T14: Methods and techniques that focus on development of the communicative competence.

Methodological
principles for teaching English as a foreign language

1. Intro
2. The communicative competence
2.1. Communicative language competence in the CEF and the USA
3. Concept of approach, method and technique
4. Historical overview and analysis of the principal methods and approaches in the foreign language
classroom (GT, Structuralist, Humanistic, TPR, CLT, Natural & New)
5. Approaches, methods and techniques that focus on the development of the communicative competence
5.1. Direct method
5.2. Communicative approach: communicative language teaching (CLT)
5.3. Natural approach
5.4. New approaches
6. Methodological principles for TEFL
7. Conclusion
8. References

1. Intro
Aim- TEFL RD 126/2014 acquisition 7 key competences- LOMCE, RD 126/2014 General Objective F, Order
15th January 2021 FLO’s- 5

This topic briefly reviews the history of foreign language teaching focusing on the new approaches developed
since the 1990s. Changes in FLT methods throughout history have reflected changes in theories of the nature of
language and of language learning. They have also reflected recognition of changes in the kind of proficiency
that learners need, such as a more towards oral proficiency rather than reading comprehension as the goal of
language study. They all recognize that the final goal of FLT is the development of communicative competence.

2. The Communicative Competence

The communicative approach adopted in PE for TEFL starts from the theory of language as communication.

Chomsky (65) believed that speakers have innate abilities that enable them to produce grammatically correct
sentences (language acquisition device). Hymes thought Chomsky’s view was limited and that language theory
must include communication and culture. Therefore, Hymes defined communicative competence as “what a
speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community.” Sauvignon (72)
believed that communicative competence is the ability to function in a truly communicative setting.

In other words, communicative competence refers to having both the knowledge of and the ability to use
language appropriately in relation to a context.

3.1 Communicative Language Competence in the CEFR and the USA

According to the CEFR, in order to carry out communicative intentions, learners must put into practice both
general and specific language-related communicative competence. Communicative competence in this
narrower sense is made up of the linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences.

The linguistic competence refers to the correct use of the language in terms of lexical, grammatical, semantic,
phonological, orthographic and ortoepic subcomptences. Sociolinguistic competence refers to the knowledge
and skills necessary to deal with the social dimension of language use, such as linguistic markers of social
relations, politeness conventions, expressions of folk-wisdom, register differences, dialect and accent.
Pragmatic competence is concerned with the users’ knowledge of how messages are organized and structured
(cohesion and coherence), and sequenced.

At the same time, language teaching in the USA is based on the idea that the goal of language acquisition is
the communicative competence: the ability to use language correctly and appropriately to accomplish
communication goals, not the ability to use language exactly as a native speaker does.

Later, other subcompetences have been integrated. Canale and Swain (1980) proposed the strategic
competence which refers to the verbal and non-verbal communication strategies used to compensate for
breakdowns in communication due to insufficient linguistic competence. The Spanish Educational syllabus
design for modern languages was heavily influenced by Canale and Swain’s model, and added the
sociocultural subcompetence. This refers to a users’ ability to assess the appropriateness of the language
selected in a given context, taking into account the culture, the age and sex of the speakers, their social class,
occupations as well as their roles and status in the interaction.

Therefore, in Primary Education teachers and students should keep in mind the goal of effective
communication: learners should be able to make themselves understood using their current proficiency
without offending others or creating confusion due to faulty linguistic skills or socially inappropriate styles.
Learners should also be able to use strategies to manage and overcome breakdowns in communication.

3. Concept of approach, method and technique

When describing FLT methods, it is necessary to differentiate between a philosophy of language teaching in
theory and the subsequent procedures for teaching a FL. According to Richards and Rogers, the beliefs about
language and language learning are specified in the approach, and the theory is organized into a method
design and carried out in the classroom by the procedures and techniques.

4. Historical overview and analysis of the principal methods and approaching in the foreign language
classroom

The history of language teaching refers to the history of the ideas about language and how it is learned
(Richards and Rodgers 86). The way foreign languages are taught has continuously evolved since the study of
Latin and Ancient Greek, up to the modern languages and English.

The oldest method for language teaching is the Grammar-Translation method, which applies the same
techniques that were used to study Latin and Greek grammar to modern languages. The goal of this method was
to be able to read and understand literary texts, not to communicate orally. Grammar and vocabulary were
given in decontextualized lists to be memorized and learners were expected to translate texts from L1-L2 and
L2-L1.

In the second half of the 19th century the Grammar method began to be criticized for a number of reasons.
Reformers set out to establish a new approach to teaching modern languages based on the principles that
spoken language is the goal and instruction should be in the target language. Additionally, translation should
be avoided. That led to the structuralist methods of the 1920 and 30s: British Situational Language Teaching
and American Audiolingualism which were both based on behavioral science. These methods claimed that
languages consist of systems of structurally related elements that could be learned through creating habits.
These methods relied heavily on memorization, drills, imitation and mimicry.

Total Physical Response is a language teaching method developed by J. Asher (66) and built around the
coordination of speech and action.

