Process Control

CHM 422
Recommended TextBook
Recommended Reference

Principles and Practices of Automatic Process Control, 3rd Edition

Carlos A. Smith
Recommended Reference
Course Material:
Chapters 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,10,12,14,15 (Seborg)

Supportive Material
Power point presentation. Available on
Blackboard
 Course Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:
Identify various components of a control system and their functions
.
2. Differentiate between simple feedback control strategy and advanced control strategies

3. Differentiate between regulatory and servo control

4. Determine control objectives based on a qualitative description of a chemical process

5. Classify variables of a control loop in relation to the control objectives of a specific

chemical process

6. Develop a simplified linear dynamic model for a given chemical process

7. Recall the definition and properties of Laplace transforms

8. Derive the first and second order transfer functions of chemical processes in their
standard forms

9. Analyze the nature and stability of the open loop response of first and second order
transfer functions to a step change in an input to the process

10. Differentiate between second order interacting and non- interacting systems and their
open-loo responses

11. Develop transfer functions for all components of a control system

12. Analyze the feedback control actions and the problems associated with them

13. Design a single feedback control system and analyze its stability
 Course Description
This course material includes a theoretical and a practical part.
The theory aims at providing students with the quantitative
aspects of process control. Focus is made on design and
performance of feedback control systems and stability of
feedback controllers.
 Course Contents
1. Introduction and Overview of a Control System
General objectives of a control system, elements of a control system, block diagram of a feedback control
system.
2. Classification of Chemical Process Variables
Input and output variables, control objectives, controlled variables, disturbances, manipulated variables,
illustrative examples: continuous liquid storage tank, continuous stirred tank heater, non-isothermal
continuous stirred tank reactor, schematic representation of control loops, binary distillation column,
pump operation, and gas tank.
3. Dynamic Modeling of a Chemical Process
Conservation principles: Total mass balance, component mass balance, energy balance, degree of freedom
analysis, illustrative examples on modeling: liquid storage tank, continuous stirred tank heaters, non-
isothermal continuous stirred tank liquid phase reactor, isothermal continuous stirred tank gas phase
reactor, boiler, and heat exchanger.
4. Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of a Chemical Process
Linearization, illustrative examples on linearization, Laplace transforms, properties of Laplace transforms,
first-order linear differential equation, transfer functions, poles and roots of a transfer function, first-order
lag systems, first-order pure capacitive process, second-order linear differential equation, qualitative
analysis of the dynamic response of a second-order system, interacting and non-interacting second order
systems, and illustrative examples.
5. Feedback Control Systems
Block diagram of a feedback control system, regulator and servo problems, types of feedback controllers,
closed loop response equation, effect of proportional control, integral control and derivative control on
the response of first order and second order processes, offset calculation, proportional-integral and
proportional-integral-derivative control of processes.
 Course Contents
6. Stability Analysis of Feedback Systems
Definition of stability for a feedback control system, characteristic equation, Substitution method
Introduction and Overview of a Control System

1
Introduction (P.1)
Process control is becoming more and more important in this age of automation.
In manufacturing processes it ensures that certain process variables, such as
temperature, pressure, liquid level, flow rate, concentration take up specific
constant values recognized as optimum or they are maintained in a particular
relationship to other variables. In other words, the duty of process control is to
bring these variables to certain pre-defined values (set points), and to maintain
them constant against all disturbing influences.

Process control is concerned with maintaining a process at the desired operating

conditions, safely

Changes are always occurring, and if actions are not taken in response, then the
important process variables-those related to safety, product quality, and
production rates-will not achieve design conditions.
Why do Chemical Engineers Need to understand
and practice process control? (P.2)

Without computer-based process control systems

it would be impossible to operate modern plants
safely and profitably while satisfying product
quality and environmental requirements
Performance requirements for process plants have
become more difficult to satisfy because of :

•Stronger Competition in product quality

•Tougher environmental regulations
•Tougher safety regulations
• Rapidly changing economic conditions
•Difficulty of operation due to more process integration and disturbances
are difficult to prevent from propagating

Therefore, there is an increased emphasis placed on safe efficient plant

operation
Definition of a Process (P.2)
The conversion of feed material to products
using chemical and physical operations

Continuous Process:
Examples:
• Heat exchanger
• CSTR
• Thermal cracking Furnace
• Distillation
Incentives of Process Control

1. Safety
2. Environmental protection
3. Equipment protection
4. Smooth operation
5. Product quality ( composition, purity, color, etc.)
6. Profit ( maintain plant production rate at minimum cost)
7. Monitoring & diagnosis
Example
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Example
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Example
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Example
Example
Example
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Example
Example
EXAMPLE 1

A. manual control of a hot water tank B. automatic control of a hot water tank
EXAMPLE 2

A. manual control of a shower system B. Automatic control of a shower system

EXAMPLE 3

The purpose of this unit is to heat the process fluid from some inlet temperature
Ti (t) Up to a certain desired outlet temperature T(t)

A. Heat Exchanger System B. Heat Exchanger Control System

EXAMPLE 4

Describe your method for

driving a car
• Could you drive a car
without looking out the
windshield?
• What must be provided by
the car designer?
• Can a “good design”
eliminate the need to steer?
 FUNCTIONS OF A CONTROL SYSTEM

It can be seen from the previous examples that there are four tasks associated with any
control system :
ELEMENTS OF PROCESS
CONTROL LOOP
Most basic process control systems consist of a control loop as shown in
the following figure, having three main components:

Desired Value

CONTROLLER

FINAL Control
SENSOR
ELEMENT

Inputs PROCESS Outputs

 WHERE IS CONTROL
IMPLEMENTED?

•Sensors, local indicators, and valves are in the process.

•Displays of all plant variables and control calculations are in a centralized facility.
TRANSMISSION SIGNALS
There are three types kinds of signals that exist for the process
industry to transmit the process variable measurement from the
instrument to centralized control room.

Pneumatic Signals (3 – 5 psig)

The signals produced by changing the air pressure in a signal pipe in
proportion to the measured change in the process.

Electrical Signals (4-20mA)

The most common standard electric signal is the (4-20 mA) current
signal. The current signal is a kind of gauge in which 4mA represents the
lowest possible measurement, or zero, and 20 mA represents that
highest possible measurement.

Digital Signals ( zeros and ones)

The most recent addition to process control signal technology.
REGULATORY AND SERVO
CONTROL
Regulatory: when a controller changes a process variable to
move the process variable back to the setpoint, it is called a
regulator.

Servo: when a controller changes a process variable to move the

process variable in response to a setpoint change, it is called a
servo.
Designing A control System
Major Steps in Developing a Control
system
1. Determine control objectives of the process
& Select controlled variables, disturbances and
manipulated variables
3. Develop a process model
4. Select a control strategy
5. Select control hardware and software
6. Install control system
7. Adjust controller settings
Basic Definitions (P.2)
Input variables: Disturbances, Manipulated variables.
Output variables: some or all are controlled variables.
Controlled variable (CV): variable that must be maintained or controlled,
also called process variable.
Set point: desired value of controlled variable (SP).
Manipulated variable (MV): variable used to maintain controlled variable
at its set point.
Disturbance (DV): any variable that causes the controlled variable to
deviate from its set point value .
Output Variables (P. 234)
Not all output variables are controlled for the following
reasons:

1. It might not be possible or uneconomical to measure all

output variables

2. No enough manipulated variables exist

3. Control loops might have slow dynamics or low

sensitivity of controlled variables to manipulated
variables or interact
Selection of Measured Variables
(P.236)
Guideline1
Measurements must be reliable and accurate
Examples of error sources:
a. Orifice without enough straight piping
b. Sample lines with large delay times
c. Insensitive temp. measurement locations
d. Flow rate measurements by the orifice
plate of liquids at their boiling points
Guideline 2:
Measurement points must have adequate degree
of sensitivity

Example
Measurement of top (bottom) product
composition in distillation
Guideline 3:
Measurement points must have minimum delay
time and time constant
Example
Measurement of top (bottom) product
composition in distillation
Control Objectives and Selection
of Controlled Variables (P.235)
Guideline1
All variables that are not self-regulating must
be controlled

• Output variables with unbounded response to

changes in the input variables
Example: liquid level in a tank with a pump
at the exit line
Guideline 2 &3:
Variables related to operation (pressure,
temperature, flow rate)
Variables that measure product quality directly
(composition or concentration) or that are related
to it)
Guideline 4
Output variables that seriously interact with
other controlled variables

Example: pressure in a steam header

Guideline 5:
Controlled variable must have favorable
dynamic and static characteristics:

• Variables having large time delays or large

time constants
• Variables insensitive to MV
Selection of Manipulated Variables
(P.235)
Guideline1&2:
Select variables that have favorable dynamic and
static characteristics on the controlled variables:

• Large effects
• Rapid effects (fast response)
Guideline 3:
Manipulated variables should affect the
controlled variables directly rather than
indirectly
e.g. manipulating steam flow rate not the
condensate flow rate in a heat exchanger
Guideline 4:
Manipulated variable should not be chosen as an
inlet stream or a recycle stream because
disturbances tend to propagate forward or be
recycled to the process
Guideline 5:
Manipulated variable should not interact as a
disturbance with any other control loop
e.g. manipulating the outlet flow rate from one
unit entering another unit
Classification of Process Variables
in a Control System
For each of the following examples we need to fulfill
the requirements given below:

•What are the possible control objectives?

•What are the controlled variables?

•What are the disturbances?

•What are the manipulated variables?

