Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
2.1 GROUTING
Definition: Grouting is defined as the injection of fluidized material into voids of the Ground
or spaces between ground and adjacent structures, generally through bore holes and under
pressure. The grouts arc designed to set either instantly or over a period.
2.2 OBJECTIVES OF GROUTING:
• To stabilise buried zones of limited extent, such as previous stratum below a dam.
• To improve the soil that cannot be disturbed, i.e., an area closes to an existing
structure.
• To level a structure or strengthen foundation.
• To produce a stronger, denser and / or less permeable soil or rock.
• To construct underground passages, tunnels etc.
• To facilitate uniform stress transfer by filling the inaccessible voids.
• To repair masonry walls and to fill cracks in load bearing structures.
• To fill the gap formed below cement concrete pavements and the soil sub grades due
to mud pumping.
• To seal off water flow in rock fissures, joints etc.
• To density in-situ deposits of loose sand.
2.3 GROUT MATERIALS
According to Composition, three basic types of grouts are differentiated as given below.
2.3.1. Suspension Grouts
These are the Grouts in which small particles of solids are distributed in a liquid dispersion
medium.
Eg: Cement and Clay Grouts.
2.3.2 Emulsion Grouts
Emulsion Grout is a two-phase system containing minute droplets of liquid in a disperse
phase.
Eg: Bituminous Grouts, Foam grouts.
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Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
2.3.3 Solution Grouts
These are the liquid homogeneous molecular mixtures of two or more substances used for
grouting.
Eg : Sodium Silicate, Organic and acrylic Resins.
2.4 SUSPENSION GROUTS
2.4.1 Cement grouts
Cement grout consists of mixture of cement and water. It is effective for stabilization of rocks
with fissures, Gravels and Coarse sands. The water cement ratios may vary from 0.5:1 to
5:1 depending on ground conditions and required strength. The lower water cement ratios
involve lesser segregation and filtration, but require higher injection pressures and lead to
more friction losses in pumping system. The setting time for cement grouts is about 4 -24
hours depending upon the additive added. The stability of cement grout can be increased by
adding bentonite (to control bleeding). Micro fine cement has become an alternative for more
toxic chemical grouts and is in use for underground strength improvement and in
combination with sodium silicate for underground water control. Cement is not classified as
a chemical grout, but as a suspension grout. The strength of cement grout in sands and
gravels after complete setting is about 1 Mpa.
2.4.2 Clay grouts
Clay grout consists of a mixture of Bentonite clay and water. Bentonite clay gets dispersed in
water as it absorbs water on its surface because of high specific surface of its individual
particles. The clay grout is suitable for stabilising gravels and sandy soils. Sometimes Cement
and other chemicals such as Sodium silicate are added to improve strength. The strength of
sands stabilised with clay grouts is about 0.3 Mpa.
Groutability of grout material through voids of soil is measured by a parameter called
Groutability Ratio (Kravetz, 1958). It is defined as the ratio of D15 size of formation to D85
size of grout material. For suspension grouts, Grotability Ratio (GR) should be more than 20.
D15 ( Formation)
GR =
D85 (Grout )
2.5 EMULSION GROUTS
Bitumen grouts: Bitumen’s are used to stabilize sandy and silty soils. The bituminous;
grouting; of granular soils results in Binding of the individual soil particles, makes the soils
impervious and improves the strength. The strength of soils stabilized with bitumen grouts is
about 0.8 Mpa. The setting time of the grouts depends on the emulsifier used.
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 2
Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
Foam Grouts: Foams also come under the category of emulsion grouts, which are created by
emulsifying a gas into the grout material, which could be cement or an organic chemical.
These are used to fill the cavities and to control high water flows.
Eg: Organic foams, cement foam grout etc.
Camberfort characterised the foam grouts with the following characteristics.
1. Expansion Coefficient (eg): It is defined as the ratio of volume of gas emulsified to
the volume of the liquid.
2. Bulking Coefficient (eb): It is defined as the ratio of total volume of Foam grout
to the volume of the liquid.
3. Air Ratio (g) : It is defined as the volume of the gas emulsified to the
total volume.
