Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements

3.1 Evapotranspiration Process

3.2 Determination of Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETo)
3.3 Duty-Delta Relationship
3.4 Determination of Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc) Under Standard Conditions
3.5 Irrigation Efficiencies
3.6 Irrigation Scheduling

3.1 Evapotranspiration Process

The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost on the one hand from the soil
surface by evaporation and on the other hand from the crop by transpiration is referred to as
evapotranspiration (ET).

Evaporation
Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapour (vaporization) and
removed from the evaporating surface (vapour removal). Water evaporates from a variety of surfaces,
such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet vegetation.

Transpiration:
Transpiration consists of the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant tissues and the vapour
removal to the atmosphere. Crops predominately lose their water through stomata. These are small
openings on the plant leaf through which gases and water vapour pass. The water, together with some
nutrients, is taken up by the roots and transported through the plant. The vaporization occurs within
the leaf, namely in the intercellular spaces, and the vapour exchange with the atmosphere is controlled
by the stomatal aperture. Nearly all water taken up is lost by transpiration and only a tiny fraction is
used within the plant.

Transpiration, like direct evaporation, depends on the energy supply, vapour pressure gradient and
wind. Hence, radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind terms should be considered when
assessing transpiration. The soil water content and the ability of the soil to conduct water to the roots
also determine the transpiration rate, as do water logging and soil water salinity. The transpiration rate
is also influenced by crop characteristics, environmental aspects and cultivation practices.

Evapotranspiration (ET):
Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of distinguishing
between the two processes. Apart from the water availability in the topsoil, the evaporation from a
cropped soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar radiation reaching the soil surface. This
fraction decreases over the growing period as the crop develops and the crop canopy shades more and
more of the ground area. When the crop is small, water is predominately lost by soil evaporation, but
once the crop is well developed and completely covers the soil, transpiration becomes the main
process. In Figure 1 the partitioning of evapotranspiration into evaporation and transpiration is plotted
in correspondence to leaf area per unit surface of soil below it. At sowing nearly 100% of ET comes
from evaporation, while at full crop cover more than 90% of ET comes from transpiration.

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
Factors affecting evapotranspiration
Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental aspects are factors
affecting evaporation and transpiration. The related ET concepts presented in Figure 1 are discussed
in the section on evapotranspiration concepts.

FIGURE 1. Factors affecting evapotranspiration with reference to related ET concepts

Weather parameters

The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are radiation, air temperature, humidity
and wind speed. Several procedures have been developed to assess the evaporation rate from these
parameters. The evaporation power of the atmosphere is expressed by the reference crop
evapotranspiration (ETo). The reference crop evapotranspiration represents the evapotranspiration
from a standardized vegetated surface. The ETo is described in detail later in this Chapter.

Crop factors

The crop type, variety and development stage should be considered when assessing the
evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-managed fields. Differences in resistance to
transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection, ground cover and crop rooting characteristics
result in different ET levels in different types of crops under identical environmental conditions. Crop
evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) refers to the evaporating demand from crops that
are grown in large fields under optimum soil water, excellent management and environmental
conditions, and achieve full production under the given climatic conditions.

3.2 Determination of Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETo)

The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the reference crop
evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is denoted as ET o. The reference surface is a
hypothetical grass reference crop with specific characteristics. The use of other denominations such
as potential ET is strongly discouraged due to ambiguities in their definitions.

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. Consequently, ETo is a climatic parameter and
can be computed from weather data. ETo expresses the evaporating power of the atmosphere at a
specific location and time of the year and does not consider the crop characteristics and soil factors.

ET measurement

Evapotranspiration is not easy to measure. Specific devices and accurate measurements of various
physical parameters or the soil water balance in lysimeters are required to determine
evapotranspiration. Although the methods are inappropriate for routine measurements, they remain
important for the evaluation of ET estimates obtained by more indirect methods.
Direct Measurement of ET include:
A) Lysimeter experiment
B) Soil moisture studies
C) Water balance method

A) Lysimeter experiment:

By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and controlling the processes that are difficult to
measure, the different terms in the soil water balance equation can be determined with greater
accuracy. This is done in lysimeters where the crop grows in isolated tanks filled with either disturbed
or undisturbed soil. In precision weighing lysimeters, where the water loss is directly measured by the
change of mass, evapotranspiration can be obtained with an accuracy of a few hundredths of a
millimeter, and small time periods such as an hour can be considered. In non-weighing lysimeters the
evapotranspiration for a given time period is determined by deducting the drainage water, collected at
the bottom of the lysimeters, from the total water input.
A requirement of lysimeters is that the vegetation both inside and immediately outside of the
lysimeter be perfectly matched (same height and leaf area index). This requirement has historically
not been closely adhered to in a majority of lysimeter studies and has resulted in severely erroneous
and unrepresentative ETc and Kc data.

B) Soil moisture studies

In this method soil moisture measurements are done before and after each irrigation application.
Knowing the time gap b/n the two consecutive irrigations, the quantity of water extracted per day can
be computed by dividing the total moisture depletion b/n the two successive irrigations by the interval
of irrigation. Then a curve is drawn by plotting the rate of use of water against the time from this
curve, seasonal water use of crops is determined.

C) Water balance method

Evapotranspiration can also be determined by measuring the various components of the soil water
balance. The method consists of assessing the incoming and outgoing water flux into the crop root

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
zone over some time period (Figure 4). Irrigation (I) and rainfall (P) add water to the root zone. Part
of I and P might be lost by surface runoff (RO) and by deep percolation (DP) that will eventually
recharge the water table. Water might also be transported upward by capillary rise (CR) from a
shallow water table towards the root zone or even transferred horizontally by subsurface flow in
(SFin) or out of (SFout) the root zone. In many situations, however, except under conditions with large
slopes, SFin and SFout are minor and can be ignored. Soil evaporation and crop transpiration deplete
water from the root zone. If all fluxes other than evapotranspiration (ET) can be assessed, the

period:

ET = I + P - RO -

Some fluxes such as subsurface flow, deep percolation and capillary rise from a water table are
difficult to assess and short time periods cannot be considered. The soil water balance method can
usually only give ET estimates over long time periods of the order of week-long or ten-day periods.

