Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Instrumentation and Control
Subject Code: ME-402
Semester: 4th
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UNIT-3

Temperature measurement Temperature is one of the most measured physical parameters

in science and technology; typically for process thermal monitoring and control. There are
many ways to measure temperature, using various principles. Four of the most common
are:

1. Mechanical (liquid-in-glass thermometers, bimetallic strips, etc.)

2. Thermojunctive (thermocouples)
3. Thermoresistive (RTDs and thermistors)
4. Radiative (infrared and optical pyrometers)

Mechanical Temperature Measuring Devices: A change in temperature causes some kind of

mechanical motion, typically due to the fact that most materials expand with a rise in
temperature. Mechanical thermometers can be constructed that use liquids, solids, or even
gases as the temperature-sensitive material. The mechanical motion is read on a physical
scale to infer the temperature.

Bimetallic strip thermometer:

 Two dissimilar metals are bonded together into what is called a bimetallic strip, as
sketched to the right.
 Suppose metal A has a smaller coefficient of thermal expansion than does metal B.
As temperature increases, metal B expands more than does metal A, causing the bimetallic
strip to curl upwards as sketched.
 One common application of bimetallic strips is in home thermostats, where a
bimetallic strip is used as the arm of a switch between electrical contacts. As the room
temperature changes, the bimetallic strip bends as discussed above. When the bimetallic
strip bends far enough, it makes contact with electrical leads that turn the heat or air
conditioning on or off.
 Another application is in circuit breakers High temperature indicates over-current,
which shuts off the circuit.
 Another common application is for use as oven, wood burner, or gas grill
thermometers. These thermometers consist of a bimetallic strip wound up in a spiral,
attached to a dial that is calibrated into a temperature scale.

Figure.1 Bimetallic Strip

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Pressure thermometer

 A pressure thermometer, while still considered mechanical, operates by the

expansion of a gas instead of a liquid or solid. There are also pressure thermometers that
use a liquid instead of a gas
 Suppose the gas inside the bulb and tube can be considered an ideal gas. The ideal
gas law is PV = mRT, where P is the pressure, V is the volume of the gas, m is the mass of
the gas, R is the gas constant for the specific gas (not the universal gas constant), and T is
the absolute temperature of the gas.
 Specific gas constant R is a constant. The bulb and
tube are of constant volume, so V is a constant. Also, the
mass m of gas in the sealed bulb and tube must be
constant (conservation of mass).
 A pressure thermometer therefore measures
temperature indirectly by measuring pressure.
 The gage is a pressure gage, but is typically
calibrated in units of temperature instead.
 A common application of this type of thermometer
is measurement of outside temperature from the inside of a
building. The bulb is placed outside, with the tube running
through the wall into the inside.
 The gauge is on the inside. As T increases outside, the bulb temperature causes a
corresponding increase in pressure, which is read as a temperature increase on the gauge.
Thermocouples (Thermo-junctive temperature measuring devices)

Thomas Johan Seeback discovered in 1821 that thermal energy can produce electric
current. When two conductors made from dissimilar metals are connected forming two
common junctions and the two junctions are exposed to two different temperatures, a net
thermal emf is produced, the actual value being dependent on the materials used and the
temperature difference between hot and cold junctions. The thermoelectric emf generated,
in fact is due to the combination of two effects: Peltier effect and Thomson effect. A typical
thermocouple junction is shown in fig. 5. The emf generated can be approximately
expressed by the relationship:

Where, T1 and T2 are hot and cold junction

temperatures in K. C1 and C2 are constants
depending upon the materials. For Copper/
Constantan thermocouple, C1=62.1 and
C2=0.045.

Figure.2 Thermocouple

Thermocouples are extensively used for measurement of temperature in industrial

situations. The major reasons behind their popularity are:

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(i) They are rugged and readings are consistent

(ii) They can measure over a wide range of temperature
(iii) Their characteristics are almost linear with an accuracy of about 0.05%. However,
the major shortcoming of thermocouples is low sensitivity compared to other temperature
measuring devices (e.g. RTD, Thermistor).
Thermocouple Materials

Theoretically, any pair of dissimilar materials can be used as a thermocouple. But in

practice, only few materials have found applications for temperature measurement. The
choice of materials is influenced by several factors, namely, sensitivity, stability in
calibration, inertness in the operating atmosphere and reproducibility (i.e. the
thermocouple can be replaced by a similar one without any recalibration). Table-I shows
the common types of thermocouples, their types, composition, range, sensitivity etc. The
upper range of the thermocouple is normally dependent on the atmosphere where it has
been put. For example, the upper range of Chromel/ Alumel thermocouple can be increased
in oxidizing atmosphere, while the upper range of Iron/ Constantan thermocouple can be
increased in reducing atmosphere.

