 First Generation (1940 – 1955) .

Example : Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) ,

EDVAC
 Second Generation (1956 – 1965) : IBM 1401
 Third Generation (1966 – 1975) : IBM System/360
 Fourth Generation (1976 – 1985) : Macintosh 128k
 Fifth Generation (1986 -till date) : Super computer

First Generation: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

The first computer systems used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, taking up entire rooms. These computers were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a
great deal of electricity, the first computers generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language understood by
computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. It would take operators days
or even weeks to set-up a new problem. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was
displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was
the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

A UNIVAC computer at the Census Bureau.

Second Generation: Transistors (1956-1963)

The world would see transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers. The transistor
was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. 
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more
energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated
a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
From Binary to Assembly

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly,

languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming
languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These
were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum
to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971)

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors
were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and
efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first
time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Did You Know... ? An integrated circuit (IC) is a small electronic device made out of a semiconductor
material. The first integrated circuit was developed in the 1950s by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and Robert
Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor.
Fourth Generation:  Microprocessors (1971-Present)
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built
onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the
hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central
processing unitand memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh.
Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and
more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which
eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development
of GUIs, the mouseand handheld devices.

Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond)

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are
some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and
superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years
to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input
and are capable of learning and self-organization.

Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to purpose,
data handling and functionality.
According to purpose, computers are either general purpose or specific purpose.  General purpose
computers are designed to perform a range of tasks. They have the ability to store numerous
programs, but lack in speed and efficiency. Specific purpose computers are designed to handle a
specific problem or to perform a specific task. A set of instructions is built into the machine. 
According to data handling, computers are analog, digital or hybrid. Analog computers work on the
principle of measuring, in which the measurements obtained are translated into data. Modern analog
computers usually employ electrical parameters, such as voltages, resistances or currents, to
represent the quantities being manipulated. Such computers do not deal directly with the numbers.
They measure continuous physical magnitudes. Digital computers are those that operate
with information, numerical or otherwise, represented in a digital form. Such computers process data
into a digital value (in 0s and 1s). They give the results with more accuracy and at a faster
rate. Hybrid computers incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer and counting
feature of a digital computer. For computational purposes, these computers use analog components
and for storage, digital memories are used.
According to functionality, Type of computers are classified as : 
Analog Computer 
 An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that
uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model
the problem being solved. 
Digital Computer
 A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as digits,
usually in the binary number system
Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)
 A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and  analog
signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performing complex
simulations.
 On the basis of Size: Type of Computer
Super Computer  
The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations.
For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include
animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all
its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to
execute many programs concurrently. 
Mainframe Computer
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users
simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at
the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below supercomputers. In
some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more
simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. 
Mini Computer 
A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations and mainframes. In
the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred,
however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a
minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users
simultaneously.
Micro Computer or Personal Computer
• Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.
• Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. It is
generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.
• Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops have no
keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.
Workstations
A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic term for a
user's machine (client machine) in contrast to a "server" or "mainframe."
Basic Concepts of Computer
Computer is an electronic device which is used to store the data, as per given instructions it
gives results quickly and accurately.
 Data : Data is a raw material of information.
 Information : Proper collection of the data is called information.
Characteristics of Computer
 SPEED : In general, no human being can compete to solving the complex computation, faster
than computer.
 ACCURACY : Since Computer is programmed, so what ever input we give it gives result with
accuratly.
 STORAGE : Computer can store mass storage of data with appropriate formate.
 DILIGENCE : Computer can work for hours without any break and creating error.
  VERSATILITY : We can use computer to perform completely different type of work at the
same time.
 POWER OF REMEMBERING : It can remember data for us.
 NO IQ : Computer does not work without instruction.
 NO FEELING : Computer does not have emotions, knowledge, experience, feeling.
 Storage Capacity
Today’s computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of information once recorded (or stored)
in the computer, can never be forgotten and can be retrieved almost instantaneously.
Computer and its components
Computer : Computer itself a combination of different type of separate electronic device. i.e.
Computer only will be computer if it has INPUT DEVICE, PROCESS UNIT, and OUTPUT DEVICE.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) : It is heart and mind of the computer without this unit computer
unable to process.
 Keyboard : This is an input device which is used to input the data into the computer.
 Mouse : This is also an input device which is used to input the data into the computer.
 Monitor : This is an output device which is used to show the result of the instructions.
Memory
Updated: 06/30/2019 by Computer Hope
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily like RAM (random
access memory), or permanently, like ROM (read-only memory). Memory devices utilize integrated circuits and
are used by operating systems, software, and hardware.
Volatile vs. non-volatile memory
Memory can be either volatile and non-volatile memory. Volatile memory is a memory that loses its contents
when the computer or hardware device loses power. Computer RAM is an example of a volatile memory and is
why if your computer freezes or reboots when working on a program, you lose anything that hasn't been
saved. Non-volatile memory, sometimes abbreviated as NVRAM, is a memory that keeps its contents even if
the power is lost. EPROM is an example of a non-volatile memory.
Types of memory
There are several types of memory for computers. They are listed below.
ROM
ROM is separated into three categories:
 PROM
 EPROM
 EEPROM
RAM
There are six types of RAM:
 SDRAM
 DDR RAM
 DDR2 RAM
 DDR3 RAM
 DDR4 RAM
SDRAM
Updated: 11/13/2018 by Computer Hope
SDRAM, which is short for Synchronous DRAM, is a type of memory that synchronizes itself with the
computer's system clock. Being synchronized allows the memory to run at higher speeds than previous memory
types and asynchronous DRAM and also supports up to 133 MHz system bus cycling. Since 1993, this is the
prevalent type of memory used in computers around the world. In the picture below is an example of a SDRAM
DIMM. The original type, named SDRAM, up to the current type, DDR3, are all derivatives of the SDRAM
memory type.
DDR
Updated: 10/04/2017 by Computer Hope
 DDR may refer to any of the following:
1. Short for double data rate, DDR is memory that was first introduced in 1996 and has since been replaced
by DDR2. DDR utilizes both the rising and falling edge of the system clock, potentially doubling the speed of
the memory. Today, DDR technology is found on high-end video cardsand computer memory such as DDR-
SDRAM.
DDR2
Updated: 11/13/2018 by Computer Hope
Short for double data rate two, DDR2 is the second generation of DDR memory that was released in
September 2003. DDR2 is capable of operating at greater speeds than DDR, offers a greater bandwidth
potential, operates on less power, and generates less heat. Due to architectural differences,
DDR2 memory modules are incompatible with DDR slots.
DDR3
Updated: 11/13/2018 by Computer Hope