FIGURE 3 . Soil water balance of the root zone

Climatic Approaches to estimate evapotranspiration

Some empirical and theoretical equations are derived on the basis of regional relationship between
measured ET and climatic factors. The following methods are the combination of some empirical,
analytical and theoretical approaches.

1. FAO Balnney-Criddle Method

2. FAO Pan Evaporation Method
3. Thornthwaite Method
4. FAO-56 Penman – Monteith Method

1. ET0 = C P (0.46T + 8)

2. ET0 = kpEpan

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
a
 10Tm 
3. ETo  1.62 R f  
 Te 
4.

Where:
C = adjustment factor which depends on the min relative humidity, sunshine hours and daytime
wind estimates
Tm = Mean daily temperature in oC over the month considered
P = Mean daily percentage of total annual day time hours obtained from the relevant table
for a given month and latitude
Epa = Pan evaporation in mm/d and presents the mean daily value of the period considered
kp = Pan coefficient
Rf = reduction factor
a  0.4923  0.01792 Te  0.0000771 Te2  0.000000675 Te3
1.514
 Tm 
In (7) Te   
 5 
3.2.1 FAO Balney-Criddle Method
Blaney and Criddle (1962) proposed an empirical relation which is used largely by irrigation
engineers to calculate crop water requirement of various crops. Estimation of potential
evapotranspiration (consumptive use) is carried out by correlating it with sunshine temperature.
Sunshine at a place is dependent on latitude of the place and varies with month of the year.
Table3.1: Monthly day time percentage hours (P) to be used by Blaney-Criddle Formula

Lat. Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
o
N
0 8.50 7.66 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50
10 8.13 7.47 8.45 8.37 8.81 8.60 8.86 8.71 8.25 8.34 7.91 8.10
15 7.94 7.36 8.43 8.44 8.98 8.80 9.05 8.83 8.28 8.26 7.75 7.88
20 7.74 7.25 8.41 8.52 9.15 9.00 9.25 8.96 8.30 8.18 7.58 7.66
25 7.53 7.14 8.39 8.61 9.33 9.23 9.45 9.09 8.32 8.09 7.40 7.42
30 7.30 7.03 8.38 8.72 9.53 9.49 9.67 9.22 8.33 7.99 7.19 7.15
35 7.05 6.88 8.35 8.83 9.76 9.77 9.93 9.37 8.36 7.87 6.97 6.86
40 6.76 6.72 8.33 8.95 10.02 10.08 10.22 9.54 8.39 7.75 6.72 6.52
42 6.63 6.65 8.31 9.00 10.14 10.22 10.35 9.62 8.40 7.69 6.62 6.37
44 6.49 6.58 8.30 9.06 10.26 10.38 10.49 9.70 8.41 7.63 6.49 6.21
46 6.34 6.50 8.29 9.12 10.39 10.54 10.64 9.79 8.42 7.57 6.36 6.04
48 6.17 6.41 8.27 9.18 10.53 10.71 10.80 9.89 8.44 7.51 6.23 5.86
50 5.98 6.30 8.24 9.24 10.68 10.91 10.99 10.00 8.46 7.45 6.100 5.65

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
ETo   K .F ...3.11
Where: F  (0.0457Tm  0.8128) P ...3.2
Here K is the monthly crop coefficient to be determined from experimental data, F the monthly
consumptive use factor, ETo the potential evapotranspiration in cm; Tm the mean monthly
temperature in 0C, P is the monthly percentage of hours of bright sunshine in the year (table-3.1).
Example Problem 3.1: Use Blaney-Criddle method to calculate consumptive use (PET)
for rice crop grown from January to March (Dalua Rabi crop) in Orissa at a latitude 22 0 N
from the following data taken from a nearby observatory. Find the net irrigation demand
for rice using the given rainfall during crop period.
Month January February March
0
Mean temperature C 12 16 24
Rainfall (mm) 8 20 16

Solution
For rice crop, monthly crop coefficient K of equation (3.1) may be taken as 1.10. Mean monthly
sunshine hours for latitude of 220N for the months of January, February and March are obtained form
Table-3.1 and tabulated below.

Table: Blaney-Criddle Method of Computation of Consumptive use of Rice Crop for the example
above:

Month Mean Monthly % (P) Monthly K PET Effective Depth of

monthly of day time Consumptive (4) x (5) rainfall at irrigation (6)
temp Hours from Use factor 80% – (7)
(Tm) Table 4.9 (F) (cm)2 (cm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
January 12 7.62 10.37 1.1 11.40 0.64 10.76
February 16 7.20 11.12 1.1 12.23 1.60 10.63
March 24 8.40 16.04 1.1 17.64 1.28 16.36

F for col. (4) for January = (0.0457 Tm + 0.8128) x P

= (0.0457 x 12 + 0.8128) x 7.62 = 10.37 cm
F (February) = (0.0457 x 16 + 0.8128) x 7.2 = 11.12 cm
F (March) = (0.0457 x 24 + 0.8128) x 84 = 16.04 cm
The net irrigation demand = 10.76 + 10.63 + 16.36 = 37.75 cm
For any month considered the ETo can be calculated by the following equation and by the help of
figure- below.
ET0 = C P (0.46T + 8) ...3.3
Where the parameters are as defined in previous section.
Figure 3.5 can be used to estimate ETo using calculated values of p(0.46T+8) for

