SOIL SCIENCE

Chemical Properties of Soil

Dr. Jocelyn A. Bernabe

Associate Professor
2021-2022
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

1. Soil Clays

2. Organic Colloids

3. Cation Exchange

4. Soil pH
1. Soil Clays

- Most are crystalline in structure

The term clay actually carries three meanings:

a. Particle size fraction >2 microns in size

b. Name for a group of minerals with

specific composition

c. Soil textural classes

The Origin of Clays

. usually have specific composition

. Newly formed crystals, usually different from primary

minerals
. Reform following dissolution of other minerals

. Kind of clay formed determined by proportions of the

different ions
. Silica, alumina
. If some materials leached away, clay types are
changed or formation rates change

. Some clays form from slight alteration of primary

minerals (micas)
. vermiculite, hydrous mica
Soils may have clays from ocean or sediment redeposit

. inherited clays – clay sediment formed in a different climate

. modified clays- changed by further weathering of original clays

. neoformed clays- new clays formed by crystallization of ions

from solution
Nature of Clays

. Because of crystalline nature- compost of definite,

repeating arrangement of atoms

. Made up of oxygen atoms, Si, Al held together with +/-

charged ions

. Clay particles may also be known as micelle

. Clays have net negative charge, will attract and hold

positively charged ions (cations)
. K, Na, NH4, Ca, Mg, H, Al(OH)2, Al
. Amounts held vary with type of clay and vary with charge of
the ion
. Plant roots use some exchangeable cations as nutrients
. Leaching may remove several cations
. Cations can be replaced by other cations
. As they are exchanged
. if their charge is more positive
Charge on Clays

. Isomorphous substitution

. clays act like weak acids, release H ions from bonding sites
(sites deprotonated)

. now has an open site to attract another elemental

ions will be attracted that are of similar weight and charge

. Amount of deprotonation depends on soil pH

. Sites formed known as cation exchange sites

. Other ions compete to be adsorbed to these sites

. Amount of negative charge= soil’s cation exchange capacity

(CEC)
. Clays with layers spread apart allow soil solution to pass
through the layers

. Montmorillonite, vermiculite
. Have accessible exchange sites along their surface

. Nutrients can leach easier

. Clays shrink/swell-not suited for building and
construction

. Tightly bonded layers, little room between micelles

. Kaolinite, chlorite
. Don’t swell when wet
. Can use to make pottery, tile, etc
. May have relatively lower CEC
Types of Clays

1. Silicate Clays

. Picture a deck of cards

. Each card is layer of a clay
. Each layer held together magnetically

. Amorphous silicate clays – lack crystallinity

. Typically occur where weathered products
existed, but not sufficient time/ condition
for crystal development
. Common in soils forming from volcanic ash
2. Kaolinite and halloysite

– residues from extensive weathering in high-rainfall,

acidic soils

Net negative charge is low

.
. What does that mean for CEC?

. Strong H bonding layers together

. Doesn’t allow H2O to penetrate
. No swelling

. Common in southeastern U.S.

3. Montmorillonite and Saponite
. Swelling/sticky clays

. Belong to group called smectites

. Water easily penetrates clay layers

. shrink/swell is common

. Bentonite- impure deposit of montmorillonite used to

seal earthen ponds/lagoons, thickens paints ties
up toxics in feeds, cosmetics

. Found in soils with little/no leaching

. Poorly drained soils, sols developed from limestone,

flood plains of rivers
4. Hydrous mica, illite

– fine grained mica, s its tructure similar to montmorillonite

. Tight bonds don’t letter water penetrates

. Slight to moderate swelling

. Named after state of IL

5. Vermiculite

– occurs in different forms

. Used for insulation, potting soil, packing materials

. What does this tell you about its structure?

