1/14/2022

EMG 2103
WORKSHOP PROCESSES AND
PRACTICE I

COURSE OUTLINE
Work safety: rules Bench and marking out tools; use of marking
out table and instruments
such as scribers, calipers, height gauge.
Theory and use of vernier. Internal and external micrometers
and accuracy.
Measurement and inspection: use of dial, slip, limit, small hole
and telescope gauges. Use of
limit systems. Bore gauges for large holed degree of accuracy.
Checking and setting measuring equipment.
Test for acceptance or rejection of new or worn parts.
Measuring exercise including those
involving concentricity and run-out.
Bench tools: files, hacksaws, chisels, scrapers and hammers.
Metal jointing: Soft soldering and brazing, riveting, hand screw
cutting.

1
 1/14/2022

Bench Tools - Filing

A file is a hardened piece of high grade steel with rows of
teeth cut on its faces and edges. It is used for cutting,
smoothing and producing intricate shapes where use of
machines is not possible.
Files are classified according to their size, type of cut of
teeth and sectional form. Files can be single cut or
double cut. Single cut files have a single series of
parallel teeth while double cut files have two sets of
teeth crossing each other at an angle on their faces.
The grade of cut of a file refers to the spacing of the teeth
and determines the coarseness or smoothness of a file.
The grades in descending order of roughness are:
Rough, Bastard, Second cut, Smooth, Dead smooth,
Super smooth.

Filing

2
 1/14/2022

Filing
Common file types include:
1. Hand file – It is for general use. It has a rectangular cross-
section, parallel in width and tapers in thickness for
approximately the last third of its length towards the point.
It is double cut on both faces, single cut on one edge and
plain (no teeth) on the second edge. This plain edge is
referred to as a safe edge and is useful for filing up to
corners.
2. Pillar file – Has the same section as a hand file but is thinner
and has a safe edge. It is used for narrow slots and keyways.
3. Flat file – For general use. It has a rectangular cross-section
which tapers in width and thickness for approximately the
last third of its length towards the point. Both faces are
double cut and both edges are single cut.

Filing

3
 1/14/2022

Filing
4. Square file – Has a square cross-section and tapers in
thickness for the last third of its length towards the
point. It is double cut on all sides and is used on slots,
keyways and small square or rectangular holes.
5. Three square file – Has a 60 degrees triangle cross-
section. It tapers in thickness for the last third of its
length towards the point. It is double cut on all faces
and is used for surfaces meeting at less than 90
degrees, angular holes and recesses.
6. Round file – Circular in cross-section and tapers for the
last third of its length towards the point. Second cut
and smooth files are single cut while the bastard is
double cut. Used for enlarging holes and finishing
internal round corners.

Filing
7. Half round file – Has one flat and one convex face. It is
parallel for two thirds of its length and tapers for the
last third towards the point. The flat side is double cut
and curved side single cut on second cut and smooth
files. Used on flat surfaces and curved surfaces too
large for the round file.
8. Knife file – It has a wedge shaped cross-section. The
thin edge is straight while the thick edge tapers in
thickness and width for the last third of its length
towards the point. It is double cut on the sides and is
used for filing acute angles.
9. Needle files – Used for very fine work where small
amounts of material are to be removed. They are
available in various shapes and cuts.

4
 1/14/2022

Filing – Dreadnought File

Filing – Needle File

10

5
 1/14/2022

Filing

10. Dreadnought file – These files have deep curved teeth

on their faces. They are used on soft materials such as
aluminium, lead, copper, bronze, brass, plastics, wood,
fibre and slate. Due to the nature of their teeth, they
do not clog easily. They are available as hand, flat, half
round and square type from 150mm – 450mm long.
Filing technique.
The work is held in the vice and should be level with the
operator’s elbow. Cross filing is used for maximum
metal removal and the file is held at an angle to the
work. Draw filing is for smoothening and the file is held
at 90 degrees to the work.
11

Filing
Care of Files
1. Never throw file on top of each other as the teeth may
be chipped.
2. Never knock a file on a surface to clear clogged teeth,
use a file card instead.
3. A file card should be used on files regularly to avoid
clogging and subsequent scratching of work.
4. The file should be fitted with a handle of the correct
size.
5. Clean files after use before putting away.
6. Use a new file gently or on soft materials first as rough
use and filing of hard materials may break the sharp
teeth.

12

6
 1/14/2022

Bench Tools – Files – Filing Technique

1. Secure the work piece and indicate by marking
out where the material removal needs to stop.
2. Chalk, oil or lard the file to avoid clogging with
metal filings. Clogged files will scratch your work
piece.
3. Cut only on the forward stroke and lift the file
on the return stroke. Lift the file high enough to
see the end of the stroke’s file marks so as to
make corrections if stroke was too short.