Example 1
Remarks:
• Take care of the meanings of symbols

• Don’t use different symbols for the same

variable

• You may introduce other symbols to use with

new variables as needed in a problem
 Solution
Control Objectives
• Keep the liquid level [h] or alternatively the volume of the liquid
[V] at the desired steady state

Controlled Variables
• h

Disturbances
• Fi , Fo

Manipulated variables
• Fo , F i
Example 2
Continuous Stirred Tank Heater
Remarks
• Tank is perfectly mixed (T ≈ To)

• Q is the rate of heat transfer

• Fst is the volumetric flow rate of steam

Solution
Control Objectives

• Keep the liquid level [h] or alternatively the volume of the

liquid (V) at the desired steady state value

• Keep the effluent temperature [To] at the desired steady state

value

Controlled Variables
• h , To

Disturbances
• fi , fo , Ti
Manipulated variables
• fo , f i , Fst
Example 3
Non-isothermal continuous
stirred tank reactor

fi, cAi, Ti
Fc, Tco

fo, cAo, To
Fc, Tci
Remarks
• Tank is perfectly mixed (T ≈ To, cAo ≈ cA)

• Fc is the coolant volumetric flow rate, Tc is the

coolant temperature

• Coolant flow rate doesn’t change between the inlet

and the outlet

• Concentration is written in terms of reactant A or

product B but not both
Solution
Control Objectives

• Keep the liquid level [h] or alternatively the volume of the liquid [V]
at the desired steady state value

• Keep the effluent temperature [To] at the desired steady state value
[T2]

• Keep the effluent concentration [c Ao] at the desired steady state value

Controlled Variables
• h , To, , cAo

Disturbances
• fi , fo , Ti , cAi , Tci
Manipulated variables
• fo , f i , Fc
Heat /Time

To
Example 4
Non-isothermal continuous stirred
tank mixer
cAi2, Ti2, fi2

cAi1, Ti1, fi1

cAo, To, fo
Remarks
• Tank is perfectly mixed (T ≈ To, cAo ≈ cA)

• Q is the heat added by steam or removed by

cooling water

• Concentration is written in terms of A or B but

not both
 Solution
Control Objectives

• Keep the liquid level [h] or alternatively the volume of the liquid [V] at the
desired steady state value

• Keep the effluent temperature [To] at the desired steady state value

• Keep the effluent concentration [c Ao] at the desired steady state value

Controlled Variables
• h , To, , cAo

Disturbances
• fi1 , fi2 , fo , Ti 1, Ti2, cAi1 , cAi2 , Tci
 nipulated variables
o , f i1 , fi2, Q, fi1/fi2
More Examples
Example 12.3 Textbook P.234
Example 12.4 Textbook P. 236 &237
Fired-Tube Furnace Textbook P.240& 241
Control Strategies

• A control strategy is the way of doing control.

1. Feedback Control (P.4)

(uses direct measurements of process variables)

The controlled variable is measured and measurement is used to adjust the

manipulated variable. Measured value takes place through appropriate
instrumentation and this value is then transmitted back to the comparator and
compared to the desired value of the controlled variable (the setpoint). The
difference between these two (the error) is used as the input to the feedback
controller, this controller then calculates a signal to adjust the manipulated
variable.
ProcessFeedbackward Control of Liquid
storage
Blending Process
Feedbackward Control of Blending
Process
Advantages (P. 271)
1.It does not require identification and measurement of any disturbance.
2.It is insensitive to modeling errors.
3.It is insensitive to parameter changes.

Disadvantages (P.271)
1.It waits until the effect of the disturbances has been felt by he system, before
control action is taken.
2.It is unsatisfactory for slow processes or with significant dead time.
3.It may create instability in the closed-loop response.
Feed back Controllers (P. 124-130)
• A feed back controller first receives a signal
of the measured variable and compares it
with the signal of the set point value

• The controller sends an output signal

calculated from the controller’s equation
based on the difference between the set point
and the measured variable
Action of a Feedback Controller (P.
132 bottom &133)
• The controller action is either: 1) direct (means an increase in the measurement
signal to the controller requires an increase in the controller output signal),
Or
• 2) reverse ( means an increase in the measurement signal to the controller
requires a decrease in the controller output signal)

• The selection of the controller action is critical to the design of a control

system. If not correctly selected, the controller will not control, this selection is
determined by:

1. The process requirements for control (for example: controlling the liquid level
in a tank by manipulating the inlet flow or outlet flow, another example is the
control of outlet temperature from a heat exchanger)

2. The fail-safe action of the control valve

The following explanations present the
different feedback controllers
Proportional Controller
(P.126)

p(t) p K c e(t)
• p(t) is the controller output (units % CO)

• Kc is the controller gain (units % CO / % TO), Kc is -ve for direct

action controllers and +ve for reverse action controllers

• Kc is usually given in terms of a proportional band

Pb = 100 / Kc

• The larger the value of Kc , the more the controller output changes for
a given error , or the more the sensitivity of the controller

• is the output from the controller when the error is zero (50% CO)
p
• Kc >0 for reverse action controllers and Kc <0 direct
action controllers
Effect of Proportional Gain on
Process Response
• The proportional controller suffers from
steady state error or offset ( i.e. controlled
variable does not go back to the required
steady state value exactly)

• The offset of a controller decreases with an

increase in Kc . However, too large Kc will
cause instability of most processes
Proportional-Integral Controller
(PI)(P.127-129)
• The PI controller is used to remove the offset
caused by the proportional controller alone.

• The equation of a PI controller is given by:

Kc t
p(t) p K c e(t) e(t ) dt
τI 0
Output signal from a PI controller
Response of a process output with a PI
controller
• When a change in error or deviation of 1% takes
place at t = 0, the controller output changes
immediately by an amount equal to KC because of
proportional mode only.

• After time t = τI (τI is the rest time), the controller

output increases by an amount of Kc or repeats the
proportional action after each τI as long as the error
exists.

• The smaller the value of τI, the faster the integral

action. Once the error disappears, the controller
does not change its output ( it integrates a function
with zero value). However, the value of τI must not
be too small to avoid oscillations and instability.
Effect of Integral Time on Process Response
Reset Windup Problem
(P. 128&129)
Causes & Description
• The problem occurs when there is a large sustained error in the
controlled variable e.g. after a large set point change during
manual operation in a shut down or a change over
or there is large sustained disturbance beyond the range of the
manipulated variable

• In this case the integral term becomes quite large and the
controller output keeps increasing till saturation(100% or 0%)
and the control valve is either wide open or fully closed but the
controlled variable is still not at the set point
• Further increase in the integral term beyond
saturation is referred to as rest wind up or
integral wind up

Troubleshooting
• Commercial controllers provide anti-rest
windup by temporarily halting the integral
control action when controller out put saturates
Derivative Control Action
(P. 129)
• Introduces faster response compared to both
proportional and integral control action

• The derivative control action anticipates the future

behavior of the error signal by considering the rate of
change of error with time.
• The derivative control action is given by:
de(t)
τD
dt
Anticipatory nature of
derivative control
• The amount of anticipation is determined by the
derivative time τD

• The derivative control action cannot be used alone

as long as the error is constant
(de/dt =0)
Advantages of Derivative Control
Action (P.129)
• The derivative action improves the dynamic
response of a process, since it has a
stabilizing effect that reduces the overshoot
and oscillations caused by the proportional
and the integral control actions
Disadvantages of Derivative
Control Action (P.129)
• Can not be used with noisy process (e.g. in flow
control) measurement signals since the derivative of
the error will show drastic changes unless a filter is
used with the measurement.

• Sudden change in the set point will cause the

derivative action to become momentarily large and
provide a “derivative kick” to control valve. This
could be troubleshot by basing the derivative on the
measurement signal ym rather the error signal
Noisy Signal of a Flow process
Derivative Kick for a Sudden
Change in Set point
Effect of Derivative Time on
Process Response
Effects of Various Types of
Controllers
The effect of the proportional, integral, and derivative control modes on
the response of a process is as follows:

1.Proportional Control
A.Accelerates the response of a controlled process
B.Produces an offset for all processes except the ones having 1/s term in
their transfer functions( e.g. some liquid storage tanks or gas pressure in a
vessel)

2.Integral Control
A.Eliminates any offset
B.Produces sluggish oscillating responses with higher overshoots
C.Too high gain and too small integral time may lead to instability
3. Derivative Control
A. Anticipates future errors and introduces faster response
B. Introduces a stabilizing effect on the closed -loop response of a
process

C. It seems from the above that PID

controller should be the best. However, the
tuning of such controller is the most
difficult.
Effect of Various Proportional Controllers on
Response
Guide lines For Selecting Most
Suitable Controller
• If possible, use simple proportional controller in case a
small offset could be tolerated by the process or if there is
no offset (e.g. level or gas pressure control)

• If P only controller is un acceptable, use PI controller in

for fast processes since there will be no offset despite the
sluggishness of this type of controller

• Use a PID controller with slow processes like

multicapacity, temperature and concentration control
loops. The addition of the derivative control has a
stabilizing effect that allows the use of higher gains and
faster responses without excessive oscillations
 Control Valves (P. 147-149)
• The controller output signal is the input to the control
valve

• The opening of the valve changes

• The resistance to flow changes and, thus, the output flow

from the valve itself changes.

• When designing a control system, a main consideration is

to select the safest “ action” or “fail position” of the valve:
either FC or FO when electric or air power supply is cut off
 ADVANCED CONTROL
STRATEGIES
The advanced control strategies are usually more costly than feedback control in
hardware, computing power, and the effort involved in designing, implementing,
and maintaining them. Therefore, the expense must be justified before they can
be implemented.

The best procedure is first to design and implement a simple control strategy,
keeping in mind that if it does not prove satisfactory, then a more advanced
strategy may be justifiable. It is important, however, to recognize that these
advanced strategies still require some feedback compensation.

Examples of advanced control strategies are: feedforward control, cascade

control, ratio control, adaptive and inferential control systems.
2. Feedforward Control (P.5, 272)
(uses direct measurements of disturbances)

In a feedforward controller, however , a sensor is used to measure the

disturbance as it enters the process and the sensor transmits this information to
feedforward controller. The feedforward controller determines the needed
change in the manipulated variable so that, when the effect of the disturbance is
combined with the effect of the change in the manipulated variable, there will be
no change in the controlled variable. This perfect compensation is a difficult
goal to obtain. It is, however, the objective for which feedforward control is
structured. Just as in feedback control, it is necessary to provide the feedforward
controller with a set point or desired value of the controlled variable.
Feedbackward Control of Liquid storage Feed Forward Control of Liquid storage
Process Process
Feedback Control of Blending Process Feed Forward Control of Blending Process
 Feedbackward
Feedbackward Control
Control of of Boiler
Boiler Process
Process Feed forward Control of Boiler Process
Advantages
1.Acts before the effect of a disturbance has been felt by the system
2.Is good for slow systems (multi-capacity) or with significant dead time.
3.It does not introduce instability in the closed-loop response.