1
This equation is used to determine the seasonal crop evapotranspiration
2 Effective rainfall=80%(Rainfall given in table)
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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
i) three levels of minimum humidity (RH min)
ii) three levels of the ratio of actual to maximum possible sunshine hours (n/N)
and
iii) three ranges of daytime wind conditions at 2m height (Uday).
Note:
Minimum humidity refers to minimum daytime humidity
Wind refers to daytime wind. Generally Uday/Unight =2 and mean 24 hr wind data should be
multiplied by 1.33 to obtain mean daytime wind.
Example Problem 3.2:
Given: Cairo, Egypt,: latitude 300N, altitude 95m, month July.
Calculation:
Tmax = Tmax daily values/31 350c.
Tmin = Tmin daily values/31 220c.
Tdaily mean = Tmean/31 or [(Tmax/31) +(Tmin/31)]/2 28.50c
0
P (from table for 30 N) 0.31
P(0.46T+8) = 0.31(0.46*28.5 +8) 6.6mm/day
RH min (from climates of Africa) medium
n/N (from climates of Africa) high to medium
U2 day time (from climates of Africa) moderate
ETo Fig. 3.5 8.0 mm/day
Figure 3.5: ETo determination from Blanney Criddle's F factor for different condition of relative
humidity, sunshine duration and day-time wind

3.2.2 FAO Pan Evaporation Method

Pans provide a measurement of the integrated effect of radiation, wind, temperature and humidity on
the evaporation from an open water surface. Although the pan responds in a similar fashion to the
same climatic factors affecting crop transpiration, several factors produce significant differences in
loss of water from a water surface and from a cropped surface.

The pan evaporation is related to the reference evapotranspiration by an empirically derived pan
coefficient:

ETo = Kp Epan ... 3.11

where ETo: reference evapotranspiration [mm/day],
Kp: pan coefficient [-],
Epan: pan evaporation [mm/day].

Pan coefficient (Kp)

In selecting the appropriate pan coefficient, not only the pan type, but also the ground cover in the
station, its surroundings as well as the general wind and humidity conditions, should be checked. Two
cases are commonly considered: Case A where the pan is sat on a short green (grass) cover and

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
surrounded by fallow soil; and Case B where the pan is sat on fallow soil and surrounded by a green
crop (Figure 3.6).

FIGURE 3.6. Two cases of evaporation pan sitting and their environment

3.2.3 Thornthwaite Method

Thornthwaite (1948) developed an exponential relationship between mean monthly temperature and
mean monthly consumptive, given as
a
 10Tm 
ETo 1.62 R f   ... 3.16
 e 
T
Where Rf is the reduction factor (See Table 2.5), Tm the mean monthly temperature in 0C, a is a
constant which can be computed from the relation
… 3.17
a  0.4923  0.01792 Te  0.0000771 Te  0.000000675 Te
2 3

Where Te is the annual temperature efficiency index given by

12 1.514
 Tm 
Te  
j l

 5 
 …3.18

For one period, say for one month, Te is calculated as

1.514
T 
Te   m  …3.19
 5 
The above calculations are made for a month of 30 days and for each day 12 h of evapotranspiration
is considered. Since the two factors vary from 28 to 31 days and with latitude, the values of 12 h a
day is not constant, it can be multiplied with factors from Table 3.7 depending on the month and
latitude of the place.

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
Table 3.7: Reduction Factor Rf for ETo to be used in Thornthwiate's equation.

Month
Latitude J F M A M J J A S O N D
00N 1.04 0.94 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04
100N 1.00 0.91 1.03 1.03 1.08 1.06 1.08 1.07 1.02 1.02 0.98 0.99
200N 0.95 0.90 1.03 1.05 1.13 1.11 1.14 1.11 1.02 1.00 0.93 0.94
300N 0.90 0.87 1.03 1.08 1.18 1.17 1.20 1.14 1.03 0.98 0.89 0.88
400N 0.84 0.83 1.03 1.11 1.24 1.25 1.27 1.18 1.04 0.96 0.83 0.81
500N 0.74 0.78 1.02 1.15 1.33 1.36 1.37 1.25 1.00 0.92 0.76 0.70

Example problem 3.6: Using Thornthwaite equation, calculate the consumptive use of paddy for the
month of February. Take data from Example 3.5 above.

Solution
Since ETo is required to be calculated for February only, the following equation is used.
1.514 1.514
T   16 
Te   m     5.818
 5  5
a = 0.4923 + 0.01792 x 5.818 – 0.0000771 x 5.8182 + …
= 0.4923 + 0.1043 – 0.0026 = 0.594

Reduction factor for February at latitude of 220N is 0.895 (from Table 3.7)
ETo = 1.62*0.895*(10*16/5.818)^0.594 = 10.38269mm/month

Proceeding in the same way, ETo for other months can be calculated and added up. If a crop is grown
from 15th February then the value of ETo is to be reduced by (13/28) to arrive at the value for the
month.

3.2.4 Combination Method (FAO-56 Penman – Monteith Method)

Penman–Monteith equation for estimation of grass reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo):

Where: ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration (mm/day)

Rn = Net radiation at the crop surface (MJ/m2/day)

G = Soil heat flux density (MJ/m2/day)

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
T = Air temperature at 2 m height (°C)

U2 = Wind speed at 2 m height (m/s)

es = Saturation vapour pressure (kPa)

ea = Actual vapour pressure (kPa)

Δ = Slope vapour pressure curve (kPa/°C

γ = Psychrometric constant (kPa/°C)

Application & Limitations of Penman…

• Method requires all weather data, i.e., minimum and maximum

temperature, minimum and maximum RH, wind speed, Solar radiation
or sunshine hour
• Wide applicability i.e., in arid, semi-arid, humid, sub-humid conditions
• Gives a very satisfactory estimate of ETo

Methods for Estimating ETo and Data Requirements

E: Estimated data M: Measured data (m): If available but not essential

3.3 Duty-Delta Relationship

☻ Crop period and Base period

The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its harvesting is called the
crop period. The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of its sowing to its last watering
before harvesting is called the base period. Crop period is slightly more than the base period, but for
all practical purposes, they are taken as one and the same thing and both are expressed in days.

☻ Duty and Delta of Crops

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
Duty (D): is defined as the area of the land which can be irrigated if one cumec (m3/sec) of water
was applied to the land continuously for the entire base period of the crop.

It is expressed in hectares / cumecs.