Humanistic methods were developed in the 1970s. They share a learner-centered approach and the
importance of a positive classroom atmosphere. Although less well-known, they deserve to be mentioned.
This includes Curran’s Community Language Learning (70s) which is based on a counseling approach and
focused on group-interest learning. In Gatteno’s Silent Way (60s), the teacher is as silent as possible and
learners are encouraged to produce as much language as possible. Suggestopedia, introduced by Losanov
(70s), is based on the idea that students can retain information by the power of suggestion in a relaxed
atmosphere, accompanied by music.

The Direct Method, the Natural Approach, Communicative language teaching,and other new approaches focus
on the development of the communicative competence and are explained in detail in the following section.

5. Approaches, methods and techniques that focus on the development of the communicative competence

As previously mentioned, there were criticisms of the GT and other methods which led to a reform movement
in the second half of the 19th century. Linguists and teachers came up with ways to improve the teaching and
learning of modern languages. This section takes a look at some of those methods which were focused on the
development of communicative competence.

5.1 The Direct Method

The DM was the most widely known of the natural methods introduced by Sauveur and based on active oral
interaction in the target language. It advocated for using the L2 as the language for instruction and prioritizing
spoken language in the classroom. This also meant Ss should hear the language before seeing it in writing.
Grammar is taught inductively through contextualized, meaningful situations. Translation and L1 use were
to be avoided (Richards and Rodgers 86).

The pros of this method mean that students are exposed to the spoken language in a more realistic and
meaningful context and errors can be corrected immediately. On the other hand, it overemphasized the
similarity of learning L1 to learning L2 and required native or native-like teachers.

5.2 The Communicative approach: Communicative language teaching (CLT)

The communicative approach aims to help students acquire the target language through social interaction and
communicative situations, similar to how children acquire their mother tongue. Previous methods were critized
for creating structurally competent but communicatively incompetent learners who could not actually
communicate outside of the classroom in social interactions (Chomsky and Vygotsky). So, to meet the
communicative needs of learners the Council of Europe instructed language experts to study and introduce a
new method. The “Threshold Level of the Council of Europe'' was written which led to the creation of the
new communicative approach with the goal of developing students’ communicative competence (Hymes 72).

With this new approach, the focus is put on meanings over forms and communication in context is a basic
premise. It moves away from the habit-forming exercises prominent in the Audiolingual Method and focuses on
interactive activities in which the language used is meaningful and the situations are real. (Johnson 82) This
means classroom materials and activities are meant to improve classroom interaction and the use of language
in a communicative way.

Johnson, Harmer and Littlewood agree that communicative activities should have a communicative
purpose, focus on content and meaning, and use a variety of language and authentic materials. These
activities can be more functional, such as information transfer activities, information gaps, communicative
language games which are motivating to students or based on social interaction such as role plays, pair and
group work and problem solving which allow students to be aware of different social contexts and make
students think.

The positive aspects of this approach is that the concept communicative is applied to all 4 language skills and
includes the learner’s knowledge and experiences of the mother tongue. It also recognizes that errors are a
natural part of the learning process. However, some believe there is too much emphasis on listening and
speaking and some non-native English teachers are not confident enough to work with this approach. It also
implies a selection of language through functions, much like structuralism did with structures.

5.3 The Natural Approach

The natural approach is a method of language teaching developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell in
the late 1970s and early 1980s. With this approach, language is seen as a means of communication and SLA
requires natural communication and meaningful interaction in the target language, not explicit grammar and
linguistic instruction.

According to Krashen, students learn when they are given comprehensible input, or language that is a slightly
more advanced level than their own (ZPD- Vygotsky).

The NA is based on 5 hypotheses of Krashen’s language acquisition theory, Monitor Model.

Acquisition/learning hypothesis states that there are 2 ways to develop language. Acquisition is a
subconscious process, like a child learning its own language, while learning is a conscious process of learning
language through language lessons.
The Natural order hypothesis states that language is acquired in a predictable order that cannot be
influenced by direct teaching of features that a learner is not ready to acquire.
Monitor Model hypòthesis states that learners can use what they have learned about language rules to
monitor or self-correct their language output. This is easier to do with written language than with speaking.
Input hypothesis says we only acquire language when we are exposed to comprehensible input (both written
and oral).
Affective filter hypothesis states that a number of affective variables, such as self-esteem, motivation and
anxiety play a role in SLA. If learners are anxious or have low motivation or self-confidence, they will be less
likely to acquire comprehensible input.

5.4 New Approaches

In the last decade there have been important innovations in theory, research and classroom experience which
are bringing changes to FLT and challenging the dominant model. There have been changes in how
language, teaching methodology and learners’ contributions are viewed in education. Currently, 2 major
paradigms exist. The propositional models are those previously described, which are product oriented and
based on formal, systematic features (structures, rules, functions). The new procedural models are in line
with a general shift in education to focus on the learning process, instead of the end result. New approaches
emphasize how language is to be learnt, and both the learners and the teachers are decision-makers who
negotiate objectives and contents. Therefore, methodologies must consider more than just the objectives and
contents, taking into account implementation and techniques and use social interaction as the basis for
language learning. Following are just a sample of some new approaches that can be used in our classrooms.