Disadvantages
1.Requires identification of all possible disturbances and their direct
measurement.
2.Cannot cope with unmeasured disturbances.
3.Insensitive to process parameter variations.
4.Requires good knowledge of the process model.
Design of Feed forward
Controllers (P.5, 276, 278)
• Based on steady state models. For example:
See equation 1.5, 14.7 & 14.11 (P.5, 276, 278)
Combined Feedback –Feed
Forward Control (P.273, 282)
• See figures 14.4 & 14.10 (P.273 & P. 277)
Combined Feedback-Feed Forward
Control of Blending Process
Combined Feedback-Feed Forward
Control of Boiler Process
Heat exchanger feedforward control Heat exchanger feedforward control with
system feedback compensation.
Inferential Control (P. 296)
• This control strategy uses secondary measurements (because
the controlled variables cannot be measured) to adjust the
values of manipulated variables

• The objective is still to keep the controlled variables at their

set points

• The values of the available measurements together with the

equations governing the process are used to compute estimates
of the controlled variables.
• The estimated values of the controlled
variables are then compared with the
corresponding set points

• Based on the comparison above, the controller

decides an action that adjusts the value of the
manipulated variable
Cascade Control (P. 288)
• In cases where a disturbance is related to the
manipulated variable and to improve the
dynamic response of the control system to this
disturbance (which may not be necessarily
measured) , cascade control strategy is
beneficial.
Mechanism of Cascade Control
• Cascade control employs:
1. Secondary measurement located at a point that it recognizes
the change in the disturbance associated with the manipulated
variable more quickly than the main controlled variable

2. Secondary controller to overcome the effect of the said

disturbance

3. The output signal from the primary controller is the set point
of the secondary controller
Cascade Control of Furnace
Temperature
• Consider the furnace temperature control problem. The disturbances to the
steady state value of this temperature are:
1. Cold oil inlet temperature
2. Oil flow rate
3. Supply pressure of fuel gas

• The first two disturbances are taken care of efficiently by a feedback

control system

• While if a disturbance occurs in the fuel gas supply pressure, the fuel gas
flow will change which upsets the furnace temperature. Responding to this
disturbance through the feedback control is sluggish
Cascade Control of Furnace Process
 Control System Classification
• A control system is classified according to the number of
controlled variables and the corresponding number of
manipulated variables into two classes:

1. SISO (single input- single output)

• One controlled variable
• One manipulated variable

2. MIMO ( Multiple input- Multiple output)

• More than one controlled variable
• More than one manipulated variable
Control Configuration
• In multiloop control, each control loop uses a
single manipulated variable to control a single
controlled variable.

• The question is how the controlled and

manipulated variables should be paired?
• This is done through the consideration of all
possible configurations. The best configuration
is the one providing minimum interaction
among the control loops.

• A control configuration is the information

structure that connects available measurements
to available manipulated variables
• In applications, where multiloop control are not
satisfactory, multivariable control can be
advantageous.

• In multivariable control, each manipulated variable is

adjusted based on the measurements of all the
controlled variables rather than only the relevant
controlled variable in multiloop control (e.g. model
predictive control).
Example 5
For controlling the liquid level in a tank:
• This is a SISO system
• There is four possible control configurations
(two feedback configurations and two
feedforward configurations)
For controlling the level and temperature of the
liquid in the tank:
•This is a MIMO system
•There is four possible configurations for
controlling level
•There is ? possible configurations for
controlling temperature
Continuous Stirred Tank Heater
Which Control Configuration is best ?

The best configuration is dictated by the proper

selection of the measured and manipulated variables

•The selected manipulated variable must have:

• Favorable static and dynamic characteristics with
respect to the controlled variable.
•It causes no or minimum interaction between control
loops and that should be studied thoroughly.
Example 6 (Distillation Process
with Interacting Control Loops)
Block Diagram
FUNCTIONS Representation
OF A CONTROL SYSTEM of
a Control System

General Block Diagram Representation

of a Feed back Control System
Block Diagram Representation of a Control
System for Illustrative Example in the book
Summary of Points-Chapter 1
• Importance of process control to chemical
engineers
• Incentives for process control
• Mechanism of control
• Servo and Regulatory control
• Steps involved in designing a control system
• Classification of variables in a control loop
Continue Summary of Points –
Chapter 1
• Control objectives and selection of controlled
variables
• Selection of manipulated variables
• Control strategies
• Feedback control (negative and positive feed
back)
• Feed forward control
• Combined feedback –feed forward control
Continue Summary of Points –
Chapter 1
• Inferential control
• Cascade control
• Multiloop and multivariable control
• Block diagram Presentation of control system
Mathametical Modeling of a
Chemical Process
Steady State and Dynamic
Models
• Steady state models describe physical and chemical
changes taking place in a process independent of
time. They are used to provide steady state (design
values or set point values) of process variables

• Dynamic( unsteady state) models on the other hand

describe physical and chemical changes taking place
in a process with time. A dynamic model
characterizes the transient behavior of a process for a
wide variety of conditions
Uses of Models
1. Improve understanding of the process:
• Dynamic modeling and computer simulation
• Behavior of a process investigated without actual
disturbance
• Acquire information about the transient and steady
state behavior of a process (design question or control
question)
2. Train plant operating personnel
• Operators should be able to run complex units
• Operators should deal with emergency situations

3. Develop a control strategy for a new process

• Allows alternative control strategies to be evaluated

• Help identify the process variables to be controlled, manipulated variables
and disturbances

4. Optimize process operating conditions

• Use steady-state model and economic information to recalculate the
optimum operating conditions
How are Models Obtained?
a) Theoretical models developed using the
principles of basic sciences

Advantages:
• Provide insight of process behavior
• Applicable over wide range of conditions
Disadvantages:
• Expensive and time consuming
• For complex processes, physical properties or parameters
such as reaction rate constants are not readily available
b) Empirical models developed by fitting
experimental data to equations
Advantages:
• Easier to develop than theoretical models
Disadvantages:
• They do not extrapolate well for operating conditions that were
not included in the model
c) Semi-empirical models: combination of
theoretical models and experimental data. One
or parameters in a theoretical model has to
calculated from experimental data
Advantages:
• Have grounds in theory
• Can be extrapolated over a wide range of conditions than
empirical models
• Require less development effort than theoretical models
Theoretical Dynamic Modeling
• Physical and chemical changes in a process show up as changes in state
variables (concentration, pressure, temperature, flow rate, liquid level)

• State variables are related to disturbances and manipulated variables by

ordinary differential equations having time as independent variable.

• Differential equations are derived from the application of conservation

principles such as conservation of mass and energy on a chemical process

• The number of equations in a model could be reduced with some

assumptions or simplifications

• Degree of freedom analysis is done to judge the possibility of controlling a

chemical process (solving model equations)
• Models are usually arranged so that the output variables appear
on the left hand side and the input variables appear on the right
side

• Inputs are further classified as disturbances or as manipulated

variables
•
• Models are next linearized if they are non-linear

• Laplace transforms are finally used to derive transfer functions

from models
• (see Textbook for a systematic approach to develop
dynamic model P.17)
Conservation Principles
(Balances)
• Total Mass Balance

• Component Mass Balance

• Energy Balance
Total Mass Balance

• Rate of mass accumulation in a control volume

= rate of mass input into a control volume –
rate of mass output from a control volume

• Total mass balance is usually written in mass units.

• Total mass balance can also be written in mole units

for processes with no chemical reactions. This is
useful for controlling pressure of a gas
Un Steady State Total Mass Balance
Equation

d(ρ V)
ρi fi - ρo fo
dt
Un Steady State Component Mass
Balance
• Component mass balance equation is
written for n-1 components of an n-
component mixture

• Component mass balance must be written in

mole units for reactants (rate expression is
in moles)
Unsteady State Component Mass
Balance Equation
• Rate of accumulation of a component in a
control volume = Input rate of the same
component in the control volume – Output
rate of the same component from the
control volume ± molar rate of production
or consumption of the component by a
chemical reaction
Unsteady State Component Mass
Balance Equation

dn A d(c A V)
c Ai f i - c Ao f o rA V
dt dt
Unsteady State Energy Balance
• Potential and kinetic energies are neglected

• shaft work is neglected, but all forms of

enthalpy change are considered

• Internal energy of the accumulated

material in the control volume is
approximately equal to the enthalpy
Unsteady State Energy Balance
Equation

d(Vρ ĥ)
f i ρ i ĥ i - f o ρ o ĥ o H r rA V Q
dt
Example 7 (P.26, 27)
Develop a model for a liquid storage tank

fi

fo
Solution
A. Model Assumptions and Simplifications:
1. Tank cross sectional area is constant

2. Perfectly mixed tank àdensity of the tank liquid is the same

as that of the effluent liquid

3. Isothermal conditionsà the density of the inlet liquid and

that of the effluent liquid is constant

4. No need for component mass balance equation since the

liquid is pure and there is no chemical reaction

5. No Need for energy balance equation since tank condition is

isothermal
B. Equations
Total Mass Balance

d(ρ V)
fiρi foρo
dt
ρ ρi ρo

dV
fi fo
dt
 V Ah
dh
A fi fo
dt
C. Variables:
•State variables: h

•Output variables : h

•Input variables: fi, fo (fi is

disturbance, fo is manipulated
variable)

•Parameters: A
D. Degree of freedom Analysis

• Parameters are constant in value

• Number of degrees of freedom (Nf) =

number of variables – number of equations

• Nf is either a negative number, or equal

zero, or a positive number
• To solve a control problem, f must be reduced to
zero. Control objectives and disturbances will
reduce the degrees of freedom to zero

