {x, is bounded, for it is bounded both below and
above.
Since the sequence n} is monotonic increasing and bounded, it is
convergent.
Note: Since the above sequence is convergent, it converges to a limit, this
limiting value is denoted by e
i.e. lim
n
1+ n, =e, where 2<e<3
t should also be noted that e is a transcendental number:

18.9. Theorems on Limits of Sequences.

ifx,and,be two sequences, such that

limx,
n-
=A and lim y, =
B
then: (i) lim(x, +yn)= A +B,
B
(ii) im(, Vn)
-
= A -

A.B
(iii) lim(x, -Y,)
=

and (iv) lim R provided B 0

n yn