Task-based learning focuses on the use of authentic language to complete a meaningful task in the target
language (Nunan). Tasks can include visiting a doctor, calling customer service, making a reservation at a
restaurant, etc. The focus of the tasks is on meaning rather than form and assessment is primarily based on task
outcome (the appropriate completion of real-world tasks) rather than on accuracy of prescribed language forms.

CLIL is a term coined by David Marsh in 1994 which stands for Content and Language Integrated Learning.
This means studying another subject (for example, science, history, or literature) and learning a language, such
as English, at the same time - integrating the two subjects. According to the 4Cs curriculum (Coyle 2010), a
successful CLIL lesson should combine content, communication, cognition and culture. In CLIL lessons, the
4 language skills can be integrated in a way so listening and reading are used for input activities, speaking
focuses on fluency and writing is used to recycle grammar. Tasks must be subject-oriented so that both
content and language are recycled. A range of activities can be used, but since the content of the subject is the
aim, it may be necessary to use more linguistic support from the teacher than a typical FL class.

Flipped classroom is a method that brings significant changes to the educational process including the
organization of place and time of learning, the roles of teachers and learners and the educational goals. First
introduced in 2007 by Strayer, it is a type of blended learning where students work on self-study materials of
the content at home, freeing up class time for more effective, creative and active learning activities. With this
kind of discovery-based learning, there is increased interaction between teachers and students, students take
responsibility for their own learning, and allows the classroom to be a place where all students are engaged in
their learning and can get personalized attention and resolve doubts quickly..

However, it cannot be considered synonymous with online videos or replacing teachers with videos. Students
should also not work in isolation without structure just staring at a computer screen.
Challenge Based Learning provides an effective framework for learning while solving real-world challenges.
It is a hands-on model which asks all participants (Ss, Ts, Ps & community) to identify big ideas, ask good
questions, solve challenges and gain in-depth subject area knowledge to develop 21st century skills and share
their thoughts with the world. It emerged in 2008 from the Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow-Today project in
a bid to come up with a new teaching and learning environment that met the needs of the 21st century. It
focuses on global issues and appropriate solutions and creates an environment in which learners are
encouraged to think creatively, try new ideas, experiment, fail, get feedback and try again. Students first
engage with the problem by formulating questions about the problem, then investigate the methods and tools
they need to develop a solution. In the final stage students take action and implement and evaluate their plan of
action.

Blended Learning is an innovative concept that embraces the advantage of both traditional teaching and
ICT supported learning both off and online. It needs a lot of effort and a generous budget as well as highly
motivated teachers and students to be successful. This method allows students to have both face to face and
virtual interactions with other students following the same course. It is a learner-centered approach which
offers students training in different life-skills and experience with new and modern technologies needed for the
21st century. Due to the health crisis since March 2020, most students have likely been involved in some form
of blended or hybrid learning at some point.

6. Methodological principles for teaching English as a foreign language

If we take into consideration the Methodological orientations for Foreign Languages (Order 15th of
January, 2021), we can assume a set of principles for TEFL that are coherent with the goals proposed within
the curriculum.

Language is fundamentally an instrument of communication for social interaction, not simply a system of
grammar rules, structures and words. The final goal of FL teaching is to develop students’ communicative
competence through learner-centered teaching in which communicative situations and tasks satisfy their
interests and needs and are related to their personal experiences, thus giving way to meaningful learning.
We must build on students’ previous knowledge by using scaffolding so students may internalize the new
knowledge of the target language. Listening plays an essential role in the first stage as it provides
comprehensible input, together with reading. Pairwork and group work help to encourage social interaction
and cooperative learning. Any syllabus should foster the integration of English with other subject areas in a
cross-curricular design to contribute to a more comprehensive, interdisciplinary approach to learning.

7. Conclusion

Methodology is something that is open and flexible

The development of the communicative competence
Pros and cons of methods and techniques (general view)
CEFR guidelines

8. References
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assessment. Council of Europe Publishing: Strasbourg
Council of Europe. (2020): Companion Volume to the CEFR. Council of Europe Publishing: Strasbourg
Halliday, J. (1982): Spoken and Written English. Oxford: OUP
Halliwell, MAK. (1989): The Primary English Teacher. Longman: London
Harmer, J. (2012): Essential Teacher Knowledge. Pearson: London
Krashen, S. (1981): Second language learning and second language acquisition. Oxford: OUP
Krashen, S. (1982): Principles and Practices in SLA. Oxford: OUP
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McLaren, D. and Madrid, N. (2004): TEFL in Primary Education. Granada: Editorial Universidad de Granada
Ortega, J.L. y Madrid, D. (2006): Teorías curriculares y práctica docente en el aula de inglés.
Granada: Grupo Editorial Universitario
Richards, J.C. and T.S. Rodgers. (2002): Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Cambridge: CUP
Stern, HH. (1989): Fundamentals of Teaching English. Oxford: OUP
Willis, J. (1981): Teaching English through English. London: Longman
Widdowson, H.G., 1978. Teaching Language as Communication. Oxford: OUP