• NF = 3-1 =2, we must look for another two

equations or relations

• fi is determined as a disturbance, fo is related to h

through the control objective by the equation:

fo α h
Other Variations of Liquid Storage Systems

1. Inlet or outlet flow rate might be constant

• For example, outlet flow rate may be kept
constant by a constant speed pump

2. The outlet flow rate may have linear relation

to the liquid level
• fo = h / Rv where Rv is the resistance of exit
line to flow
Example 8 Blending Process
• See book P. 16,19
• Equations 2.2, 2.3,2.12-2.18
Example 9
Develop a model of the continuous
stirred tank heater (variable holdup)
(P.24)
Solution
A. Model Assumptions And Simplifications:

1. Tank cross section is constant

2. Perfectly mixed tank àdensity and the temperature of the tank

liquid are the same as those of the effluent liquid

3. Density of the inlet liquid is assumed equal to that of the effluent

liquid over the operating range of temperature

4. The heat capacities of inlet, effluent and accumulated liquids are

assumed to be constant over the operating range of temperature
5. No need for component mass balance equation since the system is
single component

6. Negligible heat losses from the tank to the surroundings

7. Energy input by the stirrer is negligible (stirrer shaft work is

neglected)

8. Negligible heat capacity of steam coil (negligible thermal capacitance

of steam coil or negligible coil dynamics)

9. Negligible thermal capacitance of condensate liquid with respect to

the tank liquid and the wall of the heating coil
B. Equations:

• Total mass balance

d(ρ V)
fiρi foρo
dt

ρ ρi ρo
dV
fi fo
dt

V Ah
dh
A fi fo
dt
Energy balance

d(ρ V ĥ)
ρ i f i ĥ i ρ o f o ĥ o Q
dt

hˆ hˆ ref cp (To Tref )

ĥ i ĥref cp (Ti Tref )

ĥo ĥref cp (To Tref )

 Substituting and taking href =0

d( Ah (To - Tref ))
ρ cp ρ f i c p (Ti Tref ) - ρf o c p (To Tref ) Q
dt

d( Ah (To - Tref )) Q
f i (Ti Tref ) - f o (To Tref )
dt ρ cp
 d( h (To - Tref ) Q
A f i (Ti -Tref ) - fo (To Tref )
dt ρ cp

d To dh Q
Ah A(To Tref ) f i (Ti - Tref ) - fo (To Tref )
dt dt ρ cp

Substituting from the total mass balance equation

d To Q
Ah (To - Tref )(f i - fo ) f i (Ti - Tref ) - fo (To -Tref )
dt ρ cp
 d To Q
Ah f i (Ti - To )
dt ρ cp
C. Variables

• State variables: h, To

• Output variables: h, To

• Input variables: fi, Q, Ti, fo

• Parameters: A, ρ, cp
D. Degree of freedom Analysis

• NF = 6-2 =4, we must look for another two

equations
• fi is determined as a disturbance

• Ti is determined as a disturbance

Substituting:
fo α h Q UA H (Tst To )
 d To UA H (Tst - To )
Ah f i (Ti - To )
dt ρ cp
Other Variations of stirred tank
heater Problem
1. Constant Holdup and no heating element dynamics
(P.22, 23)
• Similar equations to variable Holdup
2. Electric heating with thermal capacitance of element
(dynamics of heating element) not neglected
• See equations 2.47, 2.48 P.24
3. Steam-Heated stirred tank with thermal capacitance
of steam coil and tank liquid not neglected P.26
• See equations 2.51, 2.52 P.26
Example 10 (similar to Text(27-29)
Develop a dynamic model for the non –
isothermal continuous stirred tank reactor

fi, cAi, Ti
Fc, Tco

fo, cAo, To
Fc, Tci
Solution
A. Model Assumptions and Simplifications
1. Tank cross section is constant

2. Perfectly mixed tank àdensity, concentration and the

temperature of the tank liquid are the same as those of the
effluent liquid

3. Liquid Density of the inlet liquid is assumed equal to that of

the effluent liquid over the operating range of temperature
and concentration

4. Heat capacities of reactant and product liquids are constant and

equal over the operating range of temperature
5. Perfectly mixed jacket àoutlet coolant temperature is the same
as that of the jacket

6. Chemical reaction is assumed to be first order and irreversible

7. Heat of reaction is constant and much larger than the heat of

mixing

8. Heat losses from the reactor are negligible

9. Coolant medium has a significant thermal Capacitance

B. Equations

• Total mass balance on Reactor

dh
A fi fo
dt
• Component mass balance on
reactor
d(c Ao V)
c Ai f i c Ao f o rA V
dt
dV dc A o
cAo V c Ai f i c Ao f o rA V
dt dt
• Substituting from the total mass
balance and from the rate equation
rA kcA o

E
-
RTo
k k oe

dc Ao
c A o (f i f o ) Ah c Ai f i c Ao f o rA V
dt
 E
dc Ao -
RTo
Ah (c Ai c Ao )f i ko e c Ao V
dt
 • Energy Balance on reactor
-E
d( Ah (To - Tref )) RTo
ρc p f i ρc p (Ti Tref ) - f o c P (To Tref ) ΔH r Vk o e c Ao Qc
dt
 -E
d( Ah (To - Tref )) RTo
ρcp f i ρcp (Ti - Tref ) - foρcp (To - Tref ) ΔH r Vk oe c Ao Qc
dt

-E
dTo dV RTo
ρcp Ah ρcp (To - Tref ) f i ρcp (Ti - Tref ) - foρcp (To Tref ) ΔH r Vk oe c Ao Qc
dt dt
• Substituting from the total mass
balance equation
-E
dTo RTo
ρcp Ah ρcp (To - Tref )(fi fo ) f i ρcp (Ti - Tref ) - foρcp (To Tref ) ΔH r Vk oe c Ao Qc
dt

-E
dTo
ρcp Ah fiρcp (Ti - To ) ΔH r Vk oe c Ao RTo
Qc
dt
 Qc UA H (To Tco )
-E
dTo RTo
ρcp Ah f i ρcp (Ti - To ) ΔH r Vk oe c Ao UA H (To Tco )
dt
• The last equation introduces a new
unknown variable -the temperature of
the jacket liquid (Significant thermal
capacitance of coolant liquid)

• Therefore, another equation is needed

from the modeling of the jacket
Modeling of the Jacket
Assumptions and Simplifications:
• Constant volume of the jacket and therefore
no need for either the total mass balance
equation or the component mass balance
equation
 Energy Balance Equation

dTco
ρ jcp j Vj Fc ρ jcpj (Tc i - Tc o ) U A H (To Tco )
dt
C. Variables

• State variables: h ,To , cAo , Tco

• Out put variables: h ,To , cAo , Tco

• Input variables: fi , Ti , Fc , cAi ,Tci, fo

• Parameters: A , AH , cp, ko, R, E, U, ΔHr, r ,

rj, Vj
D. Degree of freedom Analysis
§ NF =10-4 = 6, we must look for another 6
specifications

§ Ti is determined as a disturbance

§ cAi is determined as a disturbance

§ Tci is determined as a disturbance

§ Fc , fo , fi are determined as manipulated variables

Effect of Changing Cooling Water Temperature on
Reactor Temperature
Effect of Changing Cooling Water Temperature on
Outlet Concentration of reactant A
Other Variations to Reactor
Problem
• Consider the volume of reactor constant
• Neglect thermal capacitance of coolant and
coil wall
• Eqs. 2.67 & 2.68 P. 28, 29
Conditions For Constant Liquid
Volume or Hold up (P. 19)
1. When an overflow line is used at the outlet
from the tank

2. The tank is closed and filled up to full

capacity

3. Liquid –level is controlled and kept

constant
• Under any of these conditions:
a. The inlet and the outlet flow rate(s) may be
constant or variable with time

b. Both the inlet flow rate or the sum of inlet

flow rate(s) must equal to the outlet flow
rate or the sum of outlet flow rates
Tutorial on Modelling
• Why modeling is useful?
1. Steady state modeling provides the final change in an output variable whenever
there is a change in an input variable

2. Dynamic modeling provides information about the change in an output variable

with time taken to reach a new steady state value whenever a change in the input
variable occurs

• Recall Modeling steps

1. Assumptions and Simplifications
2. Model Equations
3. Classification of variables
4. Degree of freedom analysis

• When developing model equations be careful of variables that are function of

time and constant quantities
• Be careful about units used in setting a model equation
Problem1
 Problem 2
• Develop a model for the process shown below
Model Assumptions and simplifications

• Tank is spherical so the cross sectional area is not constant but

depends on level h. (Relation between liquid volume and level
is given)
• Inlet and outlet mass flow rates through valves are given by
equations
• Pressure above the liquid, pressure before inlet valve and
pressure at the exit from the outlet valve are constant
• No chemical reaction or mixing takes place in tank, so no need
of component mass balances
• Process is isothermal, so no need of energy balances
Equations

d( V )
m1 m2
dt
 d( V )
500C v1 vp 1 (t ) G f P1 (t ) 500C v 2 vp 2 (t ) G f P2 (t )
dt

[h 2 (t )[3r h(t )]
d (VT 3
)
4r 500Cv1vp1 (t ) G f P1 (t ) 500Cv 2vp2 (t ) G f P2 (t )
dt

VT d[h 2 (t )[3r h(t )]

500C v1 vp 1 (t ) G f P1 (t ) 500C v 2 vp 2 (t ) G f P2 (t )
4r 3 dt
 4 r 3 dh
6rh 3h 2 500C v1 vp 1 (t ) G f P1 (t ) 500C v 2 vp 2 (t ) G f P2 (t
3 4 r 3 dt

dh h
6rh 3h 2 500C v1 vp 1 (t ) G f 65 50 500C v 2 vp 2 (t )G f 50 45
3 dt 144
 h
500C v1 vp 1 (t ) G f 65 50 500C v 2 vp 2 (t ) G f 50 45
dh 144
dt
6rh 3h 2
3
Classification of variables