Delta ( ): is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire base period. If the entire
quantity of applied water were spread uniformly on the land surface, the depth of water would have
been equal to delta. Thus the delta (in m) of any crop can be determined by dividing the total quantity
of water (in ha-m) required by the crop by the area of the land (in ha)

Delta ( ) = Total quantity of water (ha-m)

Total area of land (ha)
The relation between duty, base period and delta, can be obtained as follows:-
Considering the area of land of D-hectares, if Duty is expressed in ha/cumecs the total quantity of
water used in the base period of B days is equal to that obtained by a continuous flow of 1 cumec for
B days.

Quantity of water= 1*B*24*60*60*, m3 …. 3.21

If Delta (  ) is the total depth of water in meters supplied to the land of D- hectares, the quantity of
water is also given by:

Quantity of water = ( D *104)* , m3 .…3.22

Equating the volumes of water given in egn_s 3.1 and 3.2:

1*B*24*60*60* = (D*104)* 
8.64 B 8.64 B
 D and  … 3.23b
 D

Where D = in ha/cumec
 = in m
B = in days

☻ Different forms of Duty

1. Flow duty: the duty of water in hectares /cumec is convenient in the case of flow irrigation
from canals and duty and the area of land to be irrigated are known, the required discharge in
the canal can be determined.
 Area (ha) 
Disch arg e, m3 / s =   …3.24
 Duty (ha / cumec) 
2. Quantity of Duty
- For Tank /pond irrigation, the duty is usually expressed as the total area of land which can be
irrigated per million m3 of water stored in the tank. If the duty and the area to be irrigated are
known, the volume of water to be stored in the tank can be determined.

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
Area (ha)
Volume of water (Mm3) = … 3.25
Duty(ha / Mm 3 )
3. Duty in the form of total depth ( or Delta ):
-It can be expressed in terms of the total depth (i.e. delta) of water required for a crop. It is
another form of the quantity duty because the total depth is equal to the volume divided by
the area of land.

Volume (ha  m)
Delta = ,m … 3.26
Area (ha)
Delta is the quantity of water actually supplied to the crop. Delta included not only consumptive
use of water for a crop but also the water lost by evapotranspiration and seepage from canals, and
deep percolation in the field.
Duty of water varies from head regulator to the canal out let because of various losses. The duty of
water goes on increasing as the water flows from the head to the tail of the canal system. Thus, in
order to specify duty two things must be stated clearly: Base of duty and position of measurement of
duty.

☻ Factors affecting Duty

- Duty of water depends up on different factors. In general, the smaller the losses, the greater is duty
because one cumec of water will be able to irrigate larger area.
 Type of soil
 Type of crop and base period
 structure of soil
 Slop of ground
 Climatic condition
 Method of application of water
 Salt content of soil
- Duty of water may be improved by counter – acting all the factors that decrease it (by decreasing
various losses).
Example problem 3.7: A discharge of 15 cumecs is released at the head of the canal. If the duty at the
field is 1800 ha/cumecs, and the losses in the transit are 30%, determine the area that can be irrigated.

Solution:
o Discharge at field= 0.7*15=10.5 cumecs
o Irrigated area=1800 * 10.5= 18,900ha

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.8 The base period, duty of water and area under irrigation for various crops
under a canal system are given in the table below. If the losses in the reservoir and canals are
respectively 15%, 25%, determine the reservoir capacity.

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
Crop Wheat Sugar cane Cotton Rice V. table

Base period B (days) 120 320 180 120 120

Duty , D (ha/cumec) 1800 1600 1500 800 700
Area irrigated (ha) 15000 10,000 5000 7500 5000

Solution: Calculation is done on table:

Crop Wheat Sugarcane cotton Rice Vegetable Sum
8.64 B 0.576 1.725 0.972 1.296 1.481 -
 ,m
D
Volume of water = 8640 17280 4860 9720 7410 47910
V   * Airr , (ha-m) ha-m

Total volume of water 47,910 ha-m

47910
Volume at head of canal =  63,880 ha-m
0.75
63880
Volume of reservoir =  75,150 ha-m
0.85

Irrigation water requirement of Crops

The irrigation water requirement of crops is defined as the part of water requirement of crops that
should be fulfilled by irrigation. In other words, it is the water requirement of crops excluding
effective rain fall, carry over soil moisture and ground water contributions.
WR=IR + Peff + S + GW
IR= WR-(Peff + S+ GW) … 3.29

Effective Rainfall (Peff)

Effective rainfall can be defined as the rainfall that is stored in the root zone and can be utilized by
crops. All the rainfall that falls is not useful or effective. As the total amount of rainfall varies, so
does the amount of useful or effective rainfall. Some of the seasonal rainfall that falls will be lost as
unnecessary deep percolation; surface runoff and some water may remain in the soil after the crop is
harvested. From the water requirement of crops point of view, this water, which is lost, is ineffective.
There are four methods for calculating the effective rainfall from entered monthly total rainfall data.
1 Fixed Percentage Effective Rainfall
The effective rainfall is taken as a fixed percentage of the monthly rainfall;
Effective Rainfall = % of Total Rainfall … 3.30

2 Dependable Rain
An empirical formula developed by FAO/AGLW based on analysis for different arid and sub-humid
climates. This formula is as follows:
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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
Effective Rainfall = 0.6 * Total Rainfall - 10 ... (Total Rainfall < 70 mm)
… 3.31a&b
Effective Rainfall = 0.8 * Total Rainfall - 24 ... (Total Rainfall > 70 mm)

3 Empirical Formula for Effective Rainfall

This formula is similar to FAO/AGLW formula (see Dependable Rain method above) with some
parameters left to the user to define. The formula is as follows:
Effective Rainfall = a * Total Rainfall - b ... (Total Rainfall < z mm)
… 3.32a&b
Effective Rainfall = c * Total Rainfall - d ... (Total Rainfall > z mm)
Where a, b, c, and z are the variables to be defined by the user.