Laws of Thermocouple

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The Peltier and Thompson effects explain the basic principles of thermoelectric emf
generation. But they are not sufficient for providing a suitable measuring technique at
actual measuring situations. For this purpose, we have three laws of thermoelectric circuits
that provide us useful practical tips for measurement of temperature. These laws are
known as law of homogeneous circuit, law of intermediate metals and law of intermediate
temperatures. These laws can be explained using figure

The first law can be explained using figure

(a) It says that the net thermo-emf generated is dependent on the materials and
the temperatures of two junctions only, not on any intermediate temperature. According to
the second law, if a third material is introduced at any point (thus forming two additional
junctions)

It will not have any effect, if these two additional junctions remain at the same
temperatures (figure b). This law makes it possible to insert a measuring device without
altering the thermo-emf.

The third law is related to the calibration of the thermocouple. It says, if a thermocouple
produces emf e1, when its junctions are at T1 and T2, and e2 when its junctions are at T2 and
T3; then it will generate emf e1+e2 when the junction temperatures are at T1 and T3 (figure
c).

The third law is particularly important from the point of view of reference junction
compensation. The calibration chart of a thermocouple is prepared taking the cold or
refere e ju tio te perature as 0◦C. But in actual measuring situation, seldom the
reference junction temperature is kept at that temperature, it is normally kept at ambient
temperature. The third law helps us to compute the actual temperature using the
calibration chart.

Thermo resistive temperature measuring devices

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Principle of operation

o A change in temperature causes the electrical resistance of a material to

change.
o The resistance change is measured to infer the temperature change.
o There are two types of thermo resistive measuring devices: resistance
temperature detectors and thermistors, both of which are described here.
o
Resistance temperature detectors: A resistance temperature detector (abbreviated RTD) is
basically either a long, small diameter metal wire (usually platinum) wound in a coil or an
etched grid on a substrate, much like a strain gauge.

Figure.3 RTD

The resistance of an RTD increases with increasing temperature, just as the resistance of a
strain gage increases with increasing strain. The resistance of the most common RTD is 100
Ω at 0ºC.

If the temperature changes are large, or if precision is not critical, the RTD resistance can be
measured directly to obtain the temperature. If the temperature changes are small, and/or
high precision is needed, an electrical circuit is built to measure a change in resistance of
the RTD, which is then used to calculate a change in temperature. One simple circuit is the
quarter bridge Wheatstone bridge circuit, here called a two-wire RTD bridge circuit

Rlead represents the resistance of one of the wires (called lead wires) that run from the
bridge to the RTD itself. Lead resistance is of little concern in strain gage circuits because

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Rlead remains constant at all times, and we can simply adjust one of the other resistors to
zero the bridge.

For RTD circuits, however, some portions of the lead wires are exposed to changing
temperatures. Since the resistance of metal wire changes with temperature, R lead changes
with T and this can cause errors in the measurement. This error can be non-trivial changes
in lead resistance may be misinterpreted as changes in RTD resistance, and therefore give a
false temperature measurement.

Thermistors

A thermistor is similar to an RTD, but a semiconductor material is used instead of a metal. A

thermistor is a solid state device. Resistance thermometry may be performed using
ther istors. Ther istors are a y ti es ore se sitive tha RTD’s a d he e are useful
over limited ranges of temperature. They are small pieces of ceramic material made by
sintering mixtures of metallic oxides of Manganese, Nickel, Cobalt, Copper and Iron etc.

Resistance of a thermistor decreases non-linearly with temperature. Thermistors are

extremely sensitive but over a narrow range of temperatures. A thermistor has larger
sensitivity than does an RTD, but the resistance change with temperature is nonlinear, and
therefore temperature must be calibrated with respect to resistance. Unlike RTDs, the
resistance of a thermistor decreases with increasing temperature. The upper temperature
limit of thermistors is typically lower than that of RTD. However, thermistors have greater
sensitivity and are typically more accurate than RTDs or thermocouples. A simple voltage
divider, where Vs is the supply voltage and Rs is a fixed (supply) resistor. Rs and Vs can be
adjusted to obtain a desired range of output voltage Vout for a given range of temperature.
If the proper value of Rs is used, the output voltage is nearly (but not exactly) linear with
temperature. Some thermistors have 3 or 4 lead wires for convenience in wiring – two
wires are connected to one side and two to the other side of the thermistor (labeled 1, 2
and 3, 4 above).