• State variables: h
• Output variables: h
• Input variables: vp1, vp2
• Parameters: Cv1, Cv2, Gf, ρ
Degree of freedom analysis

• 3-1=2
• Vp1 may be affected by a randomly fluctuating signal
• Vp2 may be may be manipulated by a controller signal
Problem 3
• Develop a model to relate the response of the bulb
temperature to the changes in surrounding temperature
Model assumptions and simplifications

1. cv - heat capacity of the bulb liquid- is constant and equal to

cp. Also the heat capacity of the bulb liquid is very large
compared to the heat capacity of the thermowell
2. Temperature sensor, the only relevant equation is
energy balance
3. No conduction or inner film heat transfer resistance
4. Uniform bulb and thermowell temperature
Equations

d[Mc p (Tb Tref )]

q( t )
dt

d[(Tb (t ) Tref )]
Mc p hA(Ts (t ) Tb (t ))
dt
dTb (t ) hA(Ts (t ) Tb (t ))
dt Mc p
Classification of variables

• State variables: Tb
• Output variables: Tb
• Input variables: Ts
• Parameters: M, cp, h, A
Degree of freedom analysis

2-1=1
Ts is specified as a disturbance
Problem 4
Thermal Process (tank without a
heater)
• Find the response of the outlet
temperature To to changes in Ti

• Assume constant volume of the

liquid in the tank (inlet volumetric
flow rate is equal to the outlet
volumetric flow rate)
Solution
A. Model Assumptions and Simplifications:

1. Liquid volume in tank is constant since the inlet volumetric flow rate
is assumed equal to the outlet flow rate.

2. Perfectly mixed tank àdensity and the temperature of the tank

liquid are the same as those of the effluent liquid

3. Density of the inlet liquid is assumed equal to that of the effluent

liquid over the operating range of temperature

4. The heat capacities of inlet, effluent and accumulated liquids are

assumed constant and equal over the operating range of
temperature
5. No need for component mass balance equation
since there is no chemical reaction and the system
is single component

6. No chemical reaction is involved, therefore ΔHr = 0

7. Negligible heat losses from the tank to the

surroundings

8. Energy input by the stirrer is negligible

B. Equations
• Energy Balance
d(ρ V û)
ρ i f i ĥ i ρ ofoĥ o
dt

ĥ i c p (Ti Tref )
ĥ o c p o (To Tref )
û c v (T Tref )
ρ ρi ρo
cp i cp o
 d(To - Tref )
V ρ cv ρ f o c p (Ti Tref ) - ρf o c p (To Tref )
dt
T = To
fi = fo

d(To )
V cv f o c p (Ti - To )
dt

d(To )
V cv f c p (Ti - To )
dt
C. Variables
• State variables: To

• Input variables: Ti

• Output variables: To

• Parameters: cp, cv , V, f
D. Degree of freedom Analysis
• f = 2-1 =1, we must look for another one
equation

• Ti is determined as a disturbance
Problem 5
Develop a dynamic model for the gas tank
shown in the figure below
Solution

A. Model Assumptions and Simplifications

1. Low pressure tank .Ideal gas equation applies

2. Molar density of the gas is constant over the operating

range of pressure and its value given at standard
conditions

3. Pure gas. No need for component mass balance equation

4. Isothermal tank . No need for energy balance equation

B. Equations

• Total mass balance

dn(t)
ρf i ρf o
dt
• n = moles of gas in tank
• r = molar density of gas at standard
conditions
• fi = inlet gas flow at standard conditions
• fo = outlet gas flow at standard conditions
• Substitute for n (t) from the ideal
gas equation

• p (t) V = n(t) R T

V dp(t)
ρf i (t) ρfo (t)
RT dt
C. Variables
• State variables: p (t)

• Out put variables: p (t)

• Input variables: fi (t) , fo (t)

• Parameters: r , V, R, T
D. Degree of freedom Analysis
§ f =3-1 = 2, we must look for
another 2 equations

§ fi is a disturbance and
determined from the equation

fi 0.16 m i (t)
• mi (t) = signal to fan representing
fluctuation in motor speed %

• fo is a manipulated variable
determined from the equation

fo (t) 0.00506 m o (t) p(t) [p(t) - p1 (t)]

• mo = signal to valve positioner %
• Pressures are measured in psia
Summary of Points –Chapter 2
1.Steady State and Dynamic Models
2.Benefits of Models
3.How are models obtained?
4.Dynamic modelling of chemical processes
based on conservation principles
• Unsteady state total mass balance
• Unsteady state component mass balance
• Unsteady state energy balance (assumptions)
Continue Summary of Points-
Chapter 2
5. Steps involved in dynamic model
development
• Assumptions and simplifications
• Derivation of model equations
• Classification of model variables (Output-
Input –Parameters)
6. Dynamic modelling of liquid storage systems
7. Dynamic modelling of a gas tank process
8. Dynamic modelling of a blending process
Continue Summary of Points-
Chapter 2
9. Dynamic modelling of a continuous stirred
tank heater
10. Dynamic modelling of continuous stirred
tank reactor
Analysis of Dynamic Behavior
of Processes
• Once modeling of a chemical process is completed,
the next step is to find the response (change) of an
output variable to changes in the input variables

• The response of an output variable of a chemical

process is the solution of the differential equation (s)
of a dynamic model

• Solving differential equations is simplified through

the use of laplace transform to obtain transfer
function(s)
• Differential equations to be solved by a
Laplace transform must be linear or linearized

• A linear differential equation consists of a sum

of terms, each term having no more than one
variable or a derivative raised to the first
power. Each term could be a constant or a
product of a variable or a derivative and a
constant

• Linear differential equations are either first

order having the general form:
 dy(t)
a1 a o y(t) b x(t) c
dt
Or a second-order differential equation

d y(t)
2
d y(t)
a2 a1 a o y(t) b x(t) c
dt 2
dt

All coefficients a1 , ao, a2 , b, c

are constants
Linearization (Text P. 49)
•Linearization is a mathematical technique
used to approximate nonlinear differential
equations with linear ones that can be
solved by Laplace transforms

Nonlinear functions in process dynamic

models arise from the presence of:

§Equilibrium expressions between vapor

and liquid mole fractions
§ Fluid flow through a valve as a function of
pressure drop

§ Arrhenius equation

§ Reaction rate as a function of temperature

and reactants concentration.

§ Radiation heat transfer rate, q, as a

function of temperature

§ The above mentioned functions are

functions of single variable except the
reaction rate
§ Linear approximation is valid around the initial value
(steady state) and use is made of deviation variables

Deviation variables (Text P.43)

The response of the output variable
(obtained from solution of differential equation)
depends on:

§ The change in the input variable

§ Initial value of the output variable

§ To eliminate the effect of initial value of the
output variable on the solution, input and output
variables in a linear or linearized differential
equation must be replaced with deviation from
their initial values

§ Deviation variable is defined as:

y’(t) = y (t) –y(0)
Linearization of functions of one
variable
• Any function can be expanded in a
Taylor series about a steady state value:

df
f(x(t)) f( x ) [x(t) - x]
dx x
 Example 11
• Linearize the Arrhenius equation around
T = 573 K
k (573) = 100 s-1
E = 22,000 kcal / kmole

Solution
k = A e-E/RT
First obtain the value of A from the equation
(E, k, T known)
 dk
k T(t) k(T) [T(t) - T ]
dT T

dk d E s1
A e -E /RT(t) T 573 K A e -E /(RT) 3.37
dT T 573 dT RT 2 K

s -1
k T(t) 100 s -1 3.37 o [T(t) - T ]
K
Linearization of First order Differential
Equations
Consider the following non-linearfirst-
order differential equation

dy(t)
g (y(t), u(t))
dt
 g g
g (y, u) g( y , u ) (y y) (u u)
y (y , u ) u (y , u )

dy(t) dy '(t)
g(y, u)
dt dt
g (y , u ) 0

d y (t) g g
y u
dt ys us
In general,
d y (t) g g g
y u z
dt ys us zs
Example12 (Text, P.51)
Linearize the equation resulting from total mass
balance on a simple liquid storage tank

dh
A fi α h
dt
Solution:
•Make sure that the derivative appears as the only
term on the L.H.S. of the differential equation
 dh fi α h
- - - - - -(1)
dt A A

fi α h
g ( h, f i )
A A
dh g g
fi fi h h
dt fi f i ,h
h f i ,h

g 1
fi h, f i
A

g
0.5
h h, f i A h
• Expressing the equation in terms of
deviation variables

dh fi 0.5 αh
dt A A h
Example 13 (Similar to Text P.53)
Linearize the differential equation resulting from the
component mass balance on the CSTR studied before.
Assume that the volume of the reactor is constant, and
neglecting thermal capacitance of the jacket.

