IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS 1

Torque Ripple Prediction Model for a Brushless DC Motor with

Surface-Inset Magnets
Chun-Yao Lee, Member, IEEE, and Edu Daryl C. Maceren

Department of Electrical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Zhongli District, Taoyuan City 320, Taiwan

This paper presents an analytical model for the electromagnetic torque of a BLDC and identifies the magnitude of different harmonic
components of its torque ripple. Three different cases of BLDC with a varied dimension of rotor’s permanent magnets are implemented
to determine the decrease of the torque ripple and harmonic components of the BLDC’s induced electromagnetic torque. The permanent
magnets in the rotor are varied according to their thickness and length. As the length is increased and the thickness is decreased by 5%
for three different designs, results show that the harmonic components and torque ripple decrease. The waveform of the electromagnetic
torque has been determined using the proposed mathematical model based on the dimensions of the rotor’s permanent magnets. The
induced electromagnetic torque is derived and verified using SPEED Simcenter software and MATLAB. This study has proven that the
torque ripple of the BLDC can be reduced effectively by adjusting specific parameters in the proposed mathematical model, but in this
case, only the length and thickness of the rotor’s permanent magnets are considered. The analytical and finite-element results of
predicting the torque ripple of the BLDC are presented to confirm the validity of the proposed mathematical model.

Index Terms — brushless direct current (BLDC), brushless motors, electromagnetic torque, torque ripple.
synchronous reluctance m

I. INTRODUCTION an electric motor, an electromagnetic torque is generated, which

we are utilizing. Thus, understanding the torque profile of the
Brushless DC motors (BLDC) have increasing importance in
various motor applications due to their robust construction, motor is highly essential so that we can predict the possible
noise level and vibration it may produce. Also, by obtaining the
high efficiency, and no armature windings are needed. BLDC
also gained an advantage over permanent assisted synchronous torque profile, we could quantify the torque ripple it may
reluctance motor (PMSynRM) due to its high reliability and produce, and thus, we could design an appropriate controller to
easier to manufacture [1]. They are also suitable for high-speed improve the motor’s performance that will lead to higher
applications due to their rugged construction. The study for efficiency and increase its usability or lifespan.
developing a new design of BLDC is getting more significant The low and medium power ratings exhibit the highest
since it is the basis of design for PMSynRM, where the motor performance in dynamic response, energy efficiency, and
application of interior PM can be minimized without torque density. Consequently, in the last two decades,
compromising its overall performance. However, the BLDC permanent magnet motors have found increasing interest in
can generate a higher torque ripple compared to PMSynRM; their capabilities of meeting the requirement of many
thus, there is a need to search for a strategy to design a BLDC applications.
motor by optimizing even one of its properties to improve its In recent studies, most mathematical models are primarily
torque profile. Furthermore, some of the problems of BLDC, applicable to a surface-inset permanent magnet; some of the
such as vibration, torque per ampere, and torque ripple, are mathematical models are derived using analytical methods [1,
crucial in evaluating its performance [2]. 5-7]. In this type of modeling, analyzing a BLDC can attain
Many studies were done in optimizing a BLDC by high accuracy using complex analysis based on the motor's
implementing a desirable control mechanism to its stator field geometry. However, most studies of this approach provide the
windings integration of interior permanent magnets to increase whole magnetic field equation, which is computationally
the induced torque and achieve optimum torque ripple [1-3]. expensive for implementing its design optimization.
Many manufacturers conducted further research to develop an Mathematical models have been made for surface-inset
optimized BLDC based on its desired application and magnet type of BLDC machines, emphasizing exact equations
performance [3]. A better strategy for designing an optimized of Carter’s coefficients, relative permeance model, and
BLDC motor can be focused on the rotor structure because most complex relative permeance model.
magnetic saturation and vibration occur in the rotor. In this study, the mathematical modeling of electromagnetic
High-efficiency electrical machines such as PM machines torque of a will be based on reluctance machine analogy since
are more widely preferred due to prevailing concerns of energy- a BLDC and reluctance machines have similar characteristics.
saving and machine efficiency as the availability of PM In this mathematical model, motor parameters can be extracted
continues to grow at a low price. Thus, many emerging designs as important motor constants for motor design optimizations in
of BLDC with rotor that has greater value of PM edge or gap to future studies. Also, this research aims to contribute to the field
reduce the cogging torque with a low ripple, but it requires a of motor design and optimization to derive an equation that
lesser stator tooth gap. However, obtaining a narrow stator tooth accurately determines the torque profile of a brushless dc
can lead to smooth torque production, due to the symmetric motor. Although most mathematical models are implemented
flow of motor’s magnetic field [4]. numerically, there is still a need to obtain an accurate solution
Basically, due to the interaction of the magnetic fields in determining the torque characteristic of a Brushless DC
produced by the permanent magnets and the field windings of motor.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS 2

II. CALCULATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC TORQUE

In modeling the magnetic profile of the BLDC, it can be 𝜽𝒓
assumed that the stator’s slot windings are treated as a current
sheet with infinitesimal thickness and electrical loading
expressed as
∞
̂𝑣 sin⁡(𝑣𝑝 𝜃𝑠 − 𝑝𝜃𝑚 − 𝛼𝑖𝑒 ) 𝜽𝒓
𝐾𝑠 (𝜃𝑠 ) = ∑ 𝐾
𝑣=1 𝜽𝒔
where 𝑣 is the harmonic order, 𝐾 ̂𝑣 is the peak magnitude of
electric loading harmonic of the corresponding harmonic order, 𝜽𝒎
𝑝 is the number of pole pairs, 𝜃𝑠 is the stator reference frame,
𝜃𝑚 is the rotor position (in mechanical degrees) and 𝛼𝑖𝑒 is the
current phase angle (electrical degrees). The magnetic potential
of the stator can be as
∞
𝐷
𝑈𝑠 (𝜃𝑟 ) = − ∑ ̂ cos⁡[𝑣𝑝 𝜃𝑠 − (𝑣 − 1)𝑝𝜃𝑚 − 𝛼𝑖𝑒 ]
𝐾
2𝑣𝑝 𝑣
𝑣=1
(a)
The rotor’s magnetic potential can be analyzed using the
rotor's cross-section view and the equivalent magnetic circuit
shown in Fig. 1; it includes a cross-section of the representation
of flux-barriers where the permanent magnets are placed. The
rotor’s magnetic potential can be evaluated from the diagram Stator
by summing the magnetic fluxes produced by the permanent
magnets and the field windings that flow in the different regions
of the motor (stator, air-gap, and rotor in-set magnets).
The total magnetic flux density in air-gap can be evaluated Air-gap
based on Maxwell’s stress tensor analysis and the equations for
the magnetic flux of the permanent magnets and the reluctance
due to the flux barriers where the rotor’s in-set PM are placed
[8-10].
The derived rotor’s magnetic potential is shown in this Rotor In-set
study. There are two terms in the equation; the first term defines Magnet
the reluctance torque, while the second term is the magnetic
torque (which is produced primarily by the permanent magnet).
∞
𝐷 (b)
𝑈𝑟 (𝜃𝑟 ) =∈ ∑ − ̂ cos(𝜆𝑣) sin(𝑣𝑝𝜃𝑏 ) + ∆𝛷rem 𝑅𝑏1
𝐾
2𝑣 2 𝑝2 𝑣 Fig. 1. (a) cross-section of BLDC. (b) the equivalent magnetic circuit of the
𝑣=1
Where: rotor of a BLDC.