4 Method of USDA Soil Conservation Service (default)

The effective rainfall is calculated according to the formula developed by the USDA Soil
Conservation Service which is as follows:

Effective Rainfall = Total Rainfall / 125 * (125 - 0.2 * Total Rainfall)

...(Total Rainfall < 250 mm)
Effective Rainfall = 125 + 0.1 * Total Rainfall …3.33
... (Total Rainfall > 250 mm)
Ground water contribution (Gw):
Some times there is a contribution from the groundwater reservoir for water requirement of crops.
The actual contribution from the groundwater table is dependent on the depth of ground water table
below the root zone & capillary characteristics of soil. For clayey soils the rate of movement is low
and distance of upward movement is high while for light textured soils the rate is high and the
distance of movement is low. For practical purposes the GW contribution when the ground water
table is below 3m is assumed to be nil.

Carry over soil moisture(S):

This is the moisture retained in the crop root zone b/n cropping seasons or before the crop is planted.
The source of this moisture is either from the rainfall that man occurs before sowing or it may be the
moisture that remained in the soil from past irrigation. This moisture also contributes to the
consumptive use of water and should be deducted from the water requirement of crops in determining
irrigation requirements.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.10

Maize crop planted on March 1. The total duration of the growing season of the crop is 4.5 months.
The evapotranspiration of the crop have been determined using one of the methods. The Kc values
and effective rainfall during each decade have been determined. If there is appreciable contribution
from the ground water and carry over soil moisture can also be include. For this particular example,
the above two mentioned contributions except effective rainfall have been assumed to be nil.

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
Solution:

Month Dec Stage Kc ET0 ETcrop ETcrop Peff NIR NIR

mm/dec Kc.*ETo mm/dec mm/dec mm/dec mm/day
March 1 Ini 0.30 4.00 1.20 12.00 0 12.00 1.20
,, 2 Ini 0.30 4.20 1.26 12.60 0 12.60 1.26
,, 3 Ini 0.30 3.90 1.17 11.70 0 11.70 1.17
April 1 Dev 0.50 3.80 1.90 19.00 4 15.00 1.50
,, 2 Dev 0.80 4.20 3.36 33.60 4 29.60 2.96
,, 3 Dev 1.00 4.10 4.10 41.00 4 37.00 3.70
May 1 Dev/mid 1.00 3.90 3.90 39.00 2.5 36.50 3.65
,, 2 mid 1.00 3.80 3.80 38.00 2.5 35.50 3.55
,, 3 mid 1.00 4.00 4.00 40.00 2.5 37.50 3.75
June 1 mid 1.00 4.30 4.30 43.00 5.5 37.50 3.75
,, 2 Late 0.80 4.50 3.60 36.00 5.5 30.50 3.05
,, 3 Late 0.65 3.70 2.405 24.05 5.5 18.55 1.855
July 1 Late 0.50 3.60 1.80 18.00 8.00 10.00 1.00

3.4 Irrigation Efficiencies

1. Water Conveyance efficiency (Ec)

This term is used to measure the efficiency of water conveyance system associated with the canal
network, water courses and field channels. It is also applicable where the water is conveyed in
channels from the well to the individual fields. It is expressed as follows:
Wf
Ec = * 100
Wd
Where Ec = water conveyance efficiency, %
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot (At the field supply channel)
Wd = Water diverted from the source.

2. Water application Efficiency (Ea)

After the water reaches the field supply Channel, it is important to apply the water as efficiently
as possible. A measure of how efficiently this is done is the water application efficiency.
Ws
Ea = * 100
Wf
Where Ea = application efficiency, %
Ws = water stored in the rot zone of the plants.
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot (At the field supply channel)

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
Water application efficiency below 100 percent are due to seepage looses from the field
distribution channels, deep percolation below the crop root zone and runoff loses from the tail end
of borders and furrows ( in very long fields).

3. Water storage efficiency (Es)

Small irrigation may lead to high water application efficiencies, yet the irrigation practice may be
poor. The concept of water storage efficiency is useful in evaluating this problem. This concept
relates how completely the water needed prior to irrigation has been stored in the root zone during
irrigation.

Ws
Es  *100
Wn
Where Es = Water storage efficiency, %
Ws= water stored in the rot zone of the plants.
Wn = Water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation
Water storage efficiency becomes important when water supplies are limited or when excessive
time is required to secure adequate penetration of water in to the soil. Also, when salt problems
exist, the water storage efficiency should be kept high to maintain favorable salt balance.

4. Field Canal Efficiency (E f)

This ratio between water received at the field inlet and that received at the inlet of the block of fields.
Wp
Ef  *100 where Ef = Field canal efficiency
Wf
Wp = water received at the field inlet
Wf = water delivered to the field channel

5. Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed)

This shows how uniformly water is applied to the field along the irrigation run. In sandy soils
there is generally over irrigation at upper reaches of the run when as in clayey soils, there is over-
irrigation at the lower reaches of the run.

 y
E d  1   x 100 Where Ed = water distribution efficiency, %
 d
d = average depth of water penetration.
y = average deviation from d.
6. Water Use Efficiency

This shows the yield of the crop per unit volume of water used. It may be expressed in Kg/ha.cm
or q/ha.cm

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
A. Crop Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (Y) to the amount of water
consumptively used by the crop.
Y
Ew 
CU
B. Field Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (y) to the total water requirement of
crops including Cu losses and other needs.
Y
Et 
WR

7. Project Efficiency (Ep)

This shows how efficiently the water source used in crop production. It shows the percentage of the
total water that is stored in the soil and available for consumptive requirements of the crop. It
indicates the overall efficiency of the systems from the head work to the final use by plants for Cu.
The Overall project efficiency must be considered in order to fix the amount of water required at the
Diversion head work.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.12

A stream size of 150 lit /sec was released from the diversion headwork to irrigate a land of area 1.8
hectares. The stream size when measured at the delivery to the field channels is 120lit/sec. The stream
continued for some 8 hours. The effective root zone depth is 1.80m. The application losses in the field
are estimated to be 440m3. The depth of water penetration was 1.80m and 1.20m at the head and tail
of the run respectively. The available water holding capacity of the soil is 21cm/m and irrigation was
done at 60% depletion of AM. Find Ec, Ef, Ea, Es and Ed. The stream size delivered to the plot was
100 lit/sec.

