CHAPTER 11: 

PATHS TO MODERNIZATION
SNIPPETS FROM THE CHAPTER
Sources 
 Official Record
 Dynastic history
 Scholarly writings
 Popular literature
 Religious Literature
Introduction:
Different societies have evolved their distinctive modernities. The Japanese and
Chinese cases are very instructive in this regard. Japan succeeded in remaining free
of colonial control and achieved fairly rapid economic and industrial progress
throughout the twentieth century. The Chinese resisted colonial exploitation and
their own bureaucratic landed elite through a combination of peasant rebellion,
reform and revolution. Both these countires are situated in far East Asia, yet, they
present a marked physical contrast.

JAPAN
Physical Features
 Japan is a string of islands, the four largest being Honshu, Kyushu,
Shikoku and Hokkaido.
 There is no major river system.
 More than 50 per cent of the land area of the main islands is
mountainous and Japan is situated in a very active earthquake zone.
 There are various homogenous ethnic group, like there are a small Ainu
minority and Koreans who were forcibly brought as labour when Korea
was a Japanese colony.
 Language spoken in mostly Japanese.
 Japan lacks a tradition of animal rearing.
 Rice is the staple crop and fish the major source of protein.
 Raw fish (sashimi or sushi) has now become a widely popular dish
around the world as it is considered very healthy.
Political System
 Japan became a modern country from the days of petty daimyo  of
Japan.
  In the twelfth century the imperial court lost power to shoguns, who in
theory ruled in the name of the emperor, with the help of samurais (the
warrior class)  and daimyo with their capital in Edo (modern Tokyo).
 In the sixteenth century, Samurai insured peace and order.
 Japan was divided into more than 250 domains under the rule of lords
called daimyo.
In the late sixteenth century, three changes laid the pattern for future development.