𝐷 However, the air-gap magnetic flux density is assumed that it is

∗𝑡
2𝑔𝑙𝑏 𝑏 composed of the radial component only and can be evaluated as
∈⁡=
𝐷
1+ ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝜃𝑏
𝑔𝑙𝑏 𝑏 −𝑈𝑠 (𝜃𝑟 )+𝑈𝑟 (𝜃𝑟 )
𝐵𝑔 (𝜃𝑟 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝑔
1
⁡⁡∆⁡=
𝐷 where 𝜇𝑜 and 𝑔 are the permeability of free-space and air-gap
1+ ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝜃𝑏
𝑔𝑙𝑏 𝑏 length, respectively. The Lorentz’s force can be used to
determine the electromagnetic torque, which is expressed as
Two essential terms or coefficients can attribute to the motor’s ∞ ∞
design in the equation. Hypothetically, these terms ∈ and ∆ can 𝐷 𝐾
𝑇𝑚 =∈ 𝑘 𝑇 ∑ ̂ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜆𝑣 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑣𝑝𝜃𝑏 ) ∑ 𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡( 𝜆𝛽 )𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝛽𝑝𝜃𝑏 )
𝐾
optimize the motor’s performance and be a basis in designing a 2𝑣 2 𝑝2 𝑣 𝛽
𝑣=1 𝛽=1
motor controller to attain high efficiency and sustainability [11- ∞
13]. 𝐾𝑣
− 𝑘 𝑇 ∆𝜙𝑃𝑀 𝑅𝑀𝐵 ∑ 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡( 𝜆𝛽 )𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝛽𝑝𝜃𝑏 )
𝛽
𝛽=1
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS 3

III. REDUCTION OF TORQUE RIPPLE

Since the torque ripple of BLDC occurs due to interaction of
the stator’s field windings and rotor’s permanent magnets, some
of the reasons for non-acceptable torque ripple is due to the
inappropriate dimension of the permanent magnets that are
embedded in the rotor, as well as the structure of the rotor itself.
Thus, adjusting the PM’s dimension can be a helpful way to
suppress the torque ripple and improve the average generated
electromagnetic torque of a BLDC [14-17].
For the initial design, the rotor’s PM thickness and length per Fig. 4. Torque profile of BLDC with 5.14-mm thickness and 32.33-mm
pole dimension are 6 mm and 28.04 mm, respectively. The length
computed torque ripple is 85.02% with these rotor magnets
dimensions, and the average electromagnetic torque is 3.93 Nm, IV. TORQUE HARMONICS ANALYSIS
as shown in Fig. 2.
In the initial configuration of the rotor’s PM, the magnitude
As the thickness of the rotor’s PM decreases by 5% and its of the fundamental frequency of is 1.45 Nm, as shown in Fig.
length decreases by 5%, the average electromagnetic torque 5. In this case, the preliminary design produces four main
significantly increases to 4.07 Nm with a torque ripple of
harmonic contributors (12th, 24th, 36th, and 48th) to the torque
70.13%, as shown in Fig. 3. Finally, as the thickness and length
ripple.
of the rotor’s PM are 5.14 mm and 32.33 mm, respectively, the
Similarly, in the second design shown in Fig. 6, it can be
average electromagnetic torque has been further increased to
observed that the harmonic magnitudes have been significantly
4.41 Nm with a torque ripple of 51.72%, as shown in Fig. 4. suppressed when the length and thickness of the rotor’s PM are
The torque profile of the BLDC with different dimensions
adjusted. The reduction of torque harmonic magnitudes is a
of in-set permanent magnets has been verified using the finite
definite indicator that the alteration of dimensions of the rotor’s
element method using Siemen SPEED software and verified
PM enables to improve the torque ripple of the BLDC motor.
using MATLAB. The behavior of the torque varied as the
However, when the rotor’s PM is further reduced with a 5.14-
thickness and length of the rotor’s magnet was adjusted. The
mm thickness and 32.33-mm length, the torque harmonic
electromagnetic torque has been increased significantly since magnitudes are lower than the previous two designs, and the
the permanent magnet gaps between poles are decreased. Also,
fundamental frequency of the induced electromagnetic torque
due to lesser PM pole gaps are less, the torque ripple decreases.
of the motor has a magnitude of 0.3746 Nm as shown in Fig. 7.
The torque ripple of the BLDC has been reduced significantly
In the analytical modeling, the torque harmonics have been
up to 32.77%; thus, average electromagnetic torque has been
reduced significantly as the PM gap decreases. The ripple of
maximized. induced electromagnetic torque is shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.
The first model obtained a 5.06% ripple reduction, while the
second design obtained a 10.13% ripple reduction.