. Swells very little

. Extremely high CEC

. Most often an accessory soil, not dominant

6. Chlorites

– hydrated Mg and Al silicates

. Similar to vermiculite

. Restricts swelling

. Actually has net positive charge

What effect does this have?
7. Sesquioxide clays

– form under extensive weathering, leaching in warm

climates

. Small amounts exist in many soils

. Can be dominant, or accessory

. Usually predominant soil in humid, hot, well
drained soils
. Usually shades of red and yellow colors

. Don’t swell, not sticky

. Have high P adsorption capacity

. What does this result in?
. What problems might it cause?
2. Organic Colloids

. Humus – temporary, intermediate product left after

decomposition of plant and animal remains

. Continues to decompose slowly

. Humus particle = organic colloid

. Consist of various chains of carbon atom

. Has negative charge

. What does this mean?
. What effect does it have on the soil?

. CEC is many times greater than clay colloids

. What conclusion does this give you?

. Humus exerts considerable influence on the soil

. In what form?
3. Cation Exchange

. Soil colloids will attract and hold positively charged ions to

their surface

. Replacement of one ion for another from solution =

cation exchange

. Adsorbed cations resist removal by leaching, can be

replaced by other ions by mass action

. Takes place on clay/humus colloids and on root surfaces

. Most commonly held cations= Ca, K, Mg, H, Na, Al, NH4

. Proportions of these cations change constantly due to
leaching, plant absorption
 . Cation Exchange Mechanism

. Secure cations and keep them available to the plants

for potential absorption

. Water removing through the soil may move/remove some

cations
. For every cation at is adsorbed, one goes
back into the soil solution
. Some may precipitate out and form
insoluble salts
. Affects soil aggregates, and nutrient
availability

. Plants absorb soil N as it is made available

. Well-vegetated soils lose less N than bare soils

. Rate of movement decreases as strength of adsorption

increases
. Ex. Lead and Cadmium from sewage
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

– quantity of exchangeable cation sites/ unit wt. of dry soil.

. Measured in centimoles/kg of dry soil

. Which soils will have higher CEC, sand/clay?
. Amounts of exchangeable cations can be high
(even at 24-36”)

. CEC level typically constant – as long a soil humus/clay

content is the same.

. Labs measure CEC with soil analysis

. Can estimate, if you know sol clay and organic matter

content
Importance of Cation Exchange

. Plant nutrients Ca, Mg, K are supplied to plants mainly from

exchangeable forms

. Exchangeable pools of Ca, Mg, K are major sources

of these nutrients for plants

. Amount of lime required to raise pH of an acidic soil

increases as the CEC increases

. Cation exchange sites hold Ca, Mg, K, Na, and NH4

ions and slow their released by leaching

. Adsorb many metals present in wastewater and

prevent pollution to ground/surface waters
4. Soil pH

. Indication of the acidity/basicity of the soil

. At pH 7.0 – H+ ions equal OH- ions

. 10x change between each whole pH number

. pH 5.0 is 10x more acidic than pH 6.0

. Typical soil pH ranges from 4.0 to 10

. Most plants grow well from 5.5 to 8.5

. Strongly acidic soils undesirable – develop

toxic levels Al and Mn, microbe activity
greatly reduced

. Strongly alkaline soils have low micronutrient

availability, P maybe deficient

. Soils can become acidic as rainfall leaches nutrients away

. What is more difficult to alter, soil acidity or alkalinity?

. Chelates – fertilizer forms than can be added to protect soil

nutrients
Importance of Soil pH

. Affects solubility of minerals

. More soluble in slightly acidic soils
. Most crops do best at pH 6.5

. Plants preferring acid soils

- Azalea, rhododendrons, blueberries, pineapple

. Plants preferring basic soils

- barley, sugar beets
High calcium demand

. Neutral/slightly basic pH
- Alfalfa
Additional Review Questions with Answers
1. Define and describe soil colloids

Soil colloids are very small particles of matter whose size

ranges fro 0.2 micron to 1 micron (1 micron orｕis 1/1000 mm or
10-4 cm). Thus colloidal particles are too small to be seen by the
naked eye.

Familiar examples of colloidal particles are milk, fog, starch and

gelatin. Because of their smallness, soil colloids have
tremendous surface area per unit amount. This plus the
presence of electrical charges on their surfaces make them
chemically reactive. Hence, colloids are considered as te seat of
chemical activities or reactions in soils.

There are two groups of soil colloids: organic and mineral or

inorganic. The organic colloids are represented by humus and
the inorganic colloids are exemplified by the silicate and non-
silicate clays
2. Give examples of the slicate and non-silicate clay minerals
commonly occuring in soils.

