Anjuman college of Engineering and Technology, Mechanical Engineering Department

UNIT-I ‘Design of Machine Elements’ Prof. Syed Mohiuddin

Machine Design: Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the existing ones. A new or better machine is
one which is more economical in the overall cost of production and operation. The process of design is a long and time consuming one. From
the study of existing ideas, a new idea has to be conceived. The idea is then studied keeping in mind its commercial success and given shape
and form in the form of drawings.

Classifications of Machine Design (types):

1. Adaptive design: This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can be attempted by designers of ordinary technical training.
The designer only makes minor alternation or modification in the existing designs of the product.
2. Development design: This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design ability in order to modify the existing designs
into a new idea by adopting a new material or different method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the existing
design, but the final product may differ quite markedly from the original product.
3. New design: This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative thinking.
The designs, depending upon the methods used, may be classified as follows :
(a) Rational design. This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of principle of mechanics.
(b) Empirical design. This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on the practice and past experience.
(c) Industrial design. This type of design depends upon the production aspects to manufacture any machine component in the industry.
(d) Optimum design. It is the best design for the given objective function under the specified constraints. It may be achieved by minimising
the undesirable effects.
(e) System design. It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.
(f) Element design. It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like piston, crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.
(g) Computer aided design. This type of design depends upon the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis
and optimisation of a design.

General Considerations in Machine Design

Following are the general considerations in designing a machine component :
1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load. The load, on a machine component, may act in several ways due to which the internal
stresses are set up. the load may be gradual load, sudden load and impact load.
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine. The successful operation of any machine depends largely upon the simplest
arrangement of the parts which will give the motion required. The motion of the parts may be : Rectilinear motion. Curvilinear motion,
Constant velocity and Constant or variable acceleration.
3. Selection of materials. It is essential that a designer should have a thorough knowledge of the properties of the materials and their
behaviour under working conditions. Characteristics of materials are: strength, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance to heat and corrosion,
ability to cast, welded or hardened, machinability, electrical conductivity, etc.
4. Form and size of the parts. The smallest practicable cross-section may be considered, the designed cross-section should be reasonably
safe. In order to design any machine part for form and size, it is necessary to know the forces which the part must sustain
5. Frictional resistance and lubrication. There is always a loss of power due to frictional resistance and it should be noted that the friction
of starting is higher than that of running friction. It is, therefore, essential that a careful attention must be given to the matter of lubrication of
all surfaces which move in contact with others
6. Convenient and economical features. The starting, controlling and stopping levers should be located on the basis of convenient handling.
The adjustment for wear must be provided employing the various takeup devices and arranging them so that the alignment of parts is
preserved. The economical operation of a machine should be used for production.
7. Use of standard parts. The use of standard parts is closely related to cost. The standard or stock parts should be used whenever possible ;
parts for which patterns are already in existence such as gears, pulleys and bearings and parts which may be selected from regular shop stock
such as screws, nuts and pins
8. Safety of operation. Some machines are dangerous to operate, especially any moving part of a machine which is within the zone of a
worker is considered an accident hazard and may be the cause of an injury should always provide safety devices for the safety of the operator.
9. Workshop facilities. A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of his employer’s workshop, in order to avoid the necessity
of having work done in some other workshop. It is sometimes necessary to plan and supervise the workshop operations.
10. Number of machines to be manufactured. The number of parts or machines to be manufactured affects the design in a number of ways
the designer should restrict his specification to standard parts as much as possible.
11. Cost of construction. The cost of construction of an part is the most important consideration involved in design. The aim of design
engineer under all conditions, should be to reduce the manufacturing cost to the minimum.
12. Assembling. Every machine or structure must be assembled as a unit before it can function. Large units must often be assembled in the
shop, tested and then taken to be transported to their place of service.