Solution:

Wf 120 lit / sec

Ec  x 100  x 100  80%
Wd 150 lit / sec
Wp 100 lit / sec
Ef  x 100  x 100  83.3%
Wf 120 lit / sec
100 x 60 x 60 x8
 2880m3
Water delivered to the plot = 1000

Water stored in the root zone =2880m3 – Application losses

= 2880m3 - 440m3 = 2440m3
Ws 2440m3
Ea  x100  x100  84.7%
Wp 2880m3
Total A.M = 21cm/m x 1.80m = 37.80 cm

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
60
RAM = 100 x 37.80 cm  22.68 cm

3
22.68
In volume, RAM = x1.8 x104  4082.4m
100

Ws 2440m3
Es  x 100   59.8%  60%
Wn 4082.4m3
1.8  1.20
Average water penetration d   1.50m
2
Numerical deviation at upper end =1.80 –1.50=0.30m
At lower end = 1.50 – 1.20 =0.30m
2 x 0.30
Average numerical deviation =  0.30m
2
 y  0,30 
Ed 100 x 1    100 x 1   80%
 d  1.50 

Gross irrigation requirement (GIR)

Usually more amount of water than the NIR is applied during irrigation to compensate for the
unavoidable losses. The total water applied to satisfy ET and losses is known as Gross irrigation
requirement (GIR)
NIR
GIR 
Ep
Where Ep = project Efficiency

3.5 Irrigation Scheduling

Scheduling of irrigation application is very important for successive plant growth and maturity.
Water is not applied randomly at any time and in any quantity. Irrigation scheduling is the schedule in
which water is applied to the field. It is an important aspect of an efficient operation of an irrigation
system. The scheduling of irrigation can be field irrigation scheduling and field irrigation supply
schedules.
Field irrigation Scheduling
This scheduling of irrigation is done at field level. The two scheduling parameters of field irrigation
scheduling are the depth of irrigation and interval of irrigation.
Depth of irrigation (d):
This is the depth of irrigation water that is to be applied at one irrigation. It is the depth of water that
can be retained in the crop root zone b/n the field capacity and the given depletion of the available
moisture content. All the water retained in the soil b/n FC and PWP is not readily available to crops.
The readily available moisture is only some percentage of the total available moisture. Thus, depth of
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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
irrigation is the readily available portion of the soil moisture. In other words, it is the depth of
irrigation water required to replenish the soil moisture to field capacity.
The depth of irrigation (d) is given by:
d (net) = As *D *(FC – PWP)*P, m ... 3.46
Where As = Apparent specific gravity of soil
D = Effective root zone depth in m
FC = water content of soil at FC
PWP = Water content of soil at PWP
P = depletion factor
Because of application losses such as deep percolation and runoff losses, the total depth of water to be
applied will be greater than the net depth of water.
d (gross) = As*D(FC-PWP)*P ,m ...3.47
Ea
Where Ea = Field application efficiency and other parameters as defined above

Interval of irrigation (i):

The interval of irrigation is the time gap in days between two successive irrigation applications. It
depends on the type of the crop, soil type and climate conditions. Thus interval of irrigation depends
on the consumptive use rate of the crop and the amount of readily available moisture (RAM) in the
crop root zone. The consumptive use rate of the crop varies from crop to crop and also during
different stages of the crop. The RAM moisture also varies from soil to soil depending on soil water
constants.
The interval (frequency) of irrigation is given by:
As .DFC  PWP  . P
i (days) = , ... 3.48
ETcrop peak
Where: ETcrop (peak) is the peak rate of crop evapotranspiration in m/day.
For the same crop and soil type the ETcrop (peak) goes on increasing from the initial stage to the
development and mid season stage the interval of irrigation will go on decreasing and increasing
during late season stage.

Field Irrigation Supply Schedules (Irrigation Scheduling in a Command Area)

This is the schedule of water supply to individual fields or command area. This is a schedule of the
total volume of water to be applied to the soil during irrigation. It depends on crop and soil
characteristics.
It is expressed as: -

q.t 
10
 AS .D ( Fc  pwp .P. A , m3 ...3.49
Ea
Where: q= Stream size (application rate) lit/sec
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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
t = Application time in sec
Ea = Application efficiency
As = Apparent specific gravity
D = Effective root zone depth, m
P = Depletion factor
A = Area of the command (field) in ha
From the above equation, if either of the application time or the stream size fixed, one of them can be
determined.
In the above equation q.t indicates the total volume of water applied to the field during irrigation at
the head of the field. But the total volume of water diverted at the headwork will obviously be greater
than this value, because there is loss of water during conveyance and distribution canals. The total
volume of water to be diverted is given by:

As .D. FC  PwP , p. A.

10
Q.t = , m3 ...3.50
Ep
Where: Q = flow rate at the head work, lit/sec.
Ep = project efficiency and others as defined above.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.13
For the data below, determine depth & interval of irrigation during different stages.
Depth of the root zone = 1 m, FC = 20 %, PwP = 8 %
Dry density of soil = 1.6 gm/cm3 and density of water = 1 gm/cm3. The rates of consumptive uses
during different stages are as follows. A depletion of 50% during initial period, 60 % during
development and mid – season stage and 70 % during late season stage is allowable.

Solution:
Month June July August September
Dec 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Stage ini ini In/dev dev dev dev mid mid mid Late Late Late
ETcrop/mm/day 3.5 3.5 5.0 5.2 5.8 6.50 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.2 6.0 5.80
Root depth(m) 0.30 0.30 0.4 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
Depletion 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.70 0.70 0.70
Fraction (p)
Depth of 28.80 28.80 38.4 57.60 69.12 80.64 92.16 92.16 92.16 107. 107.5 107.5
irrigation (mm) 52 2 2
Interval of 8 8 7 11 11 12 13 13 13 17 17 18
irrigation (days)
Irrigation 7 11 13 17
interval (days)

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.14

A crop has effective root zone of 120 cm (1.20 m) prior to irrigation; soil samples were taken from
different depths to determine the moisture status of the soil.