Short for double data rate three, DDR3 is a type of DRAM(dynamic random-access memory) released in
June 2007 as the successor to DDR2. DDR3 chips have bus clock speed of 400 MHz up to 1066 MHz, range in
size from 1 to 24 GB, and consume nearly 30% less power than their predecessors. DDR3 RAM sticks for a
desktop computer have 240 pins. For a laptop computer, DDR3 RAM sticks have 204 pins.
These memory chips can only be installed on a motherboard that supports DDR3 memory and are not backward
compatible with DDR2 memory slots.
DDR4
Updated: 04/26/2017 by Computer Hope

Short for double data rate four, DDR4 is a type of system memory known as SDRAM and was released in
September 2014as the successor to DDR3. DDR4 has bus clock speeds that range from 800 to 1600 MHz and
range in storage capacity from 4 to 128 GB per DIMM. DDR4 is also more efficient at 1.2 V when compared to
DDR3's 1.5 to 1.65 V range.
Types of computer memory (RAM and ROM)
Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because without it computer can’t perform simple
tasks. Computer memory is of two basic type – Primary memory / Volatile memory and Secondary memory /
non-volatile memory. Random Access Memory (RAM) is volatile memory and Read Only Memory (ROM) is
non-volatile memory.

1. Random Access Memory (RAM) –

 It is also called as read write memory or the main memory or the primary memory.
 The programs and data that the CPU requires during execution of a program are stored in this
memory.
  It is a volatile memory as the data loses when the power is turned off.
 RAM is further classified into two types- SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) and DRAM
(Dynamic Random Access Memory).