Pressure Measurement

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Pressure Head: Pressure in fluids may arise from many sources, for example pumps, gravity,
momentum etc. Since p = ρ gh , a height of liquid column can be associated with the
pressure p arising from such sources. This height, h, is known as the pressure head.

Manometers: A manometer (or liquid gauge) is a pressure measurement device which uses
the relationship between pressure and head to give readings. In the following, we wish to
measure the pressure of a fluid in a pipe.

Piezometer: This is the simplest gauge. A small vertical tube is connected to the pipe and its
top is left open to the atmosphere, as shown.

Figure.4 Piezometer

The pressure at A is equal to the pressure due to the column of liquid of height h1 :

pA = ρ gh1

Similarly, pB = ρ gh2

The problem with this type of gauge is that for usual civil engineering applications the
pressure is large (e.g. 100 kN/m2) and so the height of the column is impractical (e.g.10 m).
Also, obviously, such a gauge is useless for measuring gas pressures.

U-tube Manometer: To overcome the problems with the piezometer, the U-tube
manometer seals the fluid by using a measuring (manometric) liquid:

Figure.5 U-Tube Manometer

Choosing the line BC as the interface between the measuring liquid and the fluid, we know:

Pressure at B, pB = Pressure at C, pC
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For the left-hand side of the U-tube:

pB = p A + ρ gh1

For the right hand side:

pC = ρman gh2

Where we have ignored atmospheric pressure and are thus dealing with gauge pressures.
Thus: p B = pC

pA + ρ gh1 = ρman gh2

And so:

pA = ρman gh2 − ρ gh1

Notice that we have used the fact that in any continuous fluid, the pressure is the
same at any horizontal level.

Differential Manometer: To measure the pressure difference between two points we use a
u-tube as shown:

Figure.6 Differential Manometer

Using the same approach as before:

Pressure at C, pC = Pressure at D, pD

pA + ρ ga = p B + ρ g (b − h ) + ρman gh

Hence the pressure difference is:

p A − p B = ρ g (b − a ) + hg ( ρ man − ρ )

Flow measurements: The flow rate of a fluid flowing in a pipe under pressure is measured
for a variety of applications, such as monitoring of pipe flow rate and control of industrial
processes. Differential pressure flow meters, consisting of orifice, flow nozzle, and venturi
meters, are widely used for pipe flow measurement and are the topic of this course. All

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three of these meters use a constriction in the path of the pipe flow and measure the
difference in pressure between the undisturbed flow and the flow through the constriction.
That pressure difference can then be used to calculate the flow rate. Flow meter is a device
that measures the rate of flow or quantity of a moving fluid in an open or closed conduit.
Flow measuring devices are generally classified into four groups. They are

1. Mechanical type flow meters: Fixed restriction variable head type flow meters using
different sensors like orifice plate, venturi tube, flow nozzle, pitot tube, dall tube, quantity
meters like positive displacement meters, mass flow meters etc. fall under mechanical type
flow meters.

2. Inferential type flow meters: Variable area flow meters (Rotameters), turbine flow
meter, target flow meters etc.

3. Electrical type flow meters: Electromagnetic flow meter, Ultrasonic flow meter, Laser
doppler Anemometers etc. fall under electrical type flow meter.

4. Other flow meters: Purge flow regulators, Flow meters for Solids flow measurement,
Cross-correlation flow meter, Vortex shedding flow meters, flow switches etc.

Orifice Flow Meter: An Orifice flow meter is the most common head type flow measuring
device. An orifice plate is inserted in the pipeline and the differential pressure across it is
measured.

Principle of Operation: The orifice plate inserted in the pipeline causes an increase in flow
velocity and a corresponding decrease in pressure. The flow pattern shows an effective
decrease in cross section beyond the orifice plate, with a maximum velocity and minimum
pressure at the vena contracta.

Figure.7 Orifice Meter

The flow pattern and the sharp leading edge of the orifice plate which produces it are of
major importance. The sharp edge results in an almost pure line contact between the plate
and the effective flow, with the negligible fluid-to-metal friction drag at the boundary.

Types of Orifice Plates The simplest form of orifice plate consists of a thin metal sheet,
having in it a square edged or a sharp edged or round edged circular hole. There are three
types of orifice plates namely

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1. Concentric
2. Eccentric and
3. Segmental type.