-Prof. Syed Mohiudin

Mech. Deptt., ACET
General Procedure in Machine Design
Procedure to solve a design problem is as follows :
1. Recognition of need. First of all, make a complete statement of the problem, indicating
the need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed.
2. Synthesis (Mechanisms). Select the possible mechanism or group of mechanisms which
will give the desired motion.
3. Analysis of forces. Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and the energy
transmitted by each member.
4. Material selection. Select the material best suited for each member of the machine.
5. Design of elements (Size and Stresses). Find the size of each member of the machine by
considering the force acting on the member and the permissible stresses for the material
used. It should be kept in mind that each member should not deflect or deform than the
permissible limit.
6. Modification. Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experience and
judgment to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also be necessary by
consideration of manufacturing to reduce overall cost.
7. Detailed drawing. Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly of
the machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes suggested.
8. Design for Production. The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the
workshop. The flow chart for the general procedure in machine design is shown in Fig.

Modes of Failure:
Q :What are different failure criteria for a mechanical component?
The degree with which a machine component satisfactorily performs the given task, for which it is designed, is its faithfulness. If the
component deviates slightly in negative direction from this degree of faithfulness then, it is called the Failure.
Following are the different modes of failure by which a material can fail,
Yielding: It is the stage at which a ductile element undergoes a permanent plastic deformation when the magnitude of load acting over it
increases above the elastic limit of the material. Increase in length will be observed in the element.
Fracture: It is a mode of failure generally observed in brittle materials owing to their incapability to get deform under heavy load. The
fracture in the material can be seen as small crack (may be followed by breakage), but generally remains integrated. It is generally
undesirable for the heavy sections subjected to large blows since the replacement cost is very high. (Ex. Forging elements).
Excessive Elastic Deflection : It is generally observed in the reciprocating elements and the elements carrying dead load for a long period of
time.
Wear :The progressive removal of material from solid surfaces(generally sharp cornered),as a result of mechanical action, is known as Wear.
This removal may take time but it will continue with changing magnitude of load. The criteria used for design for wear considering type of
motion, type of contact & properties of material are hardness, Roughness, Temperature, Condition of lubrication etc.
Creep :When a machine component is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature, it deforms slowly but progressively over a long
period of time. This progressive deformation under the action of load at high temperature is called Creep.
Creep depends on Stress, temperature and material. At high temperatures, the creep exists even at stresses much below the yield strength of
the material.
Corrosion: Q : What is corrosion phenomenon & how it is prevented ?
It is the phenomenon in which components strength starts deteriorating in presence of corrosive atmosphere for the components having stress
concentration. The corrosion is an undesirable effect which directly reduces the strength of the designed part and hence care is taken to avoid
this. Special coatings and alloys are used. Ex : Steel Cables in mines, refineries etc.

Design Considerations for Selection of the Materials:

Q : Discuss the factors governing the selection of material to design a component ?
The choice of material depends upon the following:
1) Availability of materials ; 2) Cost of materials ; 3) Manufacturing Considerations; 4) Material Properties

Q : Explain the various properties of metals essential for consideration in design of an element.
The different properties of metals which are essential for design consideration are ;
a)Strength : It is the ability of a material to resist externally applied forces without yielding or breaking.
b)Stiffness : It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under the action of load.
c) Brittleness :It is the property of a material by virtue of which it breaks with little permanent deformation.
d)Toughness :It is the property of a material by virtue of which it resists fracture due to high impact loads.
e)Hardness : It is the property of a material by virtue of which it resists indentation/scratch.
f )Resilience : It is the property by virtue of which it can absorb energy/unit volume within elastic limit.
g) Fatigue : When a material is subjected to repeated stress, it fails at stresses well below its yield stress limit.

-Prof. Syed Mohiudin

Mech. Deptt., ACET
Mechanical Properties of Metals:
The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and load.
These mechanical properties of the metal include strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness,
resilience, creep and hardness.
1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking or yielding. The internal resistance offered
by a part to an externally applied force is called *stress.
2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when the external forces are removed. This property
is desirable for materials used in tools and machines
4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load permanently. This property of the material is
necessary for forgings, in stamping images on coins and in ornamental work.
5. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be
both strong and plastic. The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and
lead.

Material Properties:
Sr. Types Or
No
Material Properties Of Material Application
Designation
Having high compressive
Machine tool bodies, Slideways,
Grey C.I.
Strength, good surface lubricating property which Cylinder block, Brake Shoes etc.
gives smooth sliding motion.
1 Cast Iron Hydraulic cylinder, Rollers,
Nodular C.I.
High castability, weldability, fluidity wear resistant. centrifugally cast products.

Contains silicon, manganese, Sulphur phosphorus & Gears, Piston, Cam shafts, brake
Alloy C.I.
Nickel having high corrosion, wear and heat drums.
resistance.
IS : 1570(Part II) They are specified by the average carbon content Automobile bodies, worm, gudgeon
Plain carbon
2 30 C 8 (0.30 % which is up to 1.5%, hence have good impact pin, chain wheel, machine tool
steel Carbon & 0.6 to strength. spindle etc.
0.8%manganese)
Contain Nickel, Chromium, Tungsten, Vanadium,
Manganese, Silicon and Molybdenum. These Railway passenger car bodies,
07 Cr 18 Ni 9
elements can be used separately or in combination to flexible coupling.
produce desired characteristics in steel.
3 Alloy steel
Cr 17% &8% Ni good drawing properties.
High temperature chemical
40 Cr 17 Ni 12 Mo2 Cr 17% ,12% Ni, & 2% Mo high strength and handling equipments Rubber,
corrosion resistant. Rayon industries, edible oil storage.

Brass and Bronze have good machinability

Bearings, springs, condenser and
Copper alloys corrosion resistance, thermal conductivity and
radiator, tubes, valve fitting etc.
excellent bearing properties.

4 Non-Ferrous
Fan blades, pump castings, bearing
Aluminium alloys Light in weight, corrosion resistance, thermal
metals cap, air cooled cylinder.
conductivity and easy to fabricate.

Nylons High mechanical strength, self-lubricating properties Self-lubricating bearing, cams.

5 Plastics
Teflon High working temperature range. Piston rings, Gaskets

Fiber Glass Consisting of glass fibers having very good Insulators, aeroplane panels, ovens
6 Composites insulating property
F.G.Wool and heaters
Good sound insulation & fire retardant

-Prof. Syed Mohiudin

Mech. Deptt., ACET
Aesthetics consideration in Design :
Aesthetics deals with the appearance of the product or 'aesthetics' concerns our senses and our responses to an object. Aesthetics involves all
of your senses - vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell and your emotions. In present days of buyers’ market, with large number of products
available in the market are having most of the parameters identical, the appearance being often the major factor in attracting the customer in
the consumer durables like automobiles, Refregirators,Television sets, Music System etc.

Ergonomics consideration in Design :

It may be defined as the scientific study of man- machine working environment relationship and the application of anatomical, physiological
and psychological principals to solve the problems arising out of this relationship. The objective of ergonomics is to make the machine fit for
user rather than to make the user adopt himself to the machine. If a user is directly communicating with machine element, it should be
designed ergonomically.

Knuckle Joint:
A knuckle joint is used to connect two rods which are under the action of tensile loads. However, if the joint is guided, the rods may support a
compressive load. A knuckle joint may be readily disconnected for adjustments or repairs. Its use may be found in the link of a cycle chain,
tie rod joint for roof truss, valve rod joint with eccentric rod, pump rod joint, tension link in bridge structure and lever and rod connections of
various types.

Socket and Spigot Cotter Joint:

The cotter is usually made of mild steel or wrought iron. A cotter joint is a temporary fastening and is used to connect rigidly two
co-axial rods or bars which are subjected to axial tensile or compressive forces. It is usually used in connecting a piston rod to the crosshead
of a reciprocating steam engine, a piston rod and its extension as a tail or pump rod, strap end of connecting rod etc.
In a socket and spigot cotter joint, one end of the rods (say A) is provided with a socket type of end and the other end of the other rod
(say B) is inserted into a socket. The end of the rod which goes into a socket is also called spigot. A rectangular hole is made in the socket and
spigot. A cotter is then driven tightly through a hole in order to make the temporary connection between the two rods. The load is usually
acting axially, but it changes its direction and hence the cotter joint must be designed to carry both the tensile and compressive loads.

-Prof. Syed Mohiudin

Mech. Deptt., ACET
Riveted Joints:
A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with a head integral to it. The cylindrical portion of
the rivet is called shank or body and lower portion of shank is known as tail, as shown
in Fig. The rivets are used to make permanent fastening between the plates such as in
structural work, ship building, bridges, tanks and boiler shells. The riveted joints are
widely used for joining light metals.
The fastenings may be classified into the following two groups :
1. Permanent fastenings, and
2. Temporary or detachable fastenings.

Methods of Riveting
The function of rivets in a joint is to make a connection that has strength and tightness. The strength is necessary to prevent failure of the
joint. The tightness is necessary in order to contribute to strength and to prevent leakage as in a boiler or in a ship hull. When two plates are
to be fastened together by a rivet as shown in Fig. the holes in the plates are punched and reamed or drilled.Since punching injures the
material around the hole, therefore drilling is used in most pressure-vessel work. In structural and pressure vessel riveting, the diameter of the
rivet hole is usually 1.5 mm larger than the nominal diameter of the rivet.
The plates are drilled together and then separated to remove any burrs or chips so as to have a tight flush joint between the plates. A cold rivet
or a red hot rivet is introduced into the plates and the point is then formed. When a cold rivet is used, the process is known as cold riveting
and when a hot rivet is used, the process is known as hot riveting. The cold riveting process is used for structural joints while hot riveting is
used to make leak proof joints.

Material of Rivets:
The material of the rivets must be tough and ductile. They are usually made of steel (low carbon steel or nickel steel), brass,
aluminium or copper, but when strength and a fluid tight joint is the main consideration, then the steel rivets are used.
The rivets for general purposes shall be manufactured from steel conforming to the following Indian Standards :
(a) IS : 1148–1982 (Reaffirmed 1992) – Specification for hot rolled rivet bars for structural purposes; or
(b) IS : 1149–1982 (Reaffirmed 1992) – Specification for high tensile steel rivet bars for structural purposes.

Failure of Riveted Joints:

1) Tearing of plate between the holes if they are very near to each other.
2) Tearing of plate between the edges of the plate and the rivet holes, if they are too near to the holes
3) Shearing of the rivets if diameter of the rivet is smaller than necessary
4) Crushing of the rivet
Types of Rivet Heads: FORMS OF RIVET HEAD: PSG data book, page 5.26 to 5.28

-Prof. Syed Mohiudin

Mech. Deptt., ACET
TYPES OF RIVETED JOINTS:
a) Lap Joint: The plates are connected overlap to each other. When the joint is made with only one row of rivets, is called single riveted
lap joint. When two or more rows of rivets are required, rivets may be arranged in chain or zigzag formation.
b) Butt Joint: The plates are connected butt against each other and the joint between them is covered by butt-plates or butt-straps/cover
plates on one or both sides. Atleast two rows of rivets, one in connected plate, are necessary to make the joint

Caulking and Fullering:

To prevent leakage through the joints, plates are firmly forced together by caulking and fullering process. The edges of the plate are
hammered and driven-in by a caulking tool or fullering tool. Caulking tool is in the shape of blunt chisel. Fullering tool is thicker than
caulking tool. The thickness of the fullering tool is about same as that of plates.

-Prof. Syed Mohiudin

Mech. Deptt., ACET