1. The peasantry was disarmed and only the samurai could carry swords.
This ensured peace and order, ending the frequent wars of the previous
century.
2. The daimyo  were ordered to live in the capitals of their domains, each
with a large degree of autonomy.
3. The land surveys identified owners and taxpayers and graded land
productivity to ensure a stable revenue base.-
 By the mid-seventeenth century, Japan had the most populated city in
the world – Edo – but also had two other large cities – Osaka and
Kyoto.
 Growth of a commercial economy and a vibrant culture blossomed in
the towns, where the fast growing class of merchants patronised
theater and the arts.
 Increased use of money and creation of stock market led the economy
in new ways.
 Social and intellectual changes took place – such as the study of
ancient Japanese literature – led people to question the degree of
Chinese influence and study of ancient Japanese literature promoted.
The Meiji Restoration
 The Meiji restoration is termed as one of the most momentous events
in the Japanese history.
 There was demands for trade and diplomatic relations. In 1853, the
USA demanded Japan  that the government sign a treaty that would
permit trade and open diplomatic relations.
 Japan lay on the route to China which the USA saw as a major
market. At that time, there was only one Western country that traded
with Japan, Holland.
  In 1868, a movement removed Shogun and brought Emperor to
Edo. This was made the capital and renamed Tokyo, which means
‘eastern capital’.
 British dominance in Asia alerted Japan, and scholars there wanted to
learn European modern ideas. Many scholars and leaders wanted to
learn from the new ideas in Europe; others sought to exclude the
Europeans even while being ready to adopt the new technologies they
offered. Some argued for a gradual and limited ‘opening’ to the outer
world.
 To develop their economy and build a strong army, the government
with the slogan slogan ‘fukoku kyohei’ (rich country, strong army),
created a sense of nationhood among the people and transform
subjects into citizens.
 The government also built the ’emperor system’ – a system, where
mperor along with the bureaucracy and the military, exercised
power. The Emperor was treated with reverence as he was considered a
direct descendant of the Sun Goddess but he was also shown as the
leader of westernisation. His birthday became a national holiday, he
wore Western-style military uniforms.
Meiji Reforms
1. Administrative Reforms: The Meiji government imposed a new
administrative structure by altering old village and domain boundaries
to integrate the nation. In 1871, feudalism was abolished under the
Meiji rule.
2. Economic Reforms: Another Meiji reforms was the modernising of the
economy. Japan’s first railway line, between Tokyo and the port of
Yokohama, was built in 1870-72. In 1872, modern banking institutions
were launched. Zaibatsu  (business families) dominated the economy.
3. Industrial Reforms: Textile machinery was imported from Europe, and
foreign technicians were employed to train workers, as well as to teach
in universities and schools, and Japanese students were sent
abroad. The number of people in manufacturing increased. Over half of
those employed in modern factories were women. The size of factories
also began to increase.
4. Agricultural Reforms: Funds were raised by levying an agricultural tax.
5. Constitutional Reforms: In 1889, Japan adopted the a new constitution.
The Meiji Constitution had created a Diet and declared emperor as the
commander of the forces, it was based on a restricted franchise.
 6. Educational Reforms: A new school system began to be built from the
1870s. Schooling was compulsory for boys and girls and by 1910
almost universal. Tuition fees were minimal. Tokyo Universtiy was
established in 1877.
7.  Military Reforms: All young men over twenty had to do a period of
military service. A modern military force was developed. The military
and the bureaucracy were put under the direct command of the
emperor.
Re-emergence of Japan as a Global Economic Power
During the 1930, Japan excercised imperialist policy and invaded China to extend its
colonial empire. Japan’s attempt to carve out a colonial empire ended with its defeat
by the Allied forces. However, it was defeated in the World War II when US dropped
atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It resulted in huge destruction of
masses. Under the US-led Occupation (1945-47) Japan was demilitarised and a new
constitution introduced. Japanese philosopher Miyake Setsurei (1860-1945) argued
that each nation must develop its special talents in the interest of world civilisation:
The rapid rebuilding of the Japanese economy after its shattering defeat was called a
post-war ‘miracle’.
 The new constitution had Article 9, the so-called ‘no war clause’ that
renounces the use of war as an instrument of state policy.
 Agrarian reforms, the re-establishment of trade unions and an attempt
to dismantle the zaibatsu or large monopoly houses that dominated
the Japanese economy were also carried out.
 Constitution was democratised.
 Political parties were revived and the first post-war elections held in
1946.
 Suffrage was given to women in the elections of 1946.
 There was close relation between the government, bureaucracy and
industry.
 Japan also introduced better goods at cheaper rates in the market with
its advanced technologies.
 US support, as well as the demand created by the Korean and the
Vietnamese wars also helped the Japanese economy.
 The 1964 Olympics held in Tokyo, it symbolised the maturity of Japan’s
economy.
 The introduction of network of high-speed Shinkansen or bullet trains,
started in 1964, which ran at 200 miles per hour, added to it prosperity.
  In 1960s several pressure groups protested against industrial pollution.
Industrialisation was pushed with utter disregard with the growth of
civil society movements, due to its harmful effect on health and the
environment.
 Government action and new legal regulations helped to improve
conditions.
CHINA
Physical Features

 China is a vast continental country that spans many climatic zones.

