Loads and Load Effects

Part-I
Wind loading

Wind Loading on Structures 1

 Loads on Structures

▪ Classification of loads
➢ Area of application: Concentrated, Distributed (UDL)

➢ Direction: Vertical (Gravity), Horizontal (Lateral)

➢ Response: Static, Dynamic

➢ Variation with time: Permanent (Dead), Variable

(Live)

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Loads on Structures

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Wind Load

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Wind Load

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 What Create Wind?
• As the sun shines on the earth -> different parts of the land and sea
heat at different speeds.

High and low pressure areas

Lift and fall of air passes across

the whole Globe

• Wind is air in motion.

• Structure deflects or stops the wind, converting the wind’s Kinetic
energy in to potential energy of pressure – Thus creates wind loads.

• The intensity of wind pressure depends on;

• Shape of the structure
• Velocity of air
• Density of air
• Stiffness of structure
• Angle of the induced wind

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 Wind Velocity Vs Height

• Wind velocity increases with the power of the structural height

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Air Flow

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Air Flow

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 Modeling of Wind Actions
• Wind actions fluctuate with time and act directly as pressures on the
external surfaces of enclosed structures.

• Is represented by a simplified set of pressures or forces whose

effects are equivalent to the extreme effects of the turbulent wind.

• Wind forces are variable loads which act directly on the internal and
external surfaces of structures.

• Intensity of wind → related to the wind velocity and geometry of

the structure resisting the wind.

• Wind velocity is dependent on geographical location, the height of

the structure, the topography of the area and the roughness of the
surrounding terrain.

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 Modeling of Wind Actions
• Response of a structure to the variable action of wind

• Background component – involves static deflection

• Resonant component – involves dynamic vibration

• In most structures the resonant component is relatively small and

structural response to wind forces is treated using static methods of
analysis.

• For tall and flexible structures the resonant component of wind

should be calculated using dynamic methods of analysis.

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Modeling of Wind Actions

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Modeling of Wind Actions

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Modeling of Wind Actions

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Modeling of Wind Actions

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 Reference wind Velocity
• The reference wind velocity for a locality is defined as the mean
wind velocity at 10m above farmland averaged over a period of
10min with a return period of 50 years.

vref = C DIR CTEM C ALT vref ,o

Vref,o – is the basic reference wind velocity 10m above sea level
CDIR – directional factor and allows for the orientation of the structure in relation
to the direction of the prevailing wind.
CTEM – Seasonal variation factor – may be applied to structures of a temporary
nature which are exposed to wind for only part of a given year.
CALT – Altitude factor – allows for the altitude of the site on which the structure is
located.

Wind speeds tend to be greater in sites located at high altitudes

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Modeling of Wind Actions

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Modeling of Wind Actions

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 Exposure coefficient
• Wind velocity tends to decrease near ground level – frictional forces
if the terrain is rugged the decrease in velocity can be substantial.

• The exposure coefficient takes account of the variation from the

reference wind velocity due to
• ground roughness around the structure
• The local topography
• Height of the structure above ground level

The exposure coefficient at height z meters is given by: (EC1)

 7kr 
Ce (z) = C (z)C (z) 1
2
r t
2
+ 
 C r (z)C t (z) 

Ct and Cr are topography and roughness coefficients and kr is terrain factor.

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Exposure coefficient

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 Exposure coefficient
• The terrain factor is a function of the nature of the terrain:

• The topography coefficient, Ct, accounts for the increase in mean wind speed over
isolated hills and escarpments.

• The roughness coefficient, Cr(z), accounts for the variability of mean wind speed due
to the height of the structure above ground level and the roughness of the terrain.

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Exposure coefficient

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 Exposure coefficient

Cr (z) = k r ln(z / zo ) for z  zmin

Cr (z) = Cr (zmin ) for z  zmin

Zo – is the roughness length and

Zmin - is the minimum height
-> Both are dependent on the ground roughness

0.07
 zo

kr = 0.19 

 zo,II 
External Wind pressure
The wind pressure acting on the external surface of a structure is a function of the
reference wind pressure:
qref = 1/ 2 Vref2 [N / m 2 ]

- Air density in (kg/m3) and Vref is the reference wind velocity (m/s)
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Exposure coefficient

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Exposure coefficient

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Exposure coefficient

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Exposure coefficient

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Exposure coefficient

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Exposure coefficient

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 External wind pressure

The density of air varies with temperature, elevation and expected atmospheric
pressure in the region during a storm.

In order to determine the contact pressure on the outside of a structure, the

reference wind pressure must be multiplied by an external pressure coefficient, Cpe
and the exposure coefficient.

we = Ce(ze )C peqref

Ce(z) the exposure coefficient evaluated at reference height, ze

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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 External Pressure Coefficient

Windward & Leeward

• Windward is the direction from which the wind is blowing .
• Leeward is the direction downwind from the point of reference.

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 Reference height
• Reference heights for the calculation of the external pressure
coefficients depend on the breadth to height ratio of the structure.

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Reference height

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 External Pressure Coefficient
• It accounts for the variation in dynamic pressure in different zones of
the structure due to
• Its geometry
• Area and
• proximity to other structures

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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External Pressure Coefficient

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 External wind pressure

The density of air varies with temperature, elevation and expected atmospheric
pressure in the region during a storm.

In order to determine the contact pressure on the outside of a structure, the

reference wind pressure must be multiplied by an external pressure coefficient, Cpe
and the exposure coefficient.

we = Ce(ze )C peqref

Ce(z) the exposure coefficient evaluated at reference height, ze

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 Internal wind pressure
• Internal pressure arises due to openings, such as windows, doors
and vents, in the cladding.
– Openings on Windward panel > Openings on leeward panel
• Interior of the structure is subjected to positive (outward) pressure
– Openings on Windward panel < Openings on leeward panel
• Interior of the structure is subjected to negative (inward) pressure

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 Internal wind pressure
• Like external pressure, internal pressure is considered positive
when acting on to the surface of the structure

wi = ce (zi )c piqref

– Zi is the reference height for internal pressure equal to the mean height of the
opening
– Cpi is the internal pressure coefficient.

• The values of Cpi depends on the distribution of openings around the

building. The values recommended by EC1 are given in fig. below
for a building without internal partitions.

• For buildings with internal partitions the extreme values, Cpi = 0.8
and Cpi = -0.5 may be used.
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 Internal wind pressure

Internal pressure coefficients, cpi, in buildings with openings

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Internal wind pressure

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 Wind forces on structures
• The total wind force acting on individual zones of clad structures is
proportional to the difference in pressure between the external and
internal faces.

Fw = (we − wi ) Aref

Aref – is the reference area (projected area of the zone normal to the wind direction

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Wind forces on structures

Thank You

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