Relationship between eg and g is analogous to that of the void ratio and porosity of a soil
mass. The rheological properties and ground penetrability of foams are not only related to the
expansion coefficient, but also on t4e bubble size distribution. However, the later can be
controlled somewhat by the choice of foari1ing agent and by the method of bubble formation.
2.6 SOLUTION GROUTS
Solution grouts are also known as chemical grouts. The solutions can be categorized as
colloidal solutions (silica or lignochrome gels) and pure solutions. (Phenolic and acrylic
resins, Aminoplasts). Solution grouts permeate easily through finer soils in comparison to
suspension grouts due to absence of particulate material. Solution grouts are grouting using
"one Shot System" OR "Two Shot System". In One Shot System, the chemicals are injected
into ground after premixing whereas Two Shot System involves injection of first chemical
followed by second chemical to produce gel which subsequently hardens.
PROPERTIES OF SOME SOLUTION GROUTS
SOLUTION INITIAL GEL TIME STRENGTH OF RISK &
GROUT VISCOSITY (MINUTES) GROUT IN SAND TOXICTY
(x10-3 Pa.s) (Mpa)
1. Sodium silicate 1.5 - 4.0 1- 200 0.7-3.0 ----
2. Lignochromes 2.5-20 5- 120 1.0- 1.75 Dematitis risk
3. phenolic resin 1.5-10 5-60 1.0-3.0 respiratory irritant
4. Acrylic resin 1.3- 0 1- 120 1.0-3.0 Neurotoxic
5. Aminoplast 6.0-30 40-300 1.0-3.5 Respiratory irritant
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 3
Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
6. Polyurethene 19-150 Reacts 0.8 -1.0 evolves toxic gases
instantly with when burned
Water. (Banned in mines)
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 4
Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
The solution grouts offer the advantages such as, absence of particulate material, low
viscosity and controllable setting time. However with chemical grouts, permanency and
toxicity should be given consideration.
Permanency: It refers to the resistance against mechanical deterioration due to freeze-thaw
or wetting and drying cycles and chemical degradation by reactions with the ground water or
soil constituents. Permanency may be also affected by hydraulic displacement or erosion by
seepage through residu.al void space left after inadequate grouting or shrinking and
consolidation of the grout itself.
Toxicity: It refers to the health hazards in handling the grout and its effects on the quality of
the ground water it is in contact.
2.7 RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF GROUT MATERIALS
Basic characteristics of grouts are Stability, Setting time, viscosity, density, particle size
distribution (of suspensions) and ultimate strength of groutable soils. Of all these viscosity,
setting time and stability are significant.
2.7.1 Stability
A grout is said to be stable if its particles remain in suspension of solution until it has reached
the destination in the ground. If bleeding occurs as soon as the grout is no longer agitated by
the mixer, it is referred as unstable. The settling out of solid particles from a suspension while
the liquid component travels further into soil is referred as filtration. The bleeding/filtration
results in part of voids containing water, rather than grout.
Laboratory determination of stability of suspension grouts:
The stability of a suspension grout can be assessed from a simple laboratory test, where grout
is thoroughly mixed in a graduated cylindrical jar and left standing. The bleeding value can
be determined as the ratio of column of sediment free water found after the particles have
settled to the original sample height, expressed as a percentage. The grouts with high
bleeding values are referred as unstable (Eg: cement grouts ). The stability of the cement
grouts can be increased by adding bentonite to them.
2.7.2 Setting time
It is the time required for grout to harden. Cement based grouts have setting period ranging
from 4 to 24 hours. Chemical grouts set very rapidly, possibly within minutes. Setting time is
determined using Vicat's Apparatus.
2.7.3 Viscosity
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 5
Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
At a construction site, the viscosity of grout can be obtained by measuring the time required
for a certain amount of fluid to flow through a standardized funnel. Most popular one is
Marsh cone. The time recorded is for outflow of 1000 ml. The viscosity of evolutive grouts
like silica gels increases gradually until they set. Acrylic and other non-evolutive resins show
constant viscosity until they set instantaneously.
2.8 REQUIREMENTS OF IDEAL GROUT
An ideal grout should have
• low viscosity
• controllable setting time
• high strength once it is set in ground
• non-toxicity
• permanency
• Low cost.