Solution
The differential equation is:

dc A (t) 1 1
f(t)c Ai (t) - f(t)c A (t) - k oe -E/RT(t) c A (t)
dt V V
• Comparing the differential equation with
the general form given before, then

dc A (t ) 1 1
f(t) c Ai (t) - f(t) c A (t) - k oe -E/RTc A (t)
dt V V
g (f(t), c Ai (t), T(t), c A (t))

• Then the linear approximation has the

form
dc A
a1f (t) a 2 c Ai (t) a 3 T (t) a 4 c A (t)
dt
• cA’ (t), f ’ (t), cAi’ (t), T’ (t), are the deviation
variables of reactor concentration, flow rate,
inlet concentration, reactor temperature
respectively

• Constants are obtained by partial

differentiation of the function g with respect
to each variable
g c Ai cA g f
a1 , a2
f V c Ai V
g E g f
a3 - k oe - E/R T
2 cA a4 - - k oe -E/R T
T RT cA V
• Therefore, the final form of the linearized equation
is

dc A c Ai cA f
f (t) c Ai (t)
dt V V
- E/R T E f
- k oe c A T (t) k o e - E/R T c A (t)
2 V
RT
Laplace Transform (Text, Appendix
A)
• The differential equation(s) of a process model is now
linearized and expressed in deviation variable form

• The next step is to use Laplace transform and the

concept of transfer function to obtain the response of
an output variable to a change in the input variable(s)
(solving the differential equation)

• Laplace transform of any function of time is defined

by the following formula:
§Laplace transforms of common
functions are given in table A.1

F(s ) L[ f ( t )] 0
f(t) e dt
- st

Properties of Laplace Transform

1. Linearity
L[a f(t)] a L[f(t)] a F(s)
2. Distributive Property
L[a f(t) b g(t)] a L[f(t)] b L[g(t)]
a F(s) b G(s)

3. Differentiation Theorem
d f(t)
L[ ] s F(s) - f(0)
dt
d n f(t)
L[ ] s F(s) - f(0)
n

dt n
4. Integration Theorem
t F(s)
L[0 f(t) dt ]
s

5. Translation Theorem

-t 0 s
L[f(t - t 0 )] e F(s)
6. Final Value Theorem
lim
t
f(t) lim
s 0
sF(s)

7. Initial Value Theorem

lim
t 0
f(t) lim
s
sF(s)
Transfer Functions of First - Order
Systems (Chapters 3&4)
• Dynamic responses of many processes and control
system components can be represented by linear first-
order differential equations

dy (t)
a1 ao y (t) bx (t)
dt
• Last equation is the general linear first-order
equation in terms of the deviation variables

• For process control purposes, the equation is

usually divided by the coefficient of the output
variable ao (if it is not zero) and rearranged on
the standard form as:

dy (t)
τ y (t) k x (t)
dt
• Where:

a1 b
τ , K
ao ao

§ τ is the time constant, τ has

the dimension of time
§ K is the steady state gain
and must have the
dimension of Y over X
• Obtain the transfer function by applying the linearity
and distributive properties and the differentiation
theorem of Laplace transform on the standard form of
the differential equation
dy (t)
L( τ y (t)) L(K x (t))
dt
dy (t)
τL L y (t) K L x (t)
dt
τ s Y (s) Y (s) K X (s)

• Solving for Y (s)

K
Y (s) X (s)
τs 1
General Procedure for Deriving a Transfer
Function
Characteristics of a First-Order
Transfer Function
• The term in square brackets of the previous equation
is a first order transfer function in a standard form.

• Notice that the second term in the denominator is 1

• For a transfer function in this form, the numerator

term is the gain and the coefficient of s in the
denominator is the time constant
• The root of the denominator or the pole of the transfer
function is r = -1/τ . Therefore, the response is non oscillatory
and is stable if the time constant is positive

• The time constant represents the time elapsed for the change
in the value of the response to reach 63.2% of its final value.
The smaller the value of the time constant , the faster is
response of a system

• The gain represents the steady state change in output divided

by the sustained change in the input
Transfer Functions of SISO
Systems
Example 14 (P.51)
Develop the transfer function(s) for a simple
liquid storage tank discussed before in example
(12). Derive an expression for the time constant.
Derive an expression for the gain.
Solution
• The linearized model of the tank is given by

dh fi 0.5 αh
dt A A h
• Rearrange the equation to bring all terms of the
output variable on one side
dh 0.5 αh fi
dt A h A

• Apply the linearity property and the

differentiation theorem on the rearranged
equation
dh 0.5 αh f
L( ) L( ) L i
dt A h A

0.5 α H (s) Fi (s)

s H (s)
A h A

0.5 α Fi (s )
H (s) (s )
A h A
 0.5 α Fi (s )
H (s) (s )
A h A
H (s) 1
Fi (s ) 0.5 α
A(s )
A h
H (s) 1
Fi (s ) 0.5 α A h
( s 1)
h 0.5 α

H (s) 1
F (s ) 0.5 α A h
( s 1)
h 0.5 α
• Comparing the standard form of the transfer
function with that concluded in the last step, then:

• Time constant is (A√ h /0.5 α)

• Gain is (√ h / 0.5 α)
Example 15 (P. 43 & 44 )
Illustrative Example (Blending Process)
for constant w1, w2, w,V,r

Two cases considered :

i. x1 varies with time, x2 constant
ii. x1 and x2 vary with time

See book for details

Example 16 (P. 50 & 51)
Blending process: x2 =1, x1, w1, w2 can vary with
time. Constant volume ( because of over flow
line).

Derive transfer functions that relate exit

composition to the input variables
(x1, w1, w2 )
See book for details.
Example 17 (Similar to Example
3.2 part b P.46)
Develop the transfer function(s) for the continuous
stirred tank heater. Assume the volume of the tank is
constant. Neglect coil dynamics.
Consider that Q = λst ρst fst
• The model for the tank heater was
developed before in example (9)

d To λ st ρ st fst
Ah f(Ti - To )
dt ρ cp

• The differential equation is a linear first order

equation, f is taken constant.
• The equation is arranged to bring all terms containing
the output variables on one side :
 d To fst ρ st λ st
Ah fTo fTi
dt ρ cp

• The equation is written in steady state as:

d To fst ρ st λ st
Ah f To f Ti
dt ρ cp

• The steady state equation is subtracted from the

original equation giving:

d(To - To ) (fst - fst )ρ st λ st

Ah f ( To - To ) f ( Ti Ti )
dt ρ cp
 d To fst ρ st λ st
Ah f To f Ti
dt ρ cp

• Applying the linearity property and the

differential theorem of Laplace transform

d To fst ρ st λ st
L(Ah f To ) L(f Ti ) )
dt ρ cp

d To λ st ρ st
Ah L f LTo fL i Lfst
dt ρ cp
λ st ρ st
Ah (s o (s) - o (0)) f o (s ) f i (s ) Fst (s )
ρ cp
 λ st ρ st
o (s )(Ah s f ) f i (s ) Fst (s )
ρ cp
λ st ρ st
Fst (s )
f i (s ) ρ cp
o (s )
(Ah s f ) (Ah s f )

• There are two transfer functions, one of them is

the ratio of the outlet temperature to inlet
temperature :Γo(s) / Γi (s) = 1/ (Ah/fi s+1)
• The other transfer function is the ratio of
the outlet temperature to the inlet flow rate
Γo ‘(s) / F st ‘(s) = λst ρst / f ρ cp (Ah / fi s+1)

• The time constant is the same in both

transfer functions = Ah / f
• The gain for the first transfer function is 1

• The gain for the second transfer function is

λst ρst / f ρ cp
Effects of Process Non-Linearities
• Processes may be linear or non-Linear

• Dynamic behavior of a linear process remains the

same over the range of operating conditions and
controller tuning is done at the design operating
condition and optimum performance of the
controller is still achieved at any other operating
condition
• Nonlinear processes are linearized and their
dynamic behavior therefore depends on the
operating conditions.

• Controller for a nonlinear process has to be

re-tuned at different operating conditions
(automatically as the process characteristics
change - adaptive tuning)
Transfer Functions of MIMO
Systems
Example 18 ( P.93&94)
• Non isothermal mixing of two inlet streams of a pure
liquid with different inlet flow rates and inlet
temperatures
• Tank volume and effluent liquid temperature vary
with time (therefore two output variables)

Derive transfer functions that describe the effect of

each input variable on each output variable. See
book for details
Response of First-Order Systems to Changes
in the Input Variables-
Types of Input Changes (P.59)
1. Step Input:
When a process is subjected to sudden and
sustained input change e.g. changing a feed to a
reactor
2. Ramp Input:
Gradual change at constant rate for some period
of time. e.g. change in ambient conditions, set
point changes
3. Rectangular Pulse
Sudden change for a limited period of time

4. Sinusoidal Input
Like fluctuations in ambient conditions
• The type of input change of concern to
industry is the step function at time zero
Response of a First-Order System to
a Step Change in an Input (P.61)
•To obtain the response to a step change of
magnitude x’ (Laplace transform of x’ is
x’ /s), Substitute the transform of x’ in the
equation for Y’(s) and use inverse Laplace
transform to get y’(t)
-t/τ
y (t) K x (1 - e )
First order response to a step
change in the input variable
Example 19 (P.44)
• Response of a Blending Process. See book
for details
Example 20 (P.47)
• Response for stirred tank heater. See book for
details.
Dead (Delay) Time (P.82,83)
• The response of output variable of a process to
changes in input variable is delayed by a time
interval during which no effect is observed on
the output variable.

• Dead time is only significant for temperature,

composition and other fluid and solid
properties which are propagated through
space by the moving fluid or solid
• Dead time depends on some physical properties and
operating characteristics of the process

• Dead time is accounted for in the transfer function by

multiplying the non-delayed transfer function by e -to s where
to is the dead time, the term e –to s is the Laplace transform of
the delay time

• The performance of feed back control loop is severely

affected by the dead time . Thus, processes and control
systems should be designed to minimize dead time
First-order Response with Time
Delay to
Example: Thermal Process with a
Delay Time
Response of a Thermal Process with
Delay time
Transfer Function of a Second-Order System
(P. 66)

• The dynamic model of some processes is given

by a second order linear differential equation
having the general form:
2
d y (t) dy (t)
a2 a1 ao y (t) bx (t)
2 dt
dt
• Converting the equation to standard form by
dividing all terms of the of the equation by ao
then the equation is written as
2
2 d y (t) dy (t)
τ 2τ ζ y (t) Kx (t)
dt 2 dt
a2
where τ
ao
a1
2ζ τ
ao
b
K
ao
• τ = natural period of oscillation
• ξ = damping parameter
• K = steady state gain of the process
The transfer function of a second-order system is
derived in a similar way to what has been done
for first-order systems:

K
Y (s) X (s)
2 2
τ s 2ζτ s 1
Response of a Second -Order
System to a Step Change in an Input
The nature of the response of a second
order systems will depend on the
values of poles of the second-order
transfer function
• To find the roots of the denominator polynomial we
apply the quadratic formula:

-ζ ζ 2
1
r1,2
τ

• The damping ratio or parameter (ζ) will determine

whether the roots are real or complex and therefore
the response is as follows:
• If ζ >1 à the roots are real ,different and negative
in value, the response of the output variable to a
step change in the input variable is overdamped
and stable

• If 0< ζ < 1 à the roots are pair of conjugate

complex numbers ( real parts negative), the response
of the output variable to a step change in the input
variable is underdamped (oscillatory &stable)

• If ζ =1 àthe two roots are real, negative and equal

to -1/τ , the response of the output variable to a
step change in the input variable is critically
damped and stable
• If ζ = 0 à the two roots are pure imaginary
numbers and equal to ± i (√-1)/τ, the response of the
output variable to a step change in the input
variable is on the form of sustained oscillations

• If -1< ζ < 0 à the two roots are pair of complex

conjugate numbers with positive real parts, the
response of the output variable to a step change in
the input variable is unstable (growing oscillations)

• If ζ < -1, or ζ = -1 à the response of the output

variable to a step change in the input variable is
unstable (montonic)
2nd Order Unstable Response
2nd Order critically damped
and over damped response
for ζ >1, ζ =1
• For both critically damped and
overdamped second order system ,
the response is an S- shaped curve
that looks little similar to the
response of a first -order system
but the second order system
initially delays to respond and then
the response is rather slow
Oscillatory 2nd Order
Response for ζ <1
Underdamped Response
• Almost all underdamped responses in a
chemical plant are caused by the interaction
of the controllers with the process units they
control

• The most important characteristics of an

underdamped response is Overshoot, Decay
ratio, Response time, Rise time
• Overshoot: A/B , increases with decreasing ζ
overshoot = exp (-Πζ /√1-ζ 2)

• Decay ratio: C / A,
decayratio = exp (-2 Πζ / √1-ζ 2) = (overshoot)2

• Response time: is the time required to reach a value

within ± 5% of its final value

• Rise time: is the time required for the response to

reach its final value for the first time. Smaller ζ
gives faster response but large overshoot
Example 21

Consider a second- order system with the following

transfer function:
Y (s) 1
G(s)
X (s) s2 s 1
Introduce a step change of magnitude 5
into the system and find:
nThe poles of the transfer function
nThe type or nature of response
nPercent overshoot
nDecay ratio
nUltimate value of Y(t)
Solution
1. Obtain the roots of the transfer function:
r1,2 = -1 ±√1-4 X 1/2 X 1 =(-1 ± √ 3i) /2
Since the two roots are conjugate complex pair with
negative real parts, then the response is
underdamped and stable

2. Obtain the values of ζ and τ by using the standard

form of the transfer function :
(s2 +s +1), τ2 = 1, τ =1,
2 τ ζ = 1 \ ζ = 1/2 < 1
\ Percent Overshoot = exp (-π ζ / √1- ζ2 ) = 0.163
X100 = 16.3
Continue Solution
3. Decay Ratio = overshoot2 =0.163^2 =
0.027

4. Ultimate value of Y(t) (Value of Y as tà ∞)

is obtained from the final value theorem:

lim Y (t) [ lim sY (s)]

t s 0
 lim
t
Y(t) [ lim
s 0
sG(s) X(s)]

Substitute the transfer function and the

magnitude of the input change to obtain

1 5
lim Y(t) [ lim s ]
t s 0
s 2
s 1s
Therefore, the ultimate value of Y(t) is 5
When does a Process Model yield a
Second-Order Transfer Function?
• Most simple process models will result in a
first-order transfer functions (SISO Or MIMO
Systems)

• Second-Order transfer functions result when a

process is either interacting or non interacting
Interacting and NonInteracting
Processes ( P.88)
• A noninteracting process where changes in
downstream units have no effect on upstream
units

• An interacting process where changes in

downstream units affect upstream units
Response of Noninteracting Processes to
a Step Change in an Input Variable
(P.88,89)

• The overall transfer function of the

noninteracting process has two negative real
poles (roots of the denominator polynomial)
which may be equal or different

Therefore, the response for such a process is always

either:
1. Critically damped ξ =1
2. Overdamped ξ >1
Response of Interacting Processes to
a Step Change in an Input Variable
(P.88,89)
• The poles of the overall transfer
function of interacting processes are
always different and real, therefore
the response of interacting processes
is always overdamped
Example 22 (P.45, 46)
• Electrically Heated stirred tank. Constant
volume of contents. Heating element dynamics
is considered.

• Two model equations:

Energy Balance on tank contents
Energy Balance on heating element
• Derive transfer function between changes in
outlet temperature T and changes in the two
input variables heater input Q and inlet
temperature Ti

• See book for details

Example 23 ( P. 53)
CSTR. Single-first order reaction. Jacket coolant dynamics is
neglected

Two model equations:

1. Component mass balance
2. Energy balance
Flow rate and inlet concentration and inlet temperature
(q, w, cAi , Ti) are assumed constant.

Derive transfer function between changes in cA &Tc. See book for

details.
 General Properties of a Transfer
Function (P.46)
• A transfer function could be defined as the ratio of the two polynomials
of the output and input variables in the s domain
Y (s)
G(s)
X (s)
• The polynomial in the numerator is the Laplace transform of the
deviation of the output variable

• The polynomial in the denominator is the laplace transform of the

deviation of the input variable
• The transfer function is characteristic of a
process.

• The roots of a denominator polynomial

(poles) of a transfer function will determine
whether the response is stable or unstable
and whether it is oscillatory or non-
oscillatory
• For stable systems, the roots of the polynomial
in the denominator of the transfer function
must be real negative numbers or having a real
negative part (if the root is a complex number)

• The steady- state relationship between the

change in output variable and the change in
input variable can be obtained by using the
final value theorem

lim Y (t) lim s G(s) X (s)

t s 0
Summary of Points- Chapter
3,4,5
1. Definition of a transfer function
• Ratio between Laplace transform of some output variable to
that of some input variable

2. Benefits of a transfer function

• Provides comparison of the effects of different input variables
on the output variables
• Analyze systematically the dynamic behavior of processes and
Continue Summary of Main
Points- Chapters 3, 4, &5
3. Derivation of:
• First order transfer functions for SISO and MIMO systems
• Characteristics of first order transfer function (gain, time
constant)

• Second order transfer functions for interacting and Non-

interacting processes
• Characteristics of second order transfer function (gain,
damping parameter)
Continue Summary of Main
Points- Chapters 3, 4, &5
4. Nature and stability of response of first order
processes to a step change in an input variable
• Non-oscillatory – exponential
• Always stable

5. Nature and stability of response of second order

processes to a step change in an input variable
• Oscillatory -underdamped and stable (ξ <1)
• Non oscillatory- critically damped and stable (ξ=1)
• Non oscillatory-overdamped and stable (ξ>1)
• Response is unstable if ξ <0

6. Transfer function with time delay

• Multiply transfer function by e-θs

7. Final (steady state) value of response

• Obtained by applying final value theorem to a step
change in the input variable
 Tutorial on Transfer Functions
of Processes and their Responses
• Problem 3.12 part b
Transfer function of Sensor-
Transmitter ( Chapter 8 P. 146 &
147)
• A Sensor produces a change related to the
process variable

• The transmitter in turn converts the change

into a signal that can be transmitted

• Therefore, the transfer function of the

sensor-transmitter combination relates the
output signal from a transmitter to the input
which is the process variable
 • The simplest form of the sensor-transmitter
transfer function is first-order

Ym (s) Km
G m (s)
Y (s) τ ms 1

Km is the transmitter gain , τm is the transmitter time

constant, Ym (s) is the output signal and Y(s) is the
process variable
Calculation of Km

• Km is determined assuming linear relation

between the output and input from the
transmitter. Km is the total change in the
output signal (difference between the high
and low values of the signal OR 100) divided
by the sensor span (difference between the
maximum and minimum values of the range).
It can only be a positive value.
 100 0
Km
span
20mA 4mA 16mA
Km
span span
 Transfer function of a Control
Valve ( Chapter 8, P. 147-149)
• The controller output signal is the input to the control
valve

• The opening of the valve changes

• The resistance to flow changes and, thus, the output flow

from the valve itself changes.

• When designing a control system, a main consideration is

to select the safest “ action” or “fail position” of the valve:
either FC or FO when electric or air power supply is cut off
Example 24 ( P.148)
• See book for details
• The valve transfer function is first order given as:
U (s) Kv
G v (s)
P (s) τ vs 1

• Where U is the flow rate passing out from a control valve,

P is the controller output signal

• The control valve gain is Kv which has the units of

flow /% CO (controller output). Kv depends on the
geometric characteristics of the valve

• τv is the time constant of the valve actuator

Calculation of Kv

P
q Cv f ( l )
gs
linear : f l
quick opening : f l

equal percentage : f Rl 1
• l is the valve lift
• R design parameter : 20-50

dq dq dl
Kv
dp t dl dp t
Transfer functions of Feed back
Controllers (P. 124-130)
• A feed back controller first receives a signal
of the measured variable and compares it
with the signal of the set point value

• The controller sends an output signal

calculated from the controller’s equation
based on the difference between the set point
and the measured variable
 e(t) y sp (t) - y m (t)

• e(t) = error (units %TO)

• ym (t) is the controlled variable

• (units: % TO)

• ysp (t) is the set point or the desired value of

the controlled variable (units: % TO)

• In deviation form, the error is given by:

 e (t) y sp (t) - y m (t)

• Laplace transform of the last equation

yields:

E (s) Ysp (s) - Ym (s)

Transfer Function of a Proprtional
Controller

P (s)
G c (s) Kc
E (s)
Transfer function of PI
Controller

P (s) 1 τ Is 1
G c (s) K c (1 ) Kc( )
E' (s) τ Is τ Is
Proportional-Integral Derivative
Controller (PID) (P.129-131)
• A derivative control action is added to the PI
controller

• The derivative action anticipates what the value of

the measured variable will be in the near future by
calculating the derivative of error.