 The core is dominated by three major river systems: the Yellow River
(Huang He), the Yangtse River (Chang Jiang – the third longest river in
the world) and the Pearl River.
 A large part of the country is mountainous.
 There are divergent ethnic group – Han, Uighur, Hui, Manchu and
Tibetan.
 Major languages spoken are Chinese and Cantonese.
 Chinese food reflects this regional diversity. Southern or Cantonese
cuisine include dim sum (literally touch your heart), an assortment of
pastries and dumpling. While, in the north, wheat is the staple food
while in Szechuan spices have created a fiery cuisine. In eastern China,
both rice and wheat are eaten.
History of China 
 The beginning of modern China can be traced to its first encounter with
the West in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
 During 1839-42, British won the first opium war in China and snatched
power from the Qing dynasty. The second opium war was fought in
1856-60.
 It revolves around three questions – a) How to regain Sovereignty b)
End the humiliation of Foreign Occupation c) Bring out equality and
development.
 There were three views:
i) Liang Qichao used traditional ideas in new and different way to meet
Western challenges. He popularised Chinese nationalism.
ii) Republican revolutionaries Sun Yat Sen inspired by the ideas from
the Japan and the West. He was the founder of the modern China and
established a republic in 1911 AD.
 iii) The Communist Party of China (CCP) wanted to end age-old
inequalities and dispel foreigners.
 Later, the Guomindang (the National People’s Party) along with the
CCP strived to unite Chinese.
 Chiang Kai Shek, leader of the Guomindang, militarised China.
 Mao Zedong, CCP leader, organised a Soviets or Guomindang 
peasant councils and fought Japanese colonisation.
 When  (the National People’s Party) intensified attacks, the Soviets
shifted the base to Yanan, after a ‘Long March’. The Communist
Party captured power and established the People’s Republic in 1949.
Establishing the Republic:
 Manchu dynasty overthrown and a republic established in 1911 under
Sun Yat-Sen. He studied medicine but was greatly concerned about the
fate of China.
 Yat-Sen’s programme was called the Three Principles – These
were nationalism – this meant overthrowing the Manchu who were
seen as a foreign dynasty, as well as other foreign
imperialists; democracy or establishing democratic government;
and socialism regulating capital and equalizing landholdings..
 Revolutionaries asked for –  driving out the foreigners to control
natural resources, to remove inequalities, reduce poverty.
 Advocated reforms –  use of simple language, abolish foot binding and
female subordination, equality in marriage and economic development.
 Sun Yat-sen’s ideas became the basis of the political philosophy of the
Guomindang which were identified the ‘four great needs –  clothing
food, housing and transportation.
 After the death of Sun, Chiang Kai shek (1887-1975) emerged as the
leader of the Guomindang. He launched military campaign to control
the ‘warlords’, regional leaders who had usurped authority, and to
eliminate the communists.
 He advocated a secular and rational ‘this-worldly’ Confucianism.
 He encouraged women to cultivate the four virtues of ‘chastity,
appearance, speech and work’ and recognise their role as confined to
the household.
The Guomindang despite its attempts to unite the country failed because of its
shallow social and political vision:
  Sun Yat-Sen’s programme of regulating capital and equalising land –
was never carried out.
 the party ignored the peasantry and the rising social inequalities. It
sought to impose military order rather then address the problems
faced by the people.
The rise of the Communist Party of China
When the Japanese invaded China in 1937, the Guomindang retreated. The long and
exhausting war weakened China. Prices rose 30 per cent per month between 1945
and 1949, and utterly destroyed the lives of ordinary people.

Factors
. Rural China faced two crises

(a) Ecological Factors:

 Soil Exhanstion
 Deforestation
 Floods
(b) Socio – Economic Factors

 Exploitative land-tenure systems

 Indebtedness
 Primitive Technology
 Poor Communications
The CCP had been founded in 1921, soon after the Russian Revolution. Mao
Zedong (1893-1976), who emerged as a major CCP leader, took a different path by
basing his revolutionary programme on the peasantry. His success made the CCP a
powerful political force that ultimately won against the Guomindang. In 1949,
Communist Government was established in China and began a new age in the
history of China.
Establishing the New Democracy 1949-65
The Peoples Republic of China government was established in 1949.
It was based on the principles of the ‘New Democracy’, an alliance of all social
classes.

 Critical areas of the economy were put under government control.