2.9 MODES OF GROUTING
• Permeation or Penetration- Grout flows into soil voids freely with minimal effect.
• Compaction or Controlled displacement- Grout remains more or less intact as a
mass and exerts pressure on soil.
• Hydraulic Fracturing or Uncontrolled displacement- Grout rapidly penetrates into
a fractured zone created when the grout pressure is more.
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 6
Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
2.10 CATEGORIES OF GROUTING
Based on mode of entry of grout into soil or rock, the basic categories of grouting are listed
below.
1. Penetration grouting
• Permeation grouting
• Intrusion grouting
2. Displacement grouting
• Compaction grouting
• Slab jack grouting
3. Jet grouting
4. Electro grouting
5. Grouting of voids
2.10.1 Penetration grouting
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 7
Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
In this method, the joints or fractures in rock or pore spaces in soil are filled with grout
without disturbing the formation.
More specifically permeation grouting refer to replacement of water in voids between soil
particles with a grout fluid low injection pressure to prevent fracturing. Grout fills the soil
pores. Essentially no change occurs in the volume or structure of the original ground. Include
Cement grouts, bentonite grouts and chemical grouts. Grouting is done either from an open
hole in self-supporting ground through pipes at the surface through an injection pipe held in
place in the hole or casing by a packer or a pipe driven into the ground and withdrawn as
injection proceeds. It may also done through a pipe left in place in the ground as with a tube
Intrusion grouting is used with filling of fissures in rocks.
Applications of Permeation Grouting
▪ Seepage Control
For making vertical seepage barriers beneath hydraulic structures.
Stoppage of seepage through joints of underground structures such as tunnel
lining/ basement wall, etc.
▪ Soil Solidification and Stabilization
For stabilization of soil around tunnels and shafts.
2.10.2 Displacement grouting
It involves injection of grout into a fom1ation so as to move the formation. The movement
may be controlled as in case of slab jack grouting or uncontrolled as in case of high pressure
soil or rock grouting which leads to splitting of the ground. In this type of grouting, highly
viscous grouts are used.
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 8
Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
• Compaction grouting: In this method a very stiff mortar (25 mm slump) is injected
into loose soils, forming bulbs so as to induce displacement and hence densification of
surrounding ground without penetrating soil pores. Effective in partially saturated
cohesive or organic soil masses, silts, sands and soil containing soil pockets. With
slightly more fluid grout, thick fissures rather than bulbs may form. Then it is referred
as squeeze grouting.
Application of Compaction Grouting
▪ Densification of loose stratum
i) underlying dense soil
ii) beneath foundations or floor slab-slab jacking
▪ Filling of large underground cavities
▪ Densification of collapsible soils
▪ Densification of soils showing organic degradation
▪ Use to stabilize soil under residences and light commercial buildings and sometimes
the foundations of large structures.
• Slab jack grouting: A technique similar to compaction technique, called slab or mud
jack grouting may be employed for lifting and leveling of heavy structures. Slab
jacking or mud jacking involves injection of grout under a concrete slab to raise it to a
specified grade.
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 9
Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
2.10.3 Jet grouting
In this method, high speed water jets emanating from a drill bit cut into alluvial soils Grout is
pumped through horizontal nozzles while withdrawing the drill bit. The grout mixes with or
displaces the soil. Thus, the foundation soil is replaced with a stronger and / or impermeable
grout soil mixture. This technique is used to form cut-off walls, do underpinning or to form
deep foundation similar to grouted auger piles. Effective in soils ranging from silt to clay and
weak rocks can be treated.
Triple Jet Grouting System
▪ At the bottom end of the pipe two horizontal nozzles are provided at 500 mm apart.
▪ The upper nozzle (1.8 mm diameter) delivers water surrounded by a collar of
compressed air to produce a cutting jet.
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 10
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▪ The grout is delivered through the lower nozzle (7 mm dia).
Application of Jet Grouting
▪ Groundwater control
▪ Movement control(Earth retention)
▪ Bulkhead rehabilitation
▪ Tunneling
▪ Underpinning
2.10.3 Electro grouting
This method is based on electro chemical hardening during electro-osmosis by adding
chemicals, such as sodium silicate or calcium chloride at the anode. Under the influence of
the electric field, the chemicals permeate the ground, flowing in the direction of cathode,
while anode becomes a grout injection point. Chemical stabilizers are introduced at the
anode and carried toward the cathode by electro-osmosis. Direct current electrical gradients
of the order of 50 to 100 Volts/m are required.
