BIOENERGETICS

 Bioenergetics is the branch of biochemistry that focuses on how cells transform energy,
often by producing, storing or consuming adenosine triphosphate (ATP). 
 Bioenergetics focuses on energy and energy supply in biological systems.
 The term first originated as the title of a 1957 novel written by the Nobel laureate Albert
Szent-Györgyi. 
 Bioenergetics is the expansion of the chemiosmotic theory postulated in 1961, which
originally explains how the generation and breakdown of the cellular energy
currency, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is coupled with the transport of electrons and
hydrogen ions through the cell or organelle membrane.  
 Bioenergetics concerns only the initial and final energy states of reaction components,
not the mechanism or how much time is needed for the chemical change to take place.
Example: Vitamin D Formation- light energy to chemical energy
Photosynthesis- light energy to chemical energy in plants

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 ENERGY IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

i. POTENTIAL ENERGY- stationary, it exists as chemical bonds, concentration gradients,

and electrical charges in the cells.
ii. KINETIC ENERGY- energy in motion, which results in the movement of molecules. In
the cells, kinetic energy is converted from potential energy, moving electrons, hydrogen
ions, and other charged particles.  

Thermodynamic laws provide the framework for bioenergetics:

A. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of a system,
including its surroundings, remains constant.
 Energy cannot be created nor destroyed.
 Example: Plants convert the energy of sunlight (radiant energy) into chemical
energy stored in organic molecules.
 Energy is transformed from one form to another or transferred from one system
to another.
 In thermodynamics, a system can be classified based on the exchange of energy
and materials with another system as follows:
i. An isolated system is a system that does not exchange any material or
energy with its surroundings or another system. The universe is thought
to be the only true isolated system.

ii. A closed system refers to a system that does not lose or gain materials

from other systems, but energy can be exchanged with the surrounding.
iii. An open system is classified as a system that exchanges both its
material and energy to other systems.

B. SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of a system
must increase if a process is to occur spontaneously.
 Entropy is the extent of disorder or randomness of the system and becomes
maximum as equilibrium is approached.

The first and second thermodynamic laws are most relevant to bioenergetics. Based on the first
law, all biological systems are thermodynamically open systems due to the constant matter and
energy exchanges.

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 C. FREE ENERGY

 It is the measure of the capacity of the system to do work.

 Entropy is the extent of disorder or randomness of the system and becomes
maximum as equilibrium is approached.
 Enthalpy is the total heat content of a system.

Under conditions of constant temperature and pressure, the relationship between the free-
energy change (ΔG) of a reacting system and the change in entropy (ΔS) is expressed by the
following equation, which combines the two laws of thermodynamics:

ΔG= ΔH-TΔS This shows the relationship between

charges in free energy (G), enthalpy (H),
Where: and entropy (S). T is the absolute
temperature in degrees Kelvin (oK): oK =
ΔG- Change in Free Energy oC + 273.

 Energy available to do work

 Approaches zero as reaction proceeds to equilibrium
 Predicts whether a reaction is favorable

ΔH- Change in Enthalpy

 Heat released or absorbed during a reaction

 Does not predict whether a reaction is favorable.

ΔS- Change in Entropy

 Measure of randomness
 Does not predict whether a reaction is favorable.

T- absolute temperature

LAWS OF BIOENERGETICS

Apart from the thermodynamic laws that provide the framework for bioenergetics, energetic
cellular reactions also follow additional laws: 

1. LIVING CELLS USE ENERGY CARRIERS

 The first bioenergetics law states that living cells do not use the acquired energy
directly. Instead, the energy received from external sources is first converted into
energy carriers before performing cellular works. 

2. LIVING CELLS USE AT LEAST TWO FORMS OF ENERGY CARRIERS

 The second law of bioenergetics states that all biological systems have at least
two forms of energy carriers.

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 3. THE CELLULAR ENERGY CARRIERS ARE INTERCONVERTIBLE
 The third law of bioenergetics is expanded from the second law. It stipulates that
energy carriers in one form can be converted to other forms that exist in the
cells. 
 ATP can be converted to potential differences of hydrogen ions or sodium ions
and vice versa. It is thought that the interconversion between energy carriers
guarantees that cells can fulfill all of their energy needs even if they can only
harvest energy from one source. 

TYPES OF BIOENERGETIC REACTIONS

1. EXERGONIC REACTIONS
 Refer to chemical reactions that release free energy when they are complete.
 Hence, exergonic reactions can occur spontaneously in a closed system
subjected to stable temperature and pressure. 
 From a metabolic point of view, exergonic reactions are in the catabolic branch,
where macromolecules are dissimilated to smaller units. For example, starch and
glycogen are broken down into glucose, their basic monomeric units.   
2. ENDERGONIC REACTIONS
 In contrast to exergonic reactions, endergonic reactions are processes that
consume energy. This sort of reaction will not occur in a thermostable closed
system under constant pressure unless a sufficient amount of energy is given to
the system. 
 From a metabolic point of view, endergonic reactions are anabolic. In anabolism,
the energy released from catabolic reactions supplies the required energy for the
synthesis of biomolecules. 

Macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids are polymer chains
that store energy in living cells. They are eventually used as reactants in catabolic reactions to
supply the cells with energy. 

NOTABLE BIOENERGETIC REACTIONS AND PROCESSES

 CHEMIOSMOSIS: ATP SYNTHESIS

- The majority of cellular ATP is generated and hydrolyzed by membrane-
bound protein complexes in a process called chemiosmosis. ATP is
hydrolyzed when cells need the energy to initiate a non-spontaneous
reaction. Water molecules in the cell act as electron donors, attacking and
forming a chemical bond with one of the phosphate groups. The formation of
a phosphate-hydroxide bond breaks the phosphate from ATP, releases the
energy, and results in ADP and hydrogen ions.  

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 CELLULAR RESPIRATION
-  It refers to a catabolic process that cells use to harvest energy from
biomolecules. Here, a series of reactions break up macromolecules into their
basic units, transforming the potential energy embedded in the chemical
bonds into ATPs and the cofactor nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD+).Cellular respiration in most organisms takes place in the presence of
oxygen (aerobic respiration), consisting of the following pathways:

a. GLYCOLYSIS
-a metabolic pathway that harvests energy from glucose, and it results in ATP,
the reduced form of NAD+ (NADH), and pyruvate.
-As a whole, glycolysis results in four ATP molecules generated from substrate-
level phosphorylation reactions, two NADH and two pyruvate molecules. Since
two ATP molecules are consumed in the investing phase, glycolysis results in
two net ATP molecules. 

b. PYRUVATE DECARBOXYLATION
- The reduction of NAD+ into NADH from glycolysis disrupts the redox state
and depletes the cellular NAD+ reserve. As a result, pyruvate is further
oxidized to replenish the NAD+ reserve. 
- In eukaryotes, NADH and pyruvate are transferred to the mitochondria where
they are oxidized to NAD+ and acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) together
with carbon dioxide (CO2), respectively. Acetyl CoA is further oxidized in
the Citric Acid Cycle.  

c. CITRIC (TRICARBOXYLIC) ACID CYCLE

- Also known as Krebs Cycle after Hans Adolf Krebs, the 1953 Nobel laureate
who identified the cycle.
- The TCA cycle occurs at the mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration.
It uses acetyl-CoA generated from glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation or the
breakdown of lipids and amino acids. 
- The Krebs cycle produces precursors of some amino acids, CO2, NADH, the
hydroquinone form of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2), and guanosine
triphosphate (GTP) or ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation. NADH and
FADH2 are subsequently used to synthesize ATP in oxidative
phosphorylation. 

d. OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
- Following the TCA cycle, NADH and FADH2 created from the Krebs cycle are
oxidized in a series of electron transfer reactions that ends with reducing
oxygen (O2) into water, replenishing the cellular NAD+ and FAD pool, and
producing ATP from chemiosmosis.

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 - Oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes occurs in the mitochondria’s inner
membrane and involves the transfer of electrons by a set of protein
complexes called the electron transport chain. 
- This electron transport chain finishes with the electrons being passed on to
molecular oxygen, which is reduced to form water. 

 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- Generally perceived as the opposite of cellular respiration, photosynthesis
takes place when photoreceptors in chloroplasts capture light.
- The energy acquired from light excites electrons, resulting in charge
separation and subsequent electron transport reactions,
termed photophosphorylation.  
- Photophosphorylation takes place at the thylakoid membrane of the
chloroplast, where two protein complexes, Photosystem I
(PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII), are located. 
- After light energy is harvested, the excitation and transfer of electrons lead to
the oxidation of water to O2 and reduction of nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+) to NADPH at the PSII and PSI,
respectively. 
- Similar to oxidative phosphorylation, electron transfer in chloroplasts is
coupled with the generation of proton gradients across the thylakoid
membrane, which drives the generation of ATP by ATP synthase. Both
NADPH and ATP are used in the Calvin cycle to generate starch. 

IMPORTANCE OF BIOENERGETICS

 The conversion of energy for cellular activities is a vital process in any biological system.
Failure to supply the required energy or excessive energy is consequential to the well-
being of the organisms.
 An understanding of bioenergetics is also important for improved awareness of several
human diseases that are caused by disruptions in mitochondrial processes, including
some forms of cancer and cardiovascular disease.
 Through bioenergetics studies, biochemists are able to understand how energy released
during cellular metabolism can be used to “do work” that is useful for the cells e.g.
movement of molecules, cells or organs or heating within a body.

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REFERENCES:

https://www.nature.com/subjects/bioenergetics

https://conductscience.com/introduction-to-bioenergetics/

https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/Content.aspx?bookId=1366&sectionId=73243196

https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/biochemistry/0/steps/15296

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