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
Depth of root zone (m) Weight soil sample (gm) Weight of oven dry soil (gm)

0.00 – 0.30 m 98.80 94.60

0.30 – 0.60 m 96.60 92.10
0.60 – 0.90 m 95.00 90.60
0.90 – 1.20 m 94.00 89.40

The water holding capacity of the soil at field capacity is 19.60 cm/meter. The apparent specific
gravity of the soil is 1.60. Determine the moisture content in the root zone at different depths, total
depth of water available in the root zone at different depths, total depth of water available in the root
zone and the soil moisture deficit.

Solution:
For depth from 0  0.30 m
Mass of water  98.80 gm  94.60 gm  4.20 gm

4.20 gm
Moisture content , W  * 100  4.44 %
94.60 gm
In depth of water, d = As. D .p =1.6*0.3*0.0444=0.0213m=2.13cm
For depth 0.3-0.6m
Mass of water=96.60-92.10=4.50gm.
W=4.50/92.10 *100= 4.88%
In depth, d = As. D.P = 1.60 * 0.30* 0.0488 = 0.0234 = 2.34 cm

For depth 0.60  0.90 m

Mass of water  95.00  90.60  4.40 gm

4.40
W  * 100  4.86 %
90.60

 In depth of water, d = As.D.P = 1.60 x 0.30* 0.0486 = 0.0233 = 2.33 cm

For depth 0.90  1.20 m

Mass of water  94.00 gm  89.40 gm  4.60 gm

4.60
W  * 100  5.14 %
89.40
In depth, d = As .D.P = 1.60 x 0.30 * 0.0514 = 0.0247 m = 2.47 cm
The total depth of water in the root zone is the total of all the water retained at different depths.
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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
 Total depth = 2.13 cm + 2.34 cm + 2.33 cm + 2.47 cm = 9.27 cm
Water retained at field capacity = 19.60 cm/m
Water in the root zone = 19.60 * 1.20 m = 23.52 cm
The soil moisture deficit prior to irrigation is therefore,
FC – depth of water during sampling
= 23.52 cm – 9.27 cm = 14.25 cm
This deficit is the amount of water which should be added to the soil to bring the soil moisture content
to field capacity. Thus, it represents the depth of irrigation. Assuming that the peak rate of
consumptive use during the stage of the plant is 8mm/day
depth 142.50 mm
Interval, i=   17.8  17 days
peakET 8 mm / day
The next watering will be done after 17 days. The interval should not be made 18 days, because the
plant may suffer shortage of water for one day.

Sample Workout Problems on Irrigation Scheduling

Example 1. The soil moisture at field capacity (FC) is 25% (w/w) and the moisture content
at the time of irrigating is 15% (w/w). The apparent sp. gravity is 1.25 and the depth of soil to
be wetted is 40 cm. How much water in ha-cm per hectare must be applied?

Solution
FC=25% (by wt.)
Apparent sp. Gravity=1.25
Moisture at FC by vol. basis = 25x1.25=31.25%
Moisture content at irrigation time, SMa = 15% (w/w)=15 x1.25=18.75% by vol.
Depth of soil to be wetted=40 cm
Thus; water depth required to fill up to FC
 FC  SMa  d / 100  31.25  18.75  40 / 100  5 cm
Water in required depth per hectare=1ha x 5cm=5 ha-cm (Ans.)

Example 2. A stream of 0.0707 cumec is used to apply 32 ha-cm of water to an 8-ha field.
How long will it take? What is the depth of water?

Solution
Stream size, Q = 0.0707 cumec
Volume of water (V)
V  32 ha  cm  32  10000m 2  (1 / 100)m  3200 m 3  Qt
Time required irrigating the field (t)

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
3
t  Qt  3200 m  45261.67 s  12.57 h
Q 0.0707 m 3 / s
Size of field (A) = 8 ha = 8 x 10000= 80,000 m2
Depth of water = Qt/A=30200 m3/80000 m2 = 0.04 m = 4 cm

Example 3. A farmer desires to irrigate a boarder which is 8-m wide and 90-m long. He
wants to apply an average depth water of 8 cm to the area with a stream of 0.02 m3/s. How
long will it take to irrigate this border?

Solution
Area of boarder, A=90 x 8=720 m2
Water depth = 8cm = 0.08 m
Total volume of water needed=A x d=720 x 0.08=57.6 m3
Stream size, q=0.02 m3/s
Time required=V/q=57.6/0.02=2880 s =48 min (Ans.).

Example 4. The upper limit of available plant moisture (moisture holding capacity) of a
loam soil is 41% (by volume) and the lower limit of plant available moisture is 19% (by
vol.). The present moisture content is 36% (by vol.) and the root zone depth of the existing
field crop is 40 cm. For effective use of soil moisture, irrigation is planned to apply when
75% of the plant available moisture is depleted. The average ET rate of the crop is 7 mm/day.
Determine:
(a) When to irrigate?
(b) How much to irrigate?
(c) If the application efficiency is 80% and the conveyance efficiency is 95%, determine the
gross irrigation requirement.

Solution
Upper limit of plant available moisture, UPAW=41%, v/v
Lower limit of plant available moisture, LPAW=19% v/v
Thus, maximum plant available moisture, MPAW=41 - 19=22%
Management allowed deficit, MAD=75% of MPAW
Root depth, d=40 cm
ET rate=7 mm/day
Present moisture level=36% v/v
Management allowed lower limit of soil moisture,
MAL=UPAW- (MPAW x MAD)
C=41- (22 x 75/100) = 24:5%
Present moisture level=36%
Moisture in the root zone between the present and management allowed lower limit
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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
= (36 -24.5) x 40/100=0.046 m=46 mm
(a) Time of irrigation=moisture storage/moisture use rate
= (46 mm)/(7 mm/day)=6.576 days later (Ans.)