 Private enterprise and Private ownership of land were abolished.
 The Great Leap Forward movement launched in 1958 was a policy to
galvanise the country to industrialise rapidly.
  Mao was able to mobilise the masses to attain the goals set by the
Party. His concern was with creating a ‘socialist man’ who would have
five loves: fatherland, people, labour, science and public property.
 Liu Shaochi (1896-1969) and Deng Xiaoping (1904-97) tried to modify
the commune system as it was not working efficiently. The steel
produced in the backyard furnaces was unusable industrially.
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
 The conflict between the concept of ‘socialist man’ and those who
objected to his emphasis on ideology rather than expertise led Mao to
launch the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1965.
 The Red Guards, mainly students and the army, was used for a
campaign against old culture, old customs and old habits.
 Students and professionals were sent to the countryside to learn from
the masses.
 Ideology became more important than professional knowledge.
Denunciations and slogans replaced rational debate.
 The Cultural Revolution began a period of turmoil, weakened the Party
and severely disrupted the economy and educational system.
 In 1975, the party once again laid emphasis on greater social discipline
and the need to build an industrial economy.
Reforms of 1978 Deng Xiaoping
 Deng Xiaoping kept party control strong while introducing a socialist
market economy.
 In 1978, the Party declared its goal as the Four Modernisations  – 
science, industry, agriculture and defence.
 ‘The Fifth Modernisation’ proclaimed that without Democracy the other
modernisations would come to nothing.
 in 1989, on the seventieth anniversary of the May Fourth movement
many intellectuals called for a greater openness and an end to ‘ossified
dogmas’ (su shaozhi).
 Student demonstrators at Tiananmen Square in Beijing were brutally
repressed.
 The post-reform period has seen the emergence of debates on ways to
develop China.
  Growing revival of traditional ideas of Confucianism and arguments
that China can build a modern society based on its own traditions
rather than simply copying the West.
The Story of Taiwan
 Taiwan had been a Japanese colony since the Chinese ceded it after the
1894-95 war with Japan.
 The Cairo Declaration (1943) and the Potsdam Proclamation (1949)
restored sovereignty to China.
 The GMD, under Chiang Kai-shek went on to establish a repressive
government forbidding the freedom of speech, political opposition
banned.
 They excluded the local population from positions of power.they
carried out land reforms that increased agricultural productivity and
modernised the economy s
 Transformation of Taiwan into a democracy after the death of Chiang in
1975.
 Martial law lifted in 1987 and opposition parties were legally permitted.
 Diplomatically most countries have only trade missions in Taiwan
instead of complete diplomatic ties because it (Taiwan) is considered to
be part of China.
 The question of re-unification with the mainland remains a contentious
issue but “ Cross Strait” relations (that is between Taiwan and China)
have been improving.
 China may be willing to tolerate a semi-autonomous Taiwan as long as
it gives up any move to seek independence.
Two Roads to Modernisation
 The histories of Japan and China show how different historical
conditions led them on widely divergent paths to building independent
and modern nations.
 Japan was successful in retaining its independence and using
traditional skills and practices in new ways.
 In the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) China faced a humiliating
defeat. On 17 April 1895, Treaty of Shimonseki was signed between
China and Japan, ending the First Sino-Japanese War.
 The Chinese became vulnerable after their defeat and declared that
both China and Japan needed reforms for modernisation.
  Sino-Japanese war served the basis for the Anglo-Japanese alliance in
1902.
 The Chinese path to modernisation was very different.
 Foreign imperialism, both Western and Japanese, combined with a
hesitant and unsure Qing dynasty to weaken government control.
 The nineteenth and twentieth centuries saw a rejection of traditions
and a search for ways to build national unity and strength.
Timeline: Refer to page number 248
Keywords: Confucianism, Opium war, Modernisation, Meiji, May Fourth movement 
(60 years earlier, there was an exciting explosion of new
ideas), Communist, Proletarian, Daimyo, dim sum.
1.
Write the names of historians famous in China and Japan.
Answer:
These were-

1. Kume Kunitake,
2. Marco Polo,
3. Mateo Ricci (Jesuit Priest) and
4. Luis Frois. These were written in Chinese.

Question 2.
What is a physical contest between China and Japan?
Answer:
China is a vast continental country while Japan is a string of islands. China is having
stable landforms while Japan is a country vulnerable to earthquakes. China has
three river systems while Japan has no such drainage system. China has several
nationalities i.e. Uighur, Hui, Manchu, and Tibetan but Japan has a single majority of
Japanese.

Question 3.
What kind of regional diversity in Chinese food is seen?
Answer:
Chinese food is in variety. Generally, there are four types / of dishes:-

1. Cantonese Cuisine,
2. Staple food like wheat,
3. Fiery Cuisine and
4. Rice and wheat.

Question 4.
Write the names of four large islands forming Japan?
Answer:

1. Honshu,
 2. Kyushu,
3. Shikoku and
4. Hokkaido

Question 5.
Who had held the position of Shogun in Japan and when?
Answer:
The members of the Tokugawa family held the position of Shogun (regent) from
1603 to 1867 in Japan.

Question 6
Who was Samurai?
Answer:
It was the warrior class who served the Shoguns and Daimyo (the ruler of a domain).

Question 7
Which measure had proved good to check frequent Chaos within Japan?
Answer:
Earlier, the farmers had to participate in defense sendees hence, arms were
supplied to them by the administration. However, those arms and weapons were
used in internal conflicts. The peasantry ’ was disarmed and it proved non-repetition
of those internal clashes ‘ and conflicts.

Question 8.
What was the achievement of Japan by the mid-seventeenth century?
Answer:
Japan had grown in the three most populated and vast cities viz. Edo (Presently
Tokyo), Osaka, and Kyoto.

Question 9.
How can you state that Japan achieved economic growth during the regime of
Shoguns?
Answer:
It is because

1. Silk Industry was developed in Nishijin,

2. Use of money increased,
3. The stock market in rice created,
4. Theatres and movies established,
5. Books were published.