The silicate clay minerals are so-called because their basic

chemical structre is made up of silicon and aluminum.

Examples of silicate clays are:

Kaolinite, Si4Al4O10(OH)8
Montmorillonite, Si8(Al4Mgx)O20(OH)4
Vermiculite (Mg.Ca)(Si8Alx)(Mg,Fe)6O20(OH)4
Illite (mixture of micas, muscovite and biotite and
montmorillonite) muscovite, K2 (Si6 Al2) Al4 O20(OH)4
and biotite, K2(Si6Al2)(Mg, Fe)6O20(OH)4
 Examples of the non-silicate clays are:
Examples
Hematite, Fe2O3
Goethite, Fe2O3 . H2O
Limonite, Fe2O3 . 3H2O
Boehmite, Al2O3 . H2O
Gibbsite, Al2O3. 2H2O

The oxides and hydrous oxide of iron and aluminum are known
collectively as sesquioxides. In addition to the silicate and non-
silicate clay minerals, other non-crystalline volcanic materials called
allophanes are also colloidal in size and conribute to chemical
properties of soils. Allophanes are also silicates but are non-
crystalline or amorphous
3. Describe the basic crystal structure of the silicate clay minerals

Silicate clay particles consist of sheets of silica tetrahedron and

aluminum octahedron molecular units. A silica tetrahedron consists
of a silicon atom at the center surrounded by oxygen and hydroxyl
(OH).

A tetrahedron has a four-sided molecular configuration while an

octahedron has an eight-sided arrangement. The silica and alumina
layers or sheets are bound by shared oxygen atoms. Thus each
clay particle is a crystal unit made up oflayers or sheets. This
arrangement is called lattice structure.
4. Describe how clay minerals are formed

Since the clay minerals are among the most reactive

components of the soil, it is worthwhile to note where they
come from. The clay minerals: montmorillonite, illite, kaolinite,
sesquioxides and allophanes are secondary minerals formed
by weathering and alteration of existing primary minerals, for
example: micas, feldspars and ferromagnesian minerals or by
alteration of other secondary minerals.

5. Enumerate the sources of negative charges of siicate clays:

Negative charges arise mainly from exposed hydroxyl

groups at the broken edges of crystals and from isomorphous
(same size) substitutions of ions in the silica or octahedral
sheets.

Charges also arise when the H of the hydroxyl dissociates

especially at high or alkaline pH environment.
6. Explain where possitive charges of soil colloids come from.

The positive charges of soil colloids may arise due to the

following mechanisms:

1. Protonation or addition of H+ to OH- groups on the edge of

minerals such as sesquioxides, allophane and kaolinite
2. Exchange of OH- groups for other anions.

These mechanisms occur particularly at low pH or acid soil

conditions. They enable the soil to attract negatively charged
ions (anions exchange capacity)

Protonation may be shown as follows:

OH OH OH OH2 +
| |
A +2H+ Al
| OH2 +
OH OH
OH
7.Explain how organic colloids contribute to the chemical
properties of soils.

Organic colloids as represented by humus are also

colloidal in nature and also possess negative charges.

While the structural framework of inorganic colloids is made

up mainly of Si, Al and O 2, that of organic colloids consist of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Humus is not crystalline but has also about the same

specific surface area.

Humus, like montmorillonitic clays enables the soil to have

grater ability to absorb (attract on the surface) and exchange
ions (cations exchange caoacity)
8. Explain the importance of the presence of negative charges
in the soils.

The presence of negative chages in the soil enables the

soil to store nutrients, specifically the positively charged ions or
cations. The cations are absorbed (attracted on surfaces of
colloids) and kept from being washed away by water passing
through the soil solum.

9. Describe the characteristics of cation exchange reactions

Cation exchange reactions in soils are instantaneous,

reversible and stoichiometric.
10. Elaborate on the concept of me/100 gm as an expression of
CEC.

The unit of milliequivalent as an expression of CEC of the soil is

the amount of cations held per 100 gm of soil. The me of each
cation is thus computed t get the total amount of cations per 100 gm
soil.