Fig. 2. Torque profile of BLDC with 6-mm thickness and 28.04-mm length Fig. 5. Torque harmonics of BLDC with 6-mm thickness and 28.04-mm
length

Fig. 3. Torque profile of BLDC with 5.7-mm thickness and 29.32-mm length
Fig. 6. Torque harmonics of BLDC with 5.7-mm thickness and 29.32-mm
length
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS 4

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REFERENCES
[1] A. Rahideh and T. Korakianitis, "Analytical Magnetic Field Calculation Chun-Yao Lee (S’04–M’08) received a Ph.D.
of Slotted Brushless Permanent-Magnet Machines With Surface Inset degree in electrical engineering from the National
Magnets," in IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 48, no. 10, pp. 2633- Taiwan University of Science and Technology,
2649, Oct. 2012. Taipei, Taiwan, in 2007. From 1998 to 2008, was a
[2] Y. C. Choi, H. Kim, and J. Lee, “Optimum Design Criteria for Maximum distribution system designer in the Engineering
Torque Density and Minimum Torque Ripple of SynRM According to the Division of Taipei City Government, and CECI
Rated Wattage Using Response Surface Methodology,” in IEEE Engineering Consultants, Inc., Taiwan. Sponsored by
Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 44, no. 11, pp. 4135-4138, Nov. 2008. the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, he
[3] M. Palmieri, M. Perta, F. Cupertino and G. Pellegrino, “Effect of the was a visiting scholar with the Department of
numbers of slots and barriers on the optimal design of synchronous Electrical Engineering, University of Washington,
reluctance machines,” 2014 International Conference on Optimization of Seattle, WA, USA, from 2004 to 2006. Since 2008, Dr. Lee has been a faculty
Electrical and Electronic Equipment (OPTIM), Bran, Romania, 2014, pp. member of electrical engineering with Chung Yuan Christian University,
260-267. Taoyuan, Taiwan, where he is currently a Full Professor. His research interests
[4] A. J. Kanapara and K. P. Badgujar, "Performance Improvement of include power distribution, optimization algorithms, and damage diagnosis. Dr.
Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor through Cogging Torque Lee received the National Excellent Teacher Awards of Taiwan in 2020.
Reduction Techniques," 2020 21st National Power Systems Conference
(NPSC), 2020, pp. 1-6.
[5] M. Markovic, M. Jufer and Y. Perriard, "Reducing the cogging torque in Edu Daryl C. Maceren was born in Davao
brushless DC motors by using conformal mappings," in IEEE City, Philippines, in 1988. He received a bachelor’s
Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 451-455, March 2004. degree from Ateneo de Davao University,
[6] M. Markovic, M. Jufer and Y. Perriard, "Determination of tooth cogging Philippines, in 2005, and an MS degree in electrical
force in a hard-disk brushless DC motor," in IEEE Transactions on engineering from Mindanao State University – Iligan
Magnetics, vol. 41, no. 12, pp. 4421-4426, Dec. 2005. Institute of Technology, Philippines, in 2017. He is
[7] Pahlavani, M.R., Ayat, Y.S. and Vahedi, A, “Minimisation of torque currently pursuing a Ph.D. in electrical engineering at
ripple in slotless axial flux BLDC motors in terms of design Chung Yuan Christian University in the Department
considerations,” in IET Electric Power Applications, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. of Electrical Engineering. His research interests
1124-1130, Feb. 2017. include motor design and control systems.
[8] N. Bianchi, S. Bolognani, D. Bon and M. Dai PrÉ, "Torque Harmonic
Compensation in a Synchronous Reluctance Motor," in IEEE