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KAREN LAWSON

THE

Trainer’s HANDBOOK
2nd Edition
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About This Book

Why is this topic important?

The rapidly changing workplace continues to impact workplace learning and performance. This chang-
ing and evolving climate “raises the bar” for those who have responsibility for developing workers to
contribute to the organization’s success. Whether charged with the responsibility of training as part
of their jobs or hired for full-time positions, people are often thrown into these positions to sink or swim
with little or no formal instruction on how to train. Written primarily for the novice classroom-based
trainer, this book provides a comprehensive, systematic approach to developing training skills and
competencies.

What can you achieve with this book?

This book offers a new trainer a simple game plan. The topic of “how to” train is covered from assess-
ment to evaluation. At the same time, the “why” behind the “how” and “what” is included without get-
ting bogged down in theory. It is designed to help the trainer “do it better and faster.” Although best
suited to the new trainer, this book is also a good reference for those with more experience. Experi-
enced trainers will learn new tips and techniques to enhance their current skills and help them
deliver on-target training that meets individual as well as organizational needs.

How is this book organized?

The book’s basic structure follows a commonly used approach to instructional design: analysis, design,
development, delivery, and evaluation. In addition, the book includes chapters that address adult learn-
ing principles, learning styles, training styles, and insights into the complexity and diversity of today’s
training environment and audiences. Also included is a chapter on distance learning. Reflecting the chang-
ing role and function of training to performance consulting, there is a “bonus” chapter dealing with
the business of consulting. This chapter addresses the consulting function from the perspective of both
the internal and external consultant, including tips on managing the client-consultant relationship.
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About Pfeiffer
Pfeiffer serves the professional development and hands-on resource needs of
training and human resource practitioners and gives them products to do their
jobs better. We deliver proven ideas and solutions from experts in HR devel-
opment and HR management, and we offer effective and customizable tools
to improve workplace performance. From novice to seasoned professional,
Pfeiffer is the source you can trust to make yourself and your organization
more successful.

Essential Knowledge Pfeiffer produces insightful, practical, and

comprehensive materials on topics that matter the most to training
and HR professionals. Our Essential Knowledge resources translate the expertise
of seasoned professionals into practical, how-to guidance on critical workplace
issues and problems. These resources are supported by case studies, worksheets,
and job aids and are frequently supplemented with CD-ROMs, websites, and
other means of making the content easier to read, understand, and use.

Essential Tools Pfeiffer’s Essential Tools resources save time and

expense by offering proven, ready-to-use materials—including exercises,
activities, games, instruments, and assessments—for use during a training
or team-learning event. These resources are frequently offered in looseleaf or
CD-ROM format to facilitate copying and customization of the material.
Pfeiffer also recognizes the remarkable power of new technologies in
expanding the reach and effectiveness of training. While e-hype has often
created whizbang solutions in search of a problem, we are dedicated to
bringing convenience and enhancements to proven training solutions. All our
e-tools comply with rigorous functionality standards. The most appropriate
technology wrapped around essential content yields the perfect solution for