2. Read Only Memory (ROM) –

 Stores crucial information essential to operate the system, like the program essential to boot the
computer.
 It is not volatile.
 Always retains its data.
 Used in embedded systems or where the programming needs no change.
 Used in calculators and peripheral devices.
 ROM is further classified into 4 types- ROM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

Types of Read Only Memory (ROM) –

1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory) – It can be programmed by user. Once programmed, the
data and instructions in it cannot be changed.
2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable read only memory) – It can be reprogrammed. To erase data from
it, expose it to ultra violet light. To reprogram it, erase all the previous data.
3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read only memory) – The data can be erased by
applying electric field, no need of ultra violet light. We can erase only portions of the chip.
System Software
We use the term System Software for software which is primarily used to operate the hardware.
Operating Systems
The operating system is the software that allows you to operate the hardware. The programs that we want to
execute, the applications that we want to use all require a platform on which to execute. That platform is
provided by the operating system.
One role of the operating system is to provide a virtual machine. This refers to the way that, by clicking on
icons and menus, or by typing in commands at a prompt, we get to interact with the computer hardware without
having to understand its complexity. By hiding the true complexity of the system from the user, the operating
system makes it easier for ordinary people to make computers perform useful tasks.
Utility Programs
Some utility programs are bundled in with operating system software these days. Others you buy or source in
some other way.
Utility programs tend to perform specific tasks related to the management of hardware. Examples of utility
programs include compression programs, formatters, defragmenters and other disk management tools.
Whatever language or type of language we use to write our programs, they need to be in machine code in order
to be executed by the computer. There are 3 main categories of translator used,
Application Software
Application software tends be used for the tasks that have some relationship to the world outside of the
computer. For example, you might use a word processor to write a letter or an essay. Although you use the
computer to perform the task, the task itself might reasonably be considered to be a non-computer task.

Assembler
An assembler is a program that translates the mnemonic codes used in assembly language into the bit patterns
that represent machine operations. Assembly language has a one-to-one equivalence with machine code, each
assembly statement can be converted into a single machine operation.
Compiler
A compiler turns the source code that you write in a high-level language into object code (machine code) that
can be executed by the computer.
The compiler is a more complex beast than the assembler. It may require several machine operations to
represent a single high-level language statement. As a result, compiling may well be a lengthy process with very
large programs.
Interpreter
Interpreters translate the source code at run-time. The interpreter translates statements one-at-a-time as the
program is executed.
Interpreters are often used to execute high-level language programs whilst they are being developed since this
can be quicker than compiling the entire program. The program would be compiled when it is complete and
ready to be released.
Interpreters are also used with high-level scripting languages like PHP, Javascript and many more. These
instructions are not compiled and have to be interpreted either by the browser (in the case of Javascript) or by
interpreters on the server (in the case of PHP).
Some programming languages make use of both compilers and interpreters. If you were to write a Java program
in a text editor, when you came to compile it with the Java compiler, you would actually be creating something
called bytecode. Bytecode can be thought of as an intermediate stage between source code and object code.
When a computer executes a Java program, library programs on that machine interpret the bytecode. This
allows Java to be platform-independent - a user needs the correct run-time libraries for Java on their machine in
order to execute the programs.

Command is an instruction written in a computer acceptable language that user types on the dos
prompt. It will execute and do the appropriate action. There are mainly two types of dos command.

Internal commands                   

External commands

1.Internal commands: The internal commands are those commands that are automatically loaded in
the memory. Some commonly used DOS internal commands are

1 Cls                          
2. Dir              
3. Date                      
4. Time                      
5. Ver             
6. Copycon               
7. Type          
8. Ren                       
9. Del                         
10. MD                      
11. CD                                   
12. RD                       
13. Copy       

1) Cls :- The purpose of this command is to clear the display screen and redisplay the Dos prompt at
the top  left corner of the screen.

Syntax:- C : / > Cls

2) Dir:- It displays the list of directories and files on the screen.

Syntax:- C : / > dir.

     a. C : / > dir/p – It displays the list of directories or files page wise
     b. C: / > dir/w- It displays the list of directories or files width wise
     c. C : / > dir/d: –It display list of directories or files in drive D
     d. C : / > dir filename . extension – It displays the information of specified file.
     e. C : / > dir file name with wild cards.

Wild cards: - It is the set of special characters wild are used with some commonly used DOS
commands there are two types of wild cards.

1. Asterisk (*)
2. Question mark (?)
1. Asterisk:-  (*) The wild word will match all characters. 
1. C : / > dir *.* - will display list of all files and directories. 
2. C : / > dir R*.* - will display all files stored with first character R.

2. Question mark: - This wild card represents a single character that a group or files have in common.

1) C : / > dir  ac .* - will display all files having any first character and remaining name has given in
command.