Question 10.
What does the Tale of Genji reveal?
Answer:
It reveals that Japanese culture was more ancient or older than that of Chinese. It
was a fictionalized diary written by Murasaki Shikibu.
Question 11.
What is assumed about the origin of Japan?
Answer:
It was assumed that Japan was created by God and its emperor was a descendant
of the Sun goddess.

Question 12.
Why would the USA have seen Japan as a major market?
Answer:
It was because Japan falls on the route to China.

Question 13.
Describe the commotion created in Japan when China, was defeated by the British?
Answer:
The news of China’s subordination by the British generated, a wave of fear among
the Japanese. They sent some people to Europe to study Imperialism and its
strategies.

1. They were ready to adopt

2. Modern military force was developed.
3. The legal system for political groups, public gatherings, and scrutiny of
all affairs.
4. Japanese students were sent abroad to develop their technical know-
how in the institutions there.
5. Subsidies and tax benefits are given to shipbuilding companies.

Question 14.
Why did the Meiji Government face opposition?
Answer:
It was because the military and bureaucracy were kept outside the Constitution.
Hence, these organs of government began to give stiff opposition.

Question 15.
What acts did exhibit the modernization of the Japanese economy?
Answer:

1. Agriculture tax was imposed for capital-formation.

2. Railway line laid between Tokyo and Yokohama.
3. Textile machinery was imported from Europe and foreign technicians
were appointed in order to impart education in technology.
4. Japanese students were sent abroad to develop their technical know-
how in the institutions there.
5. Subsidies and tax benefits are given to shipbuilding companies.

Question 16.
What measures did the government of Japan adopt for the reduction Of population
pressure?
Answer:
 1. Allowed migration to Hokkaido (an island), Hawaii, and Brazil.
2. Launched war-campaigns to establish colonies in other countries.

Question 17.
Mention the pace of population increase in Japanese cities during 1925-1935?
Answer:
It was 21 percent of the total population in 1925 but within a span of a single decade,
if increased to 32 percent (22.5 million) in 1935.

Question 18.
Write the series of increases in the number of factories in Japan between 1909 to
1940.
Answer:
A number of factories employing more than one hundred workers-was 1,000 in 1909
spurt up to 2,000 by 1920, 4,000 by 1930, and 5,50,000 by 1940.

Question 19.
Mention the main characteristics of the Meiji Constitution?
Answer:

1. It was based on a restricted franchise.

2. Parliament (Diet) was not given wider powers/

Question 20.
Who was Tanaka Shozo and why is he so popular in Japan’s politics?
Answer:

1. He participated in the Popular Rights Movement in 1880.

2. He was elected member of the first Diet (Parliament).
3. He forced the in charge of The Ashio Mine to use – pollution-control
devices in order to protect the Watarase river from pollution.

Question 21.
What were the major background factors responsible for the strengthening of the
military and expansion of Japan’s colonial empire?
Answer:
These were-

1. the Army and Navy were given independent control,

2. Services as generals and admirals in the past were made a condition to
become a minister,
3. Higher Taxes imposed to compensate for the expenditure on defense.

Question 22.
Who was Fukuzawa Yukichi?
Answer:
He was a leading Meiji intellectual who advocated westernization for Japan. He was
from Samurai (warrior) family. He had established Keio University and served as a
translator for the first Japanese embassy to the U.S.A. He promoted western
learning.

Question 23.
Who was opposite to the complete westernization of Japan in line with the USA and
Western European countries?
Answer:
Those learned people were-Miyake set Suri and Ueki Emon, a leader of the Popular
Rights Movement. They were demanding a constitutional Government. Their
statements were-” To devote oneself to one’s country is to devote oneself to the
world.” “Japan should be based not on the military but on democracy. ”

Question 24.
What were the effects observed in Japanese society with the adoption of
modernization?
Answer:
These effects were-

1. Joint family system dissolved and nuclear family system preferred,

2. Demand for housing, consumer goods, domestic appliances, etc.
increased and industries concerned had prospered,
3. New forms of travel (trams line) developed, Departmental stores opened
and public parks were opened,
4. Radio Station opened, movies began to be made and traditional norms
gradually disappeared.