13

Bench Tools – Files – Filing Technique

4. Keep the file parallel to the work at all times.
When cross filing, resist the tendency to lift
the tip of the file at the beginning of the
stroke and to depress it at the end if the
stroke to avoid a convex surface.
5. Do not file for more than 30 minutes at a time
as you might get tired and make mistakes.

14

7
 1/14/2022

Bench Tools – Hacksaws

Hacksawing involves removal of small chips of material by a
series of small teeth.
Hacksaw blades are fitted into a frame with the teeth pointing
forward or away from the handle and therefore cut on the
forward stroke.
Hacksaw blades are selected based on the following:
i. Length between the pin holes
ii. Thickness
iii. Number of teeth per 25mm
The pitch of a hacksaw blade is the distance between two
successive teeth.
The teeth of a hacksaw blade can be made in the staggered set
form or wavy set form. These forms enable the blade to cut
a slightly wider slot than the blade thickness thereby
preventing jamming.

15

Bench Tools – Hacksaws

16

8
 1/14/2022

Bench Tools – Hacksaws

17

Bench Tools – Hacksaws

18

9
 1/14/2022

Bench Tools – Hacksaws

Selection of hacksaw blades
A hacksaw blade should suit the type of material being
cut, i.e. whether hard or soft and the nature of cut, i.e.
thick or thin section.
When cutting soft materials large pitch blades are
selected i.e. blades with less teeth per 25mm and when
cutting hard materials blades with smaller pitch are
selected.
When cutting thin sections, at least three teeth must be
in contact with the work at all times.
Hacksaw blades are available in all hard, flexible and
bimetal types. All hard type is made from hardened
HSS. It has all through hardness, has a long life but is
brittle and is therefore suited to the skilled worker.

19

Bench Tools – Hacksaws

Flexible blade type is made from HSS but only with
the teeth hardened. This results in a flexible blade
with hard teeth and can be used by less skilled
workers. It has a shorter life than the all hard type.
The bimetallic type consists of a narrow cutting edge
strip of hardened HSS joined to a tough alloy steel
back by electron beam welding. It is shatter proof
with a long life and is fast cutting.

20

10
 1/14/2022

Bench Tools – Scrapers

Scraping is not done for maximum material removal. It is
mainly done to remove high spots to make a surface
flat or circular and at the same time create small
pockets in which lubricant can be held between two
surfaces. It creates a good bearing surface.
Flat scrapers are for use on flat surfaces. The point is
slightly curved and it cuts on the forward stroke. It is
kept sharp by means of an oil stone.
The half round scraper is used on internal curved surfaces
while the three square or triangular scraper is used to
remove sharp edges form curved surfaces and holes.

21

Bench Tools – Scrapers

22

11
 1/14/2022

Bench Tools – Scrapers

23

Bench Tools – Hammers

The engineer’s hammer consists of a hardened and
tempered steel head varying in mass from 0.1kg to
1kg firmly fixed on a wooden handle. The flat
striking surface is known as the face and the
opposite end is referred to as the pein.
Commonly used hammers include the ball pein, cross
pein and straight pein hammers.
When hitting metals and components that must not
be marked or damaged, hammers with a soft face
are used. These soft faces are commonly made
from rubber, copper, nylon, wood, raw hide and
plastic.
24

12
 1/14/2022

Bench Tools – Hammers

Ball pein hammer

Cross pein
hammer
Straight pein
hammer

25

Chisels
Cold chisels are used for removing thick layers of metal in a
process called chipping. When chipping the operator should
keep the eyes on the cutting edge of the chisel and not the
head.
Commonly used cold chisels include the following:
1. Flat chisel – Used to cut thin sheet metal, remove rivets or
split corroded nuts.
2. Cross cut chisel – Has a narrower cutting edge than a flat
chisel. Used to cut keyways, narrow grooves, square corners
and holes in sheet metal.
3. Diamond point chisel – Used for cutting v grooves, cleaning
corners and squaring small holes. The chisel is drawn to a
square section and the end ground at an angle to produce
the diamond shaped tip.
4. Half round chisel – Used for cutting oil ways or grooves in
bearings, pulleys etc.

26

13
 1/14/2022

Chisels – Flat chisel

27

Chisels – Cross cut chisel

28

14
 1/14/2022

Chisels – Diamond point chisel

29

Chisels – Half round chisel

30

15
 1/14/2022

Soldering
This is a joining method in which a low melting point
alloy is heated and run between the parts to be
joined. On cooling, the alloy solidifies and forms a
joint.
Soldered joints are water tight and can also form a
permanent electrical connection.
To form a good joint, it is essential that the parts be
clean and free from grease and rust. The oxide film
which forms on metals can also prevent the
formation of a good joint. This oxide film can be
removed by abrasive means such as emery cloth or
by use of fluxes.