2) C : / > dir ??? R . doc-will display all files having extension doc and having any first three letters and
fourth letter is R.

3) Date: - It displays the current system date. User can also change the current date with new date by
using this command.

Syntax: - C : /> date

Current date is: sat 3-25-2015
Enter of new date (mm-dd-yy):-

4. Time : - It displays the current systems time user can also change existing time with new time by using
this command.

Syntax : - C : / > time

Current time is 12 : 39 - 48 : 36 p
Enter new time : -

5. VER : It displays the version of DOS being used currently.

Syntax : - C : / > Ver

MS – Dos version 6 : 20
Copy card .

6. copycon : - The purpose of this command is to create  a file.

Syntax : - C : / > copy con filename . extension

Saves the contents of file by pressing  ctrl +z key combination at the last time of the file. File name should
not be greater than 11 characters out of which 8 characters are for the name and 3 characters are for the
extension.

Extension is optional :
Eg : C : / > copy con ram
I am a good boy
1. File is copied.
C:/>

7. TYPE:- Allows the user to see the contents of a file.

Syntax :- C :/ >Type path

Eg: C:/ > Type D:/> ramu
8. REN : - The purpose of this command is to rename the old file name with new file name.

Syntax : - C : / > ren oldfilename  newfilename

C : / > ren ramu somu

9. DEL:- The purpose of this command is to delete file. The user can also delete multiple files by busing
this command and long with while cards.

Syntax : - C : / > Del file name . extension

                  C : / > Del ramu
                  C : Del x . prg.

10. MD:- The purpose of this command is to create a new directly or sub directly i.e sub ordinate to
the currently logged directly.

Syntax : - C : /> MD directory

C : /> MD sub directory

Ex : C : / > MD college

Now user wants to create a sub directory first year in college directory then
C : / > cd college
C : / > college > Md first year

11. CD : - The purpose of this command is to change from one director to another directory or sub –
directory.

Syntax : - C : / > CD directory name

Ex : C: / > cd college

C : / > college > CD first year
C : / > college > first year >
If the user wants to move to the parents directory then use CD command as
C : / > college > first year > cd ….
C : / > college >

12 . RD: - The purpose of this command is to  remove a directory or sub directory. If the user wants to
remove a directory or sub – directory then first delete all the files in the sub – directory and then
remove sub directory and remove  empty main directory.

13. COPY: The purpose of this command is to copy one or more specified files to another disk with
same file name or with different file name.

Syntax : - C : / > copy source path target path

C : / > copy A :/>  *. *  C : /> chinni
                                         
2. External commands: -  This commands are not permanent part of the memory. To execute or run this
commands an external file is required.

Example : [.] Dot  exe, bat.

Some commonly used DOS external commands are .
1. CHKDSK:- The command CHSDK returns the configuration status of the selected disk. It returns the
information about the volume, serial number, total disk space, space in directories, space in each
allocation unit, total memory and free memory.

Syntax : - C : / > CHKDSK drive name

Eg:- C : / > CHKDSK   e :
If drive name is not mentioned by default current drive is considered.

2. Diskcopy : - Disk copy command is used to make duplicate copy of the disk like Xerox copy. It first
formats the target disk and then copies the files by collection. From the source disk and copied to the
target disk.

Syntax : - C : / > disk copy < source path > < destination path >
Ex: - c : / > diskcopy A : B :

NOTE: - This command is used after diskcopy command to ensure that disk is copied successfully.

3. Format : - Format is used to erase information off of a computer diskette or fixed drive.

Syntax : - C : / > format drive name

Ex : C : / > format  A:

4. Label : This command is used to see volume label and to change volume label.

Syntax : C : / > label drive name

Ex : C : / > label  A:

5.Scandisk : - This utility is used to repair and check various  disk errors. It also defects various physical
disk errors and surface errors.
Syntax : - C : / > scandisk < drive names >
 C : / > Scandisk  A :

6. Move : The purpose of move is move to files from one place to another place.

Syntax: C : / > Move < source path > < target  path >

7. Print :This command allowed users to print a text file to a line printer.
Syntax : C : / > Print  < files name >
C : / > print ramu

8. Tree : This command displays the list of directories and files on specified path using graphical display. It
displays directories of files like a tree.