2.10.4 Grouting of Voids
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 11
Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
Grout maybe used
• To fill the space below joints in a concrete pavement through pumping.
• For grouting behind the lining of a tunnel due to over break (Back pack grouting, Gap
grouting or Contact grouting)
A special technique related to back pack grouting known as pre stress grouting can be used
for high pressure shafts and tunnels. The method involves simultaneous injection of grout
through a multi point system into the space between tunnel lining and rock. This creates a
balanced confining stress in excess of expected hydraulic pressure within the tunnel.
2.11 GROUTING TECHNIQUES
Grout can be injected into the soil as drilling proceeds, but not much control could be
exercised. It is preferable to organize drilling and grouting as separate phases. i.e., grouting
should be alternated with drilling in stages. In order to treat a particular ground stratum, the
corresponding length of borehole is isolated by expanding "rubber packers" built into the
Injection pipe (grout pipe). Grout is then allowed to flow into soil from between two packers
or if a single packer is used, between it and the bottom of the hole. Thus, the grouting may
proceed in a descending or ascending manner. The stage grouting of soils is done by using '
Tube A Manchette'.
Stage Grouting using Tube A Manchette
Stage grouting is carried out using Tube A Manchette. Tube A Manchette consists of a steel
tube having a dia. of about 37.5 mm to 62.5 mm. The tube is perforated with rings of small
holes (about 8 mm dia) at intervals of approximately 0.3 m Each ring of holes is enclosed by
a tight fitting rubber sleeve which acts as one way valve: A drill hole is sunk with the aid of
casing to the full depth to be treated and the Tube A Manchette is placed in it. The casing is
withdrawn and grout termed, Sleeve grout is poured into the annular space left behind.
Grouting is then carried out through the Tube. A Manchette, by lowering into it a small
diameter injection pipe perforated at its lower end and fitted with two U packers. The packers
are centred over the rings of injection hole and grout is injected with high pressure until the
grout lifts the rubber sleeve, ruptures the sleeve grout and enters into voids of surrounding
soil. The sleeve grout prevents any leakage of grout at the surface.
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 12
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• Ascending Stage Grouting
Permeation grouting at shallow depths is carried out in a single stage from a grout pipe
inserted in a cased hole made in the ground. The annular space between grout pipe and casing
is filled with sleeve grout (bentonite cement grout) and then the casing is withdrawn. The
grout hole is made upto the full depth of soil strata to be grouted and the grouting proceeds
upwards in stages starting from the bottom. This is termed as ascending stage grouting. Thus
in ascending stage grouting, grouting follows drilling as a separate phase. The most suitable
type of grout, pressure and quantity of grout can be selected since water pressure testing; soil
testing at different depths is possible before grouting.
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 13
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• Descending Stage Grouting
It involves drilling of cased hole upto a certain depth and then grouting is done through grout
pipe placed in it. The space between casing and grout pipe is filled with sleeve grout. After
withdrawing the casing, grouting is done through the grout pipe to stabilize the soil at the
sides and bottom of the hole. After the grout has set, the hole is deepened for the next stage of
grouting. Descending stage grouting allows increase in pressures to be used for increasing
depth of grout hole and reduces loss of grout due to leakage at surface. The method is used
when relatively high grouting pressures are to be employed to achieve satisfactory
penetration of grout in deep holes as tighter sections of holes. In Descending method,
infusion of ground occurs in advance of borehole that could be advantageous in loose soil or
rock.
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 14
Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
2.12 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING OF SOILS AND ROCKS
If the grouting pressure is increased sufficiently, a soil mass may split and artificial grout
filled fissures may be formed. In rocks, the existing fissures may enlarge and new breaks may
occur. This is called ' hydraulic fracture', or ‘hydro fracture', also referred to as 'claquage' by
French engineers.
Hydraulic fracture is indicated by back flow of liquid grouts as soon as the injection stops. In
a granular ground, hydraulic fracture can be identified by ground heave. Hydraulic fracture
may or may not be a planned event in compaction grouting. In slab-jacking, the surface heave
is the objective of the grouting as so to lift and level a structure that is tilted.