11. Discuss the soil properties that determine the magnitude of CEC.

The soil properties that determine the CEC are texture, amount
and type of clay and organic matter content.
12. Define percentage base saturation (%BS).

Base saturation is the degree by which the exchange sites

in the colloids are occupied by basic cations. The basic
cations are Calcium, Magnessium, Potassium, Sodium,
Ammonium, etc.

13. Define exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP).

Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is the degree by

which the exchange sites of cololids are occupied by sodium
ions.
14. Define and explain soil pH.

Soil pH is the degree of acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of

the soil. It is also called soil reaction and is determined by
the relative concentration of H+ and OH- ions.

15. Explain the significance of soil pH in relation t plant

growth.

The most important effect of soil pH is facilitating the

availability of nutrients and activities of microorganisms.
When pH is too low (below 5.0), aluminum, zinc, copper, iron
and manganese become more soluble so that the amounts
released in the soil may reach toxic levels for plants. Under
acidic condition, phosphorous become unavailable.

Under alkaline and basic soil conditions, nutrients

likewise become unavailable.
16. Explain how soils become acidic.

Soils become acidic when the bases are leached

out and are replaced by H+ ions. Hydrogen ions which
are responsible for soil acidity can come from many
sources, such as hydrolysis of aluminum, decomposition
of organic matter and nitrification of ammonium.

17. Differentiate active acidity and reserve acidity.

Active acidity is due to H+ ions in soil solution while

reserve or exchange acidity is due to H+ and Al+ ions
adsorbed on colloid surfaces.
18. Define lime and give examples.

Lime is any material containing calcium or

magnesium or both which when added to the soil can
neutralize acidity.

The most commonly used commercial lime is

limestone which is made up chiefly of the minerals
calcite, CaCO3 or dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2.

19. Explain the meaning of relative neutralizing power

(RNP) of a liming material.

The relative neutralizing power of lime is its strength

or effectiveness in correcting soil acidity compared to
calcium carbonate.
20. Describe the effects of lime on soil.

The beneficial effects of the reaction of lime with the

soil are:

1. The H+ ion concentration decreases and soil

acidity is reduced.
2. There is an increase in the availability of
nutrients, particularly Ca, Mg, K, P and Mo.
3. It reduces the toxicity of Al, Fe, and Mn.
4. It stimulates the activities of heterotrophic soil
organisms or those responsible for the
decomposition of organic matter with the
subsequent mineralization of nitrogen.
5. It enhances the symbiotic nitrogen fixation of
bacteria in legumes.
6. It encourages soil granulation.
21. Discuss the characteristics of saline and sodic soils

Saline soils are those whose soluble salt content

is too high such as that plant growth is adversely
affected. Soils are considered saline if the electrical
conductivity (EC) of the soil extract is greater than 4
mmhos/cm.

Sodic soils are those whose soluble Na content is

more than 15% of the CEC. The EC is less than
4mmhos/cm but the pH goes above 8.5 and may even
reach 10.0.

Sodic soils are highly dispersed and therefore are

poorly drained, but the other effect on plants is the
toxicity of Na+ ions and the associated OH ions.
22. Explain how saline and sodic soils are reclaimed

One way is to repeatedly flood the soil with fresh

water and leach out the soluble salts and sodium if the
soil is well-drained. Diversion canals must be constructed
to prevent entry of salt water.

For sodic soils, application of gypsum is usually

recommended followed by leaching.

A cheaper way to put saline soils to good use is to

plant salt-tolerant crops like cotton, pea, lettuce, onions,
tomatoes, and coconut.
23. Differentiate the chemistry between upland and
lowland soils.

Upland or dryland soils are grown to such crops

as corn vegetables, etc. while lowland or paddy soils
are grown to aquatic crops like rice.

Upland soils are aerobic most of the time while

lowland soils, being continuously submerged are
anaerobic except for a thin oxidized layer at the surface

Under upland conditions, organic matter

decomposes with CO 2 as a major product. Under
anaerobic conditions, the major products of organic
matter decomposition are methane (CH 4 ), hydrogen
sulfide (H2S), organic acids, alcohols and ketones.