Syntax:- C : / > tree > path

C : / > tree  A:

9. Deltree: This command is used to delete files a directories same as by the del and RD commands. This
command is more useful than del and RD commands because it completely removes specified directories
ie.,  disk will all it files and sub – directories at a time.

Syntax:- C : /  > deltree (path)

C : / > deltree  A:/>ramu 
Types of Network Topology
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various nodes(sender and
receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single cable. When
it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer, with the
last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring
topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last
node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then
the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to
reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can
be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual
Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in them.
Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through each
node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes having
tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central
node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the
hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or
coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network
traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to each other.
Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding
MESH Topology: Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data
to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which
has information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can
even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.
MESH Topology: Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no
routing logic is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to
lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology
1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion as
mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical
topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in
groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and
easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.
HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a
mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in
an office in one department ring topology is used and
in another star topology is used, connecting these
topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring
topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology
1. It is a combination of two or topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of
the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble
shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

What is the Internet?

The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks that connects university, government, commercial,
and other computers in over 150 countries. There are thousands of networks, tens of thousands of computers,
and millions of users on the Internet, with the numbers expanding daily. Using the Internet, you can send
electronic mail, chat with colleagues around the world, and obtain information on a wide variety of subjects.
Short Note on Internet

The Internet in essence is a network system of the interconnected computer systems globally, that is
available to everyone. These interconnected computer systems work by sending data by way of a particular
form of packet switching which is known as the IP or the internet protocol. To put it differently, the Internet is
truly a worldwide system of interconnected computer networks designed to use the standard Internet Protocol
Suite (TCP/IP).
It’s a network of networks which incorporates a great number of private, public, academic, business, and govt
networks, of local to global range, that are connected with a vast array of electronic, wireless and optical
networking technologies. The Net posesses a huge variety of data resources and services, like the inter-linked
hypertext docs of the World Wide Web (WWW) as well as the infrastructure to allow for electronic mail.
The application of IP in the Internet is the essential element of the network, mainly because they provide the
services of the internet, via various tiers organization through the IP data packets. There are numerous protocols
which are the sub-classes of the IP Internet protocol itself, such as the TCP, and the HTTP.
The Internet doesn’t have central governance either in technological setup or guidelines for entry and usage;
every single constituent network establishes its very own standards. Just the overreaching definitions of the 2
primary name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address space and the Domain Name System, are
focused by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN).
The technological underpinning and standardization of the key protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is surely an activity
of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit institution of loosely associated global members
which anyone may associate with by contributing technological know-how.

What does Internet Service Provider (ISP) mean?

An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides customers with Internet access. Data may be
transmitted using several technologies, including dial-up, DSL, cable modem, wireless or dedicated high-speed
interconnects.
Typically, ISPs also provide their customers with the ability to communicate with one another by providing
Internet email accounts, usually with numerous email addresses at the customer’s discretion. Other services,
such as telephone and television services, may be provided as well. The services and service combinations may
be unique to each ISP.
An Internet service provider is also known as an Internet access provider (IAP).
An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides customers withInternet access. Data may be
transmitted using several technologies, including dial-up, DSL, cable modem, wireless or dedicated high-speed
interconnects.
 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) mean?
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the language a computer uses to access the
internet. It consists of a suite of protocols designed to establish a network of networks to provide a host with
access to the internet.
TCP/IP is responsible for full-fledged data connectivity and transmitting the data end to end by providing other
functions, including addressing, mapping and acknowledgment. TCP/IP contains four layers, which differ
slightly from the OSI model.
The technology is so common that one would rarely use the full name. In other words, in common usage the
acronym is now the term itself.

Short for transmission control protocol/Internet protocol, TCP/IP is a set of rules (protocols) governing

communications among all computers on the Internet.
More specifically, TCP/IP dictates how information should be packaged (turned into bundles of information
called packets), sent, and received, as well as how to get to its destination.

Three of the most common TCP/IP protocols

 HTTP - Used between a web client and a web server, for non-secure data transmissions. A web
client (i.e., Internet browser on a computer) sends a request to a web server to view a web page.
The web server receives that request and sends the web page information back to the web client.
 HTTPS - Used between a web client and a web server, for secure data transmissions. Often used for
sending credit card transaction data or private data from a web client (i.e., Internet browser on a
computer) to a web server.
 FTP - Used between two or more computers. One computer sends data to or receives data from another
computer directly.