31

Soldering - Fluxes
Fluxes remove and/or prevent the formation of oxide film
in the metals to be soldered. The can either be passive
or active.
1. Active flux – This type of flux chemically removes the
oxide film. It is formed by dissolving zinc in
hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride, also known as
“killed spirits”. It is highly corrosive and any joint using
it must be thoroughly cleaned with warm water to
remove flux residue. It is therefore not suitable for
electrical work.
2. Passive flux – Used after the oxide film has been
removed by abrasive means to prevent re-formation
of the the oxide film.

32

16
 1/14/2022

Soldering - Heating
The heat source will depend on the size of the parts
to be joined. For small parts, an electrical soldering
iron is sufficient. Larger parts can be heated by a
gas/air or butane torch or by placing them on a hot
plate.
When the area to be soldered is large, the parts are
covered with solder in a process called tinning and
then brought together and heated to melt the
solder and make the joint.

33

Soldering – Tin-lead diagram

34

17
 1/14/2022

Soldering - Solders
Solder is an alloy of lead and tin. Melting point of the
solder will depend on the lead-tin ratio.
As shown in the diagram, 20% tin/80% lead solder has
a large pasty stage from solid (183°C) to liquid
(276°C). This feature is useful in plumbing
applications or where work is coated by dipping in a
bath of molted solder.
A 60% tin/40% lead solder has a very small pasty
stage and a low melting point (188°C) and is
therefore suitable for electrical work.

35

Brazing
Brazing is a metal joining process in which during or after
heating molten filler metal is drawn by capillary action
into the space between closely adjacent surfaces of the
parts being joined. The melting point of the filler metal
must be below that of the metals being joined.
Similar of dissimilar metals can be joined . For the joint to
be strong, the metal surfaces must be free from rust,
grease or oxide film.
Brazing Alloys
1. Brazing brass – contains 60% copper and 40% zinc
2. Silver brazing alloys – Contains silver, copper, zinc and
sometimes cadmium in varying proportions.
3. Aluminium brazing alloys – Contain aluminium, silicon
and copper.
36

18
 1/14/2022

Brazing
Fluxes
These are chosen depending on the temperature to
be used for brazing and must be removed after
brazing.
Heating
Common heat sources include:
1. Oxy-acetylene
2. Oxy-propane
3. Compressed air + coal gas
4. Compressed air + natural gas
37

Rivets

They are used for making permanent joints.

Commonly used riveted joints include:
a. Single riveted lap joint
b. Double riveted lap joint.
c. Single strap butt joint
d. Double strap butt joint – can be single, double,
triple or quadruple riveted.

38

19
 1/14/2022

39

Rivets
Rivets are classified according to the shape of the head.
Available heads include:
a. Flat head – used in general sheet metal where the
metal is very thin and little strength is required.
b. Counter sunk head – used where a flush surface is
required.
c. Snap or round head – Used for high strength joints
and is the most common.
d. Mushroom head – Used where it is necessary to
reduce the height of the rivet head above the surface.
E.g. in aircraft skins to reduce drag.
e. Pan head rivets – Are very strong and therefore used
for girders and heavy construction.
40

20
 1/14/2022

Mechanical Fasteners

41

42

21
 1/14/2022

43

44

22
 1/14/2022

Manual Screw Thread Cutting

This is achieved by use of taps and dies. Taps cut internal
threads while dies cut external threads.
Tapping
Tapping is the cutting of internal threads by use of taps.
Taps are supplied in sets of three and differ in the
length of chamfer at the point known as lead. The
taper or first tap has the longest lead followed by the
second or intermediate tap. The plug or bottoming tap
has the shortest lead.
A square is provided at the non cutting end of the tap so
that the tap can be easily rotated by holding it in a tap
wrench. Bar type tap wrench is for large diameter taps
while chuck type tap wrench is for small diameter
taps.

45

Manual Screw Thread Cutting

46

23
 1/14/2022

Manual Screw Thread Cutting

Dies
These are used to cut external threads and are available
in sizes up to approximately 36mm diameter. The
circular split die is the most common one. It is made
form HSS hardened and tempered and split on one
side to enable small adjustments in size to be made.
The die is held in holder called a die stock which has a
central screw for adjusting the size and two side
locking screws which lock in dimples provided on the
outside diameter of the die.
Dies have a lead on the first two or three threads to help
start the thread cutting but is usual to have a chamfer
on the end of the component.
47

Manual Screw Thread Cutting –

Circular split die, die stock

48

24