In penetration grouting hydro fracture is not desirable. To avoid hydro fracture, knowledge of
pressure causing movement of ground is essential. In soils, the overburden pressure would be
a reasonable conservative guide for predicting the danger of hydro fracture. However, in
rocks, the tectonic stress state, any other redistribution of stresses due to mining or
construction activities should be considered for predicting the effect of high grouting
pressures on ground.
2.13 ASPECTS IN DECIDING THE SPACING AND DEPTH OF INJECTION HOLES
FOR A GROUT CURTAIN BELOW A DAM
The amount of seepage water entering d/s of an earthen dam can be cut off or reduced greatly
by a grout curtain wall provided along the length of the dam. Small holes are bored in the
ground and grout mix is injected in the holes to construct the grout curtain walls.
If Lugeon values of dam foundation exceed 1 (for heads> 30 m) or 3 (for heads < 30 m), the
grout curtain is advisable. One Lugeon is equivalent to a coefficient of permeability of about
1 o-7 m/ s.
The spacing and depth of injection holes in soils can be decided by considering the type of
soil and its coefficient of permeability. In rocks, the spacing and depth of injection holes
depend upon the characteristics of joint system in particular the spacing, aperture and
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 15
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orientation of fractures that affect the behaviour of rock. Rock quality-designation gives idea
about the number of discontinuities present in the rock. Spacing of boreholes may be taken as
recommended by Harris (1983).
Coefficient of Permeability Spacing of grout holes (m) Type of Formation
(mm/s)
>1 6 Fissured Rocks
1 to 1 x 10-1 3 Medium to coarse sands and
Gravels
2.14 GROUTING PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
The mixing plant and delivery systems used for suspension and solution grouts are same. For
solution grouts, separate ingredients are stored in stationary tanks or tank trucks and are
mixed in measured quantities at junction points and delivered to grout pipe.
A grouting plant consists of
i) Measuring Tank : to measure the volume of grout injected
ii) Mixer : used to mix ingredients of grout
iii) Agitator : to keep the solid particles in suspension until
Pumping (not require? for solution grouts)
iv) Pump : to draw grout from agitator to deliver into pumping line
v) Control Fittings : used to control injection rate and pressure
The thorough mixing is achieved in mixers in three stages as explained by Houlsby (1982).
1. Vortex formed in mixer acts as centrifugal separator leading to pushing of thick grout
arid unmixed cement to the periphery and mixing rotor
2. Thicker grout and unmixed cement are subjected to severe shearing action in rotor
mixer and thereby leads to formation of colloidal solution rather than mechanical
suspension.
3. The treated fraction is circulated back into vortex and gets spun till all the thicken
fraction is broken and grout reaches to uniform consistency.
Vertical or horizontal barrel type mixers are used to mix the ingredients of grouts·. These
mixers consist of cylindrical drum placed either vertically or horizontally with an axial shaft
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 16
Grouting and Reinforced Earth UNIT-2
fitted with paddles or blades. The axial shaft is rotated using electric power. Mixing is done
by first placing water in mixer and operating mixer at maximum speed. Then cement or
bentonite clay is added in batches. Vertical barrel type mixers are used to handle small
quantities of grout.
Suspension grout material should be continuously agitated until pumping to prevent bleeding
and setting. Hence, agitators are used between mixer and pump. Agitator sump consists of a
chamber having a rotating vertical shaft with blades at 30 to 100 rpm. Wire screens are used
at mixers and agitators to remove pieces of sack, strings and other foreign material.
Graduated dipsticks are used to measure the quantity of grout in the agitator,
For pumping the grout material from agitator or mixer to grout pipe, piston or diaphragm type
pumps are used. The pumps should be able to handle wide range of consistency of grout
materials and varying heads of grouts. Harris (1983) suggested the capacities of pumps for
different grouts as given below.
Nature of Pump Pressure (N/mm2) Discharge (litres/ minute)
Small Pump 0.8 120
1.5 45
Large Pump 3.5 450
10.0 130
By K.V.N. Meena Sarvani, Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS 17