Figure.8 Types of Orifice Plates

The concentric type is used for clean fluids. In metering dirty fluids, slurries and fluids
containing solids, eccentric or segmental type is used in such a way that its lower edge
coincides with the inside bottom of the pipe. This allows the solids to flow through without
any obstruction. The orifice plate is inserted into the main pipeline between adjacent
flanges, the outside diameters of the plate being turned to fit within the flange bolts. The
flanges are either screwed or welded to the pipes.

Applications

 The concentric orifice plate is used to measure flow rates of pure fluids and has a wide
applicability as it has been standardized
 The eccentric and segmental orifice plates are used to measure flow rates of fluids
containing suspended materials such as solids, oil mixed with water and wet steam.
Advantages

 It is very cheap and easy method to measure flow rate

 It has predictable characteristics and occupies less space
 Can be used to measure flow rates in large pipes
Limitations

 The vena-contracta length depends on the roughness of the inner wall of the pipe and
sharpness of the orifice plate. In certain case it becomes difficult to tap the minimum
pressure due the above factor
 Pressure recovery at downstream is poor, that is, overall loss varies from 40 to 90% of
the differential pressure.
 In the upstream straightening vanes are a must to obtain laminar flow conditions.
 The orifice plate gets corroded and due to this after sometime, inaccuracy occurs. The
coefficient of discharge is low.
Venturi Meter: Ve turi tu es are differe tial pressure produ ers, ased o Ber oulli’s
Theorem. General performance and calculations are similar to those for orifice plates. In
these devices, there is a continuous contact between the fluid flow and the surface of the
primary device.

It consists of a cylindrical inlet section equal to the pipe diameter, a converging conical
section in which the cross sectional area decreases causing the velocity to increase with a
corresponding increase in the velocity head and a decrease in the pressure head; a

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cylindrical throat section where the velocity is constant so that the decreased pressure
head can be measured and a diverging recovery cone where the velocity decreases and
almost all of the original pressure head is recovered. The unrecovered pressure head is
commonly called as head loss.

Figure.9 Long form Venturi

Limitations: This flow meter is limited to use on clean, non-corrosive liquids and gases,
because it is impossible to clean out or flush out the pressure taps if they clog up with dirt or
debris.

Rotameter: The orificemeter, Venturimeter and flow nozzle work on the principle of
constant area variable pressure drop. Here the area of obstruction is constant, and the
pressure drop changes with flow rate. On the other hand Rotameter works as a constant
pressure drop variable area meter. It can be only be used in a vertical pipeline. Its accuracy is
also less (2%) compared to other types of flow meters. But the major advantages of rotameter
are, it is simple in construction, ready to install and the flow rate can be directly seen on a
calibrated scale, without the help of any other device, e.g. differential pressure sensor etc.
Moreover, it is useful for a wide range of variation of flow rates (10:1).

The basic construction of a rotameter is shown in figure. It consists of a vertical pipe, tapered
downward. The flow passes from the bottom to the top. There is cylindrical type metallic
float inside the tube. The fluid flows upward through the gap between the tube and the float.
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As the float moves up or down there is a change in the gap, as a result changing the area of
the orifice. In fact, the float settles down at a position, where the pressure drop across the
orifice will create an upward thrust that will balance the downward force due to the gravity.
The position of the float is calibrated with the flow rate.

Figure.10 Rotameter Figure.11 Force acting on float

γ1= Specific weight of the float

γ2= specific weight of the fluid

ν= volume of the float

Af= Area of the float.

At= Area of the tube at equilibrium (corresponding to the dotted line)

Fd = Downward thrust on the float

Fu = Upward thrust on the float

The major source of error in rotameter is due to the variation of

density of the fluid. Besides, the presence of viscous force may also provide
an additional force to the float.

Applications:

 Can be used to measure flow rates of corrosive fluids

 Particularly useful to measure low flow rates


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Advantages:

 Flow conditions are visible

 Flow rate is a linear function(uniform flow scales)
 Can be used to measure flow rates of liquids, gases and vapour
 By changing the float, tapered tube or both, the capacity of the rotameter can
be changed.

Limitations:

 They should be installed vertically

 They cannot be used for measurements in moving objects
 The float will not be visible when coloured fluids are used, that is, when
opaque fluid is used.
 For high pressure and temperature fluid flow measurements, they are
expensive
 They cannot be used for fluids containing high percentage of solids in
suspension.

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