Question 25.
How had Nishitani Keiji defined the term “Modem”?
Answer:
This term was defined as the unity of three streams of Western thought-

1. the Renaissance,
2. The Protestant Reformation and
3. The rise of natural sciences.

Question 26.
Why did Nishitani Keiji state Japan’s moral energy helpful to escape colonization?
Answer:
Japan’s moral energy was nothing else but her strong faith in indigenous norms of
society. She studied western culture, strategies, policies, and manners of living but
adopted only useful in the situations of Japan. He further says that a fine blend of
science and religion will help her in establishing a greater East Asia.

Question 27.
What was discussed in Japan in a symposium on “Overcoming Modernity” in 1943?
Answer:
The measures decided were pertaining to modernize with tools taken from Western
Countries but apply them consciously and cautiously on Japanese land viz. affirming
with the real situations in Japan.

Question 28.
What was the essence of the new constitution formed in Japan after her defeat in the
hands of the USA?
Answer:
It was-

1. No war clause was introduced in state policy,

2. Agriculture will be made a priority area for reclamation and investment,
3. Trade unions will be re-established,
4. The monopoly of Zaibasth or industrial Houses holding control on
economy shall be checked,
5. The election shall be held in 1946 with men as well as women voters.

Question 29.
Which are the premier or cardinal points of China’s modern history?
Answer:
These are-

1. Region of sovereignty after long strife,

2. Get-rid of humiliation caused by foreign rule,
3. Measure to bring about equality and development.

Question 30.
Who has ascribed fame for the modernization of China?
Answer:
Those learned people were-

1. Kan Youwei and Liang Qichao.

2. Sun-Yat-Sen and
3. Mao-Zedong. Kan Youwei used traditional ideas in new and different
ways. Sun-Yat-Sen establishes the first republic and whose middle-way
of Japan and the western traditions and practices. Mao-Zedong fought
for the removal of inquiries and foreign rule. He was the great leader of
C.C.P.

Question 31.
How could England gather the courage to force the opium trade in China?
Answer:
England had pre-planned in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when
missionaries were sent to China. They collected information on the weaknesses of
China and reported them in their country. On the basis of it, England could gather
the courage to challenge China in the opium war which had run continuously for
three years i.e. 1839-1842.
Question 32.
What style of the opium trade was adopted by the British?
Answer:
Opium was collected by East India Company and issued a letter of credit to her
agent against the payment, they had received ‘ in China and the silver was used to
buy tea, silk, and porcelain for export in Britain. It was a triangular trade between
Britain, India, and China.

Question 33.
What did Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao realize in respect of the developments in
China?
Answer:
In order to protect China from colonization, they felt the need for a modem
administrative system, a new army, and educated. system and setting-up of local
assemblies to establish constitutional government.

Question 34.
What were the three essential factors of Confucianism?
Answer:
Those were-

1. good conduct,
2. practical wisdom and
3. proper social relationship.

Question 35.
What was the outcome of sending students of Japan, Britain, and France to study?
Answer:
The Chinese could understand the implication of justice, rights, and revolution and
they used them to reverse traditional relationships.

Question 36.
Why did the examination system in China meet to abolition?
Answer:
The only literary skill was required to attend these exams for Civil Services resulting
in a rapid increase of unemployment problem c for the educated youth. Hence, this
system was abolished.

Question 37.
What was the program implemented by Sun-Yat- Sen, the founder of modem China?
Answer:
It was called San-min-Chui or Three principles. These were

1. To overthrow foreign dynasty (Manchu)

2. To establish democratic government or democracy and
3. To bring socialism to regulate capital and equalize landholdings.
Question 38.
What were the avowed aims of revolutionaries when China was made a colony by
the British?
Answer:

1. To drive out the foreigners from China,

2. To remove inequalities and
3. to reduce poverty.

Question 39.
What were the reforms necessary as per the revolutionaries in China?
Answer:
According to revolutionaries, the reforms needed were-

1. Use of Simple language in writing,

2. Abolition of the practice of foot-binding and subordination of women,
3. Equality in marriage,
4. Economic development to end poverty.

Question 40.
What for a military campaign was launched by Chiang- Kai-Shek?
Answer:
He was the leader of NPP or Guomindang. after Sun-Yat- Sen. He wanted to control
the warlords and powerful regional leaders and to eliminate the communists.