• The equation is given by

Kc t de(t)
p(t) p K c e(t) e(t ) dt KcτD
τI 0 dt
Transfer Function of PID
Controller
• The PID transfer function is given by
the equation:

P (s) 1
G c (s) K c (1 τ D s)
E (s) τ Is
Summary of Main Points-
Chapter 7& 8
1. Transfer function of transmitter is:
• First order
• The gain of transmitter transfer function is calculated from
output range and span assuming linear relation between output
and input

2. Control valve :
• Type: FO or FC
• Transfer Function: First order
• The gain of control valve transfer function depends on valve
disk geometry
Summary of Main Points-
Chapter 7& 8
3. Controllers:
• Controller action- direct or reverse
• Control actions- proportional, integral, derivative
• Transfer functions concluded based on control law (
relation between output signal from a controller and
error (input signal to a controller)
• Effect of control actions – advantages and
disadvantages
Tutorial on Transmitters and
Controllers
Design Steps of Feedback
Control Systems
1. Set the control objectives for the process
2. Model the process and linearize the model if nonlinear
3. Obtain the transfer functions of the process

4. Analyze the Dynamic Behavior of the closed-loop

a. Select a suitable range sensor- transmitter and obtain its transfer function
b. Determine the safest action of the control valve (FO or FC) and obtain its
transfer function
c. Determine the correct action of the controller (direct or reverse)
d. Select the suitable type of controller based on guide lines concluded from the
analysis of the closed loop response
e. Obtain and analyse the closed loop response for the given process by using the
selected type of controller.
f. Obtain the maximum value of the controller gain ( ultimate gain) where the
response is stable.
g. Tune the controller parameters to achieve the best possible closed-loop
response
Block Diagrams (P.176, 177)
•A pictorial representation of transfer
functions

•A block diagram is formed by the

combination of basic elements : (arrows,
summing points, branch points, and blocks)

• A block represents the transfer function

(G(s)) of an element of a control system. If
G(s) is multiplied by the input to the block, the
output from the block is produced
• An straight line with an arrow indicates the
process variable with signals. An arrow head
indicates the direction of flow of signals

• The summing points represent the algebraic

summation of signals

• A branch point is a position on a signal at

which information branches out and goes to
summing points or blocks
Rules of Block diagram Algebra
• Summation rule

• Associative and commutative properties

• Distributive property
Single-Loop Feedback Process
Control System (P.176-186)
• Transfer functions (which include steady-state gain,
time constants and dead time) of processes, sensor-
transmitters, controllers and control valves have
been obtained

• All the above transfer functions are combined

together for the purpose of analysis of the
performance of a single loop feed back control
systems (or analysis of the closed loop response)
Analysis of the Performance of a
Feedback Control Loop
• First draw the block diagram for the entire
control loop (closed- loop block diagram).
How?

• Then connect the output signal from each

block to the next block

• Write the symbol of the transfer function or

the transfer function itself of each component
of the control system in its corresponding
block
Closed-Loop Transfer Function
• From the preceding closed-loop block
diagram, It can be concluded that the loop
has one out put signal ( process variable) and
two input signals

• Therefore, a closed-loop transfer function of

the output with regard to any of the inputs is
obtained by using the rules of the block
diagram algebra:
Standard Block Diagram of Feedback
Control System
• Y (s) = Gp(s) F (s) +Gd (s) D(s)
U(s) = Gv (s) P (s)

P (s) = Gc (s) E (s)

E(s) = Ysp (s) – Ym (s)

Ym (s) = Y (s) Gm (s)

• Now substitute back in the first equation with each

subsequent equation in order

\Y (s) = Gp(s) (Gv (s) P (s)) + Gd (s) D(s)

= Gp(s) (Gv (s) Gc (s) E(s)) + Gd (s) D(s)

= Gp(s) Gv (s) Gc (s) (Km Ysp (s) – Ym (s))
+ Gd (s) D(s)

= Gp(s) (Gv (s) Gc (s) (Km Ysp (s) – Gm Ym (s))

+ Gd (s) D(s)
 K mG p (s) G v (s) G c (s)
Y (s) Ysp (s)
1 G p (s) G v (s) G c (s) G m (s)

G d (s)
D (s)
1 G p (s) G v (s) G c (s) G m (s)

• The transfer functions of the control valve and the

transmitter are usually simplified as gains

• The past equation is the closed-loop response equation

• There are two transfer functions in the equation, the first

one (Gsp ), shows the effect of a change in set point on the
output variable while the second (Gdis ) shows the effect of a
change in disturbance on the output variable
 Example 25
Consider a process having a first order transfer function:
K
G P (s)
τ1 s 1
Consider also that each of the sensor-transmitter and the
control valve has a transfer function of 1.

For a unit step change in set point:

Determine the closed-loop transfer function, the final value of
response, and the offset for:
A. Proportional controller Gc = Kc

B. Pure integral controller Gc = KI /s (min-1 )

Solution
A. For the proportional controller
Y (s) G 1 (s) G c (s)
Ysp (s) 1 G 1 (s) G c (s)

• Substitute the process and controller

transfer functions in the response equation
above:
 KK c
Y (s) τ1s 1
Ysp (s) KK c
1
τ1s 1
Y (s) K Kc
Ysp (s) τ1 s 1 K K c
K Kc
Y (s) 1 K Kc K*
Ysp (s) τ1 τ*s 1
s 1
1 K Kc
• The closed loop response continues to be first
order with a closed-loop gain K *
K* = K Kc / (1+ K Kc) < K

• The closed-loop time constant τ *

τ * = τ1 / (1+ K Kc) , therefore, τ * < τ1

• Final value of the response is obtained by applying

the final value theorem
 K Kc
1 K Kc
Lim Y ( t ) Lim s Y(s) Lim s Ysp (s)
t s 0 s 0 τ1
s 1
1 K Kc

K Kc
1 1 K Kc
Lim Y (t ) Lim s Y(s) Lim s
τ
t s 0 s 0 s s 1
1 K Kc

K Kc
Lim Y ( t ) Lim s Ysp (s)
t s 0 1 K Kc
A general rule for calculating the offset is
• Offset =
Change in set point –final value of the change in response

= 1 - K Kc / (1 +K Kc ) = 1/(1+K Kc)

• From the above equation: the offset decreases with an

increase in Kc

• Repeat all the previous steps for the pure integral controller
• Substitute the process and controller
transfer functions in the closed –loop
response equation Y(s) / Ysp(s)

• Continue solution as done before:

 KK I
Y (s) (τ1s 1)s
Ysp (s) KK I
1
(τ1s 1)s

Y (s) K KI
Ysp (s) (τ1 s 1)s K K I

K KI
Y (s) K KI 1
Ysp (s) τ1 2 s τ 2s 2 2 τζs 1
s 1
K KI K KI
• The closed-loop response becomes second order
with a closed-loop gain = 1, i.e. the response is
slower with the integral controller

• Comparing the closed-loop transfer function with

the standard form, it can be concluded that the
characteristic time τ = √τ1 / K KI

• Damping parameter ζ = 1 /( 2√τ K KI )

• Final value of the response is obtained by applying

the final value theorem
 1
Lim Y ( t ) Lim s Y (s) Lim sYsp
t s 0 s 0 τ1 2 s
s 1
K KI K KI

1 1
Lim Y (t ) Lim s Y(s) Lim s
τ1 2 s
t s 0 s 0 s s 1
K KI K KI
1
• Offset = Change in set point – final value of
the change in response
( remember the above is a general rule)
=1- 1=0

• The previous results agrees with what was

said before that there is no offset with I , PI ,
PID controllers
Stability of the Closed-Loop
Response
• Remember , for an open loop transfer
function( process transfer function) stability
is determined by the roots of the
denominator polynomial ( poles of the
transfer function).

• For a closed -loop transfer function stability

is determined by the roots of the
characteristic equation of the transfer
function
• Closed -loop characteristic equation is:
1+ Gp(s) Gm (s) Gc (s) Gv (s)=0

• Therefore, to obtain the roots of the above

equation, substitute with each transfer function ,
simplify . The resulting expression is equated to zero

• 1+ Gp(s) Gm (s) Gc (s) Gv (s) = 0

• Note, that the controller transfer function is part of

the characteristic equation. Therefore, the closed-
loop response can be changed by adjusting the
controller parameters
General Stability Criterion
(P.190)
• The feedback control system is stable if and
only if all roots of the characteristic equation
are negative or have negative real parts.
Otherwise system is unstable.
Routh Array (P. 192)
• The closed-loop characteristic equation is
written as :

n n 1
an x a n -1 x ....... a 1 x a 0 0
• Routh array is constructed of n+1 rows from
the characteristic equation as follows:

a n a n - 2 a n - 4 .......
a n - 1 a n - 3 a n - 5 .......
b1 b2 b 3 ........
c1 c2 ......
..
..
z1
 a n - 1a n - 2 - a n a n -3
b1
an 1
a n - 1a n - 4 - a n a n - 5
b2
an 1
.
.
b 1a n -3 - a n - 1b 2
c1
b1
b 1a n - 5 - a n - 1b 3
c2
b1
Routh Stability Criterion (P.193)
• A necessary and sufficient condition for all
roots of the characteristic equation to have
negative roots or negative real parts is that all
elements in the left column of the Routh array
are positive.
Example 26 (P. 192)
Example 27 (P. 192)
Example 28 (P. 193)
Summary of Main Points-
Chapter 10
1. Block diagrams:
• Quantitative representation of a control loop
• Block diagram algebra

2. Development of closed-loop transfer function

• Servo problem (change in set point)
• Regulatory problem (change in disturbance)
Continue Summary of Main
Points- Chapter 10
3. Analysis of the closed-loop response of a process

4. Stability of closed -loop response of a process

• General stability criterion (Definition of stability)
• Routh stability criterion
• Range of values of controller gain (Kc) to make the
closed-loop response stable
• Direct substitution method to find the ultimate value
of the controller gain for a stable closed-loop
response
Tutorial on the Analysis of
Closed-loop Behavior