EE305 – Telecommunications I

Rsc. Ast. Dr. Mustafa Anıl REŞAT

▪ Representation of FM and PM Signals
▪ Narrowband Angle Modulation

▪ Spectral Characteristics of Angle-modulated Signals

▪ Angle Modulation by a Sinusoidal Signal
▪ Angle Modulation by an Arbitrary Message Signal

▪ Implementation of Angle Modulators and Demodulators

▪ Angle Modulators
▪ Angle Demodulators

▪ FM Radio Broadcasting
▪ FM Stereo Broadcasting
▪ AM methods are linear
▪ Angle modulation methods are non-linear
▪ Frequency modulation (FM)
▪ Frequency of the carrier is changed by m(t)
▪ Phase modulation (PM)
▪ Phase of the carrier is changed by m(t)

▪ Properties of angle modulation

▪ Nonlinearity
▪ More complex to implement and analyze
▪ Bandwidth-expansion
▪ BW of u(t) is infinite
▪ Effective BW of u(t) is usually many times BW of m(t)

▪ Benefits of angle modulation

▪ High degree of noise immunity
▪ Used in high-fidelity music broadcasting and point-to-point communication systems, where the transmitter power is limited
▪ Constant envelope
▪ Beneficial when the signal is amplified by nonlinear amplifiers
▪ Angle modulated signal:
▪ fc: carrier frequency, Φ(t): time-varying phase

▪ Instantaneous frequency:
▪ PM: Φ(t) = kpm(t)
▪ kp: phase deviation constant
▪ Phase is proportional to m(t)

▪ FM:
▪ kf: frequency deviation constant
▪ fi(t) deviation from fc is proportional to m(t)
PM modulation index

FM modulation index
▪ Maximum phase deviation in PM:
▪ Maximum frequency deviation in FM:

▪ PM modulation index:
▪ FM modulation index:
▪ W: BW of m(t)

▪ Demodulation of FM
▪ Find the instantaneous frequency of u(t)
▪ Subtract fc from it

▪ Demodulation of PM
▪ Find the phase of u(t)
▪ Recover m(t)
▪ Φ(t) << 1, for all t → cos(Φ(t)) ≈ 1, sin(Φ(t)) ≈ Φ(t)

Phasor diagram of
▪ Narrowband angle modulation is very similar to a conventional AM
conventional AM signal
▪ m(t) is modulated on a sine carrier rather than a
cosine carrier
▪ BW of u(t) = BW of conventional AM = 2W
▪ Has far less amplitude variations which are caused by
the approximations
▪ Does not provide better noise immunity than Phasor diagram of narrowband
conventional AM angle modulation
▪ Seldom used in practice for communication purposes
▪ Can be used as an intermediate stage for generation
of wideband angle-modulated signals
▪ Nonlinearity: Spectral characterization is difficult even for simple message signals
▪ Simple message signals and certain approximations are used
▪ The results are generalized to the more complicated messages
▪ Angle Modulation by a Sinusoidal Signal
▪

▪ β: modulation index (βp or βf), Jn(β): Bessel function of the first kind of order n
▪ Even in this very simple case with m(t) is a sinusoid
of frequency fm, u(t) contains all frequencies of
the form fc+nfm for n = 0,±1,±2,…
▪ Actual BW of u(t) is infinite
▪ Amplitude of sinusoidal components of frequencies
fc+nfm for large n is very small
▪ Finite effective bandwidth can be defined

▪ For small β:
▪ Only the first sideband corresponding to n = 1 is
important
Required number of harmonics in FM
▪ Bessel function symmetry property
Power (%) β = 0.5 β=1 β=2 β=5 β=8 β = 10 β = 15
▪ J-n(β) = Jn(β) for even n
▪ J-n(β) = -Jn(β) for odd n
80 - 1 2 4 7 9 14
90 1 1 2 5 8 10 15
98 1 2 3 6 9 11 16
 To make sure that at least 99% of the total
power is within the effective
BW, we must choose a large enough k such that:

• The smallest value of k = 6

• Frequencies of fc ± 10k for 0≤k≤6 guarantees the 99% condition
• If u(t) is passed through an ideal BPF centered at fc with at least BW = 120 Hz only 1 % of the signal
power will be eliminated
• Effective BW of u(t) = 120 Hz.
▪ Effective BW: Bc = 2(β+1)fm
▪ Generally defined as BW containing at least 98% of signal power
▪ For PM: Bc = 2(kpa+1)fm
▪ Increasing fm increases Bc proportionally
▪ For FM: Bc = 2[(kfa/fm)+1]fm = 2(kfa+fm)
▪ Increasing a has almost the same effect with PM
▪ Increasing fm increases Bc additively
▪ Less increment than PM (for large β usually non-significant)

▪ Number of harmonics in the BW (including the carrier)

▪ For PM:
▪ Increasing a increases Mc
▪ Increasing fm does not effect Mc
▪ Only the spacing between the harmonics increases
▪ The net effect is a linear increase in BW
▪ For FM:
▪ Increasing a increases Mc
▪ Increasing fm almost linearly decreases Mc
▪ Increases the spacing between the harmonics
▪ The net effect is a slight increase in BW
 ▪ Carson’s rule
▪ An approximate relation for Bc of u(t)
▪ Bc = 2(β+1)W
▪ For PM: β = kpmax(|m(t)|)
▪ For FM: β = kfmax(|m(t)|)/W

▪ Wideband FM usually has a β value around 5 or more

▪ BW of an angle-modulated signal is much greater than BW of AM methods
▪ SSB: W
▪ DSB, conventional AM: 2W

▪ Example:

BW = 5000 Hz
▪ With AM and angle modulation methods, modulation and demodulation generates
new frequencies that were not present in the input signal
▪ A modulator and demodulator cannot be modeled as a LTI system
▪ An LTI system cannot produce any frequency components in the output that are not
present in the input signal
▪ Angle Modulators
▪ Generally time-varying and nonlinear systems
▪ Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) modulator
▪ An oscillator whose frequency changes with the input voltage
▪ Input voltage = 0 V → Oscillator generates a sinusoid with frequency fc
▪ When the input voltage changes, frequency of the sinusoid changes accordingly
▪ First VCO method: Varactor diode
▪ A capacitor whose capacitance changes with the applied voltage
▪ Frequency of the tuned circuit and the oscillator changes with m(t)
▪ Capacitance of varactor diode: C(t) = C0+k0m(t).

▪ m(t) = 0 →

▪ Second VCO method: Reactance tube

▪ An inductor whose inductance varies with the applied voltage
▪ Indirect method modulator
▪ Generate a narrowband angle-modulated signal
▪ Conventional AM modulators can be easily modified (similarity)
▪

▪ Change it to a wideband signal

▪ Frequency multiplier
▪ Multiplies the instantaneous frequency of the input by some
constant n
▪ Applies the input signal to a nonlinear element
▪ Pass the output through a BPF tuned to the desired central
frequency
▪

▪ Up/down conversion
▪ Shift the modulated signal to the desired center frequency
▪ Mixer
▪ fLO: frequency of the local oscillator of the mixer
▪ Down converter
▪ BPF
▪ Since we can freely choose n and fLO we can generate any
modulation index at any desired carrier frequency
▪ Transformation demodulator
▪ Transform an angle modulated signal into AM
▪ Amplitude is proportional to the instantaneous frequency
▪ Pass the angle modulated signal through an LTI system
▪ |H(f)| should be approximately a straight line in the frequency band of
the angle modulated signal
▪ |H(f)| = V0+k(f-fc), for |f-fc|<Bc/2
▪

▪ Rising half of the frequency characteristics of a tuned circuit

▪ Linear region of the frequency characteristic may not be wide
enough
▪ Balanced discriminator: To obtain linear characteristics over a
wide range two circuits tuned at different frequencies can be
connected
▪ Use an AM demodulator
▪ Obtains Ac(V0+kkfm(t))
▪ Recovers m(t)