Question 41.
What were the views of Chiang-Kai-Shek for women’s welfare?
Answer:
According to Chiang-Kai-Shek, women should cultivate in themselves, the four
virtues i.e. Chastity, appearance, speech, and work, and recognize their role as
confined to the household. A dress code was also suggested by him.

Question 42.
Who were the supporters of Guomindang (NPP)?
Answer:
These were slum dwellers (Xiao-Shimin), traders, and shopkeepers in cities.

Question 43.
Which were the factors bringing in social and political change?
Answer:
These factors were-

1. The spread of schools and colleges,

2. Journalism preferred by the mass,
3. The activities of Mahatma Gandhi and Kernel Ataturk (the modernist
leader of Turkey) as a stimulus to follow for the independence of China.
Question 44.
Why did Buck Clayton extend his favor to the Chinese in their fight for discrimination
against white Americans?
Answer:
Actually, Buck Clayton was black-American, and once some white Americans
assaulted him in Shanghai. That event melted his heart for black-Chinese and being
resourceful, he had assisted those people in the removal of likewise discrimination.

Question 45.
Write the causes of failures faced by the Guomindang?
Answer:
These were-

1. Overlooked mass problems,

2. An imposed military order,
3. Neither capital was regulated under socialism nor land holdings
distributed equally.

Question 46.
Why did Comintern or the Third International Organisation constituted by Lenin and
Trotsky meet to dissolution?
Answer:
It was made a tool for soviet interests otherwise, it could support Communist Party in
China.

Question 47.
What were the thoughts of Mao Zedong?
Answer:
He was a great and veteran leader of C.C.P. and his thoughts were-

1. Party should make its rural base,

2. Independent government and Army to be organized,
3. Women associations to be formed in order to forbid arranged marriages,
abolish marriage contracts, and process of divorce to be made easier
than existing.

Question 48.
What was new democracy and when was it established in Japan?
Answer:
New Democracy was Communism but women dictatorship of the proletariat. It was
an alliance of all social classes. Core areas of the economy were put under
government control and private enterprise and private ownership of land were
gradually ended.

Question 49.
What were Communes?
Answer:
Communes were formed in rural areas where a group of people began forming
inland collectively owned by them. There were 26,000 communes in 1958 covering
98% of the farm population.

Question 50.
Why did Mao launch the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1965?
Answer:
Among some Chinese, there were critics of the.CCP and its leader Mao-Zedong.
They did not like the commune system, steel production in the backward furnaces,
and the organization which was constituted by him. In order to satisfy through
dialogue or face to face debate, Mao launched the Great Proletarian Cultural
Revolution.

Question 51.
What were the Four Modernisations of the Communist Party of China?
Answer:
Under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, the Communist Party of China introduced a
socialist market economy. Four modernizations were the four thrust areas i.e.
Science, industry, agriculture, and defense. The aim was to promote these areas for
modernization.

Question 52.
What had happened on the seventieth anniversary of the May Fourth movement?
Answer:
The Chinese populace was raising demands continuously for several years in the
past but left without explanation thereon by the Party. When the people
demonstrated at Tiananmen Square in Beijing, they were mercilessly beaten.

Question 53.
What was the political status of Taiwan?
Answer:
It was transferred to the sovereignty of Japan after the 1894-95 war with China but
subsequently, the Cairo Declaration of 1943 and the Potsdam Proclamation of 1949
gave it back under the sovereignty of China.

Question 54.
Who had founded the Republics of China in Taiwan?
Answer:
It was Chiang Kai-Shek the leader of N.P.P. or the Guomindang. It was in the year
1942 when Taiwan was under China’s Sovereignty.

Question 55.
What was done by GMD Under Chiang Kai-Shek in Taiwan than the republic of
China?
Answer:

1. It repressed mercilessly, the demonstrations in, Feb. 1947.

 2. It prohibited freedom to press and political opposition as also declined
authorities of people in higher positions were thrown to demotion,
humiliation. Carried out land-reforms that had modernized the economy.
3. Helped in creating an environment in which the gap between rich and
poor sharply receded. It was only good the Party had done.

Question 56.
What has been done in Taiwan after the death of Chiang Kai-shek in 1975?
Answer:

1. It is climbing on democratic steps.

2. Martial law was lifted in 1987.
3. Opposition parties are legally permitted.
4. The election has been conducted beyond any reservations or
restrictions or discrimination with the local people.