(b) Irrigation amount is the amount required to fill up to FC (upper limit of plant available
moisture) from management allowed lowed limit (MAL)
MAL = [(UPAM –MAL)/100] x d = [(41–24.5)/100] x 40 cm = 6.6 cm (Ans.)
(c) Application efficiency, (Ea) = 80% = 0.8
Conveyance efficiency, (Ec) = 95% = 0.9

Gross irrigation depth=net depth/ (Ea x Ec) = 6.6/ (0.8 x 0.9) = 8.7 cm (Ans.)

Example 5. Determine the size of the irrigation stream required to irrigate 20 ha rice field
having no effective rainfall in the region and peak consumptive use rate of 9 mm/day. The
irrigation system is operated for 8 h per day. The field irrigation efficiency is 80%.

Solution
Area to be irrigated=20 ha
CU peak=9 mm/day
Field irrigation efficiency, Ef =80%=0.8
Assume that irrigation depth per application=10 cm
Thus, gross irrigation depth=10/0.8=12.5 cm
Interval between two irrigations=net irrigation depth applied/CU peak = (10 x10) mm/(9
mm/day)
=11.1 = 11 days
Volume of water needed for one irrigation for 20 ha land,
V=20 ha x 12.5 cm=250 ha-cm=(250 x 10,000) m2 x (1/100) m =25,000 m3
Daily operating period of the irrigation system=8h
Now:
V=q x t o rq=V/t =25,000/(11 x 8 x 3,600)=0.0789 m3/s (Ans.)

Example 6. An area of 50 ha (wheat field) is to be irrigated by a pump working 12 h a day.

The moisture at FC and WP is 40 and 20 cm/m, respectively. The depth of root zone of the
crop is 60 cm. Irrigation is to be done when 75% of the available moisture in the root zone is
depleted. Peak rate of moisture use by the crop is 4 mm/day. Determine:
Time of irrigation
Net depth of water application
Amount of water pumped per application
Required capacity of the irrigation system
Assume standard value of any missing data.

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements

Solution
FC=40 cm/m
WP=20 cm/m
Management allowed deficit, MAD=75% of available moisture
ETpeak=4 mm/day
Area, A=50 ha
Root zone depth=60 cm
Available moisture in soil depth=FC – WP = 40 – 20=20 cm/m
Available moisture within the root zone=60 cm x (20/100)=12 cm
Available moisture within the root zone at MAD=12 x (75/100)=9cm=90 mm
(a) Date of next irrigation=(moisture storage within MAD)/ETpeak=90/4=22.5 days later =
22 days later (Ans.)
(b) Net depth of irrigation is equal to the depletion from the root zone storage (from FC to
MAD)=9 cm (Ans.)
(c) Amount of water required per application throughout the area,
Q=A x d = 50 ha x 9cm= (50 x 10,000) x (9/100) = 450,000 m3 (Ans.)
Let us assume that the supply system is operated for 12 h in a day. Then, the irrigation
system capacity should be such that it can deliver 450,000 m3 water in 22 days. i.e.,
Q= q x t Or q=Q/t =450,000 m3 /(22 x 12 x 3,600 s) =10.4 m3/s (Ans.)

Example 7. For a maize field, the following information is available:

Field capacity=44% by volume
Wilting point¼=2% by volume
Effective root zone depth=30 cm
Average moisture content over the root zone=35% by volume
Average daily ET rate for that period=5 mm/day
Determine:
(a) Maximum plant available water within the root zone
(b) The time of irrigation (days from the moisture reading) allowing 75% depletion of plant
available moisture
(c) Irrigation depth to be applied

Solution
(a) Maximum plant available water, PAW=(FC –WP) x Rd
Where, FC is the field capacity=44% vol., WP is the wilting point=22% vol., and Rd is the
effective root zone depth=30 cm.
Thus, maximum PAW within the root zone= [(44-22)/100] x 30=6.6 cm=66 mm (Ans.)
(b) Lower limit of moisture at 75% depletion of
PAW=44- (44-22) x 75/10 =44 - 16:5= 27:5%
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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
Water depth between actual moisture and lower limit = [(35 – 27.5)/100] x 30
=2.25 cm=22.5 mm
Thus, time to irrigation (days from 35% moisture)= water depth/ET rate= (22.5 mm)/(5
mm/day)=4.5 days =4 days That is, 4 days later (Ans.)
(c) Depth of irrigation will be equal to the depth required to fill up to FC for the root zone.
Thus, irrigation depth= [(44-27.5)/100] x 30=4.95 cm5.0 cm=50 mm (Ans.)

Example 8. Wheats (130 days duration) are grown on a silt-loam soil on Nov.15 in a semi-
arid environment. Long-term monthly average of daily reference evapotranspiration (ET0)
and crop coefficient (kc) values are given below:

Determine (a) total seasonal net irrigation water requirement, (b) gross irrigation
requirement, and (c) irrigation schedule of the crop

Solution
(a) We know that, crop evapotranspiration, ET=ET0 x kc.
Daily average ET for the month of Nov.=ET0 x kc=2.0=0.7=1.4 mm/day.
Monthly total crop water requirement (ET) for the month Nov.=daily ET x duration=1.4 x
15= 21 mm.
Similarly, ET for other months are calculated, and summarized in Table given below.

That is, net irrigation water requirement=310.29 mm (Ans.)

(b) Considering application efficiency 95% and farm conveyance efficiency 90%, total gross
irrigation requirement=310.29/(0.95 x 0.90) = 362.9 mm (Ans.)

(c) Number of irrigation

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 Chapter-3 : Crop water requirements
Number of irrigation during the growing season can be obtained by dividing the total
irrigation requirement by irrigation depth. If we consider 40 mm irrigation depth per
irrigation [considering surface (flood) irrigation], then number of irrigation =362.9/40=9 nos.
(Ans.)

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