▪ BW = Channel bandwidth Bc occupied by angle modulated signal

▪ FM demodulator with feedback (FMFB)
▪ Uses FB to narrow BW of the angle modulator
detector
▪ Reduces the noise power at the output of the
demodulator
▪ BW of the discriminator and the LPF are designed
to match the BW of m(t)
▪ Phase-locked loop (PLL) demodulator
▪ Input:
▪ VCO
▪ kv: deviation constant (Hz/V)
▪ Output:

▪ Phase comparator
▪ Multiplier
▪ Filter: Rejects the signal component centered at 2fc
▪ Output: e(t) = (AvAc/2)sin(Φ(t)-Φv(t))
▪ Phase error:
▪ Linearized PLL
▪ PLL is in lock position
▪ Phase error is small
▪

▪ Phase error:

▪ |(kvG(f))/(jf) | >> 1, for |f|<W

▪ Demodulated signal:

▪ BW of g(t) = BW of m(t) = W
▪ Noise at the output is also limited to W
▪ VCO: Output is a wideband angle modulated signal with an instantaneous frequency that follows the instantaneous
frequency of the received signal
▪ With feedback: Reduces the threshold effect that occurs when the input signal-to-noise-ratio to the demodulator
drops below a critical value
▪ Commercial FM radio broadcasting
▪ Frequency band: 88-108 MHz
▪ Transmission of voice and music signals
▪ Carrier frequency seperation: 200 kHz
▪ Peak frequency deviation: 75 kHz
▪ Preemphasis is generally used to improve the demodulator performance under noise
▪ Receiver: Superheterodyne
▪ Common tuning
▪ Between the RF amplifier and the local oscillator

▪ Mixer
▪ Brings all FM radio signals to a common fIF = 10.7
MHz with a BW = 200 kHz
▪ IF amplifier
▪ Limiter
▪ Hardlimits the signal amplitude to remove
amplitude variations
▪ BPF centered at fIF = 10.7 MHz with a BW = 200
kHz
▪ Removes higher-order frequency components
introduced by the nonlinear hard limiter

▪ Discriminator
▪ Balanced frequency discriminator is used for
frequency demodulation
▪ Audio amplifier and deemphasis
▪ LPF
▪ Removes out-of-band noise

▪ Loudspeaker
▪ Many FM radio stations transmit music in stereo
▪ Use the outputs of two microphones placed on two
different parts of the stage
▪ ml(t): Signal from the left microphone
▪ mr(t): Signal from the right microphone

▪ Summation: ml(t)+mr(t)
▪ Occupies the 0-15 kHz band
▪ Preemphasis

▪ Difference: ml(t)-mr(t)
▪ Preemphasis
▪ DSB-SC AM modulator
▪ Oscillator (fLO = 19 kHz)
▪ Frequency doubler (Produces fc = 38 kHz)

▪ A pilot tone is added for demodulation

▪ Added at 19 kHz instead of 38 kHz
▪ The pilot is separated easier from the composite signal at the
receiver
▪ FM modulator
▪ The combined signal is used for FM
▪ Output does not exceed the allocated 200 kHz BW
▪ FM stereo demodulator is basically the same as a conventional FM demodulator down to the limiter/discriminator
▪ Received signal is converted to baseband

▪ FM discriminator

▪ Seperation
▪ LPF (0-15 kHz): Obtains ml(t)+mr(t)
▪ BPF (23-53 kHz)
▪ Narrowband tuned filter (19kHz): Extracts the pilot tone
▪ Frequency doubler (38 kHz)
▪ Synchronous demodulator: Obtains ml(t)-mr(t)

▪ Deemphasis
▪ Sum and difference of the two composite signals
▪ ml(t) and mr(t) are recovered

▪ Audio-band amplifier
▪ A conventional FM receiver sees only ml(t)+mr(t) in the 0-15 kHz range
▪ Produces a monophonic output signal that consists of the sum of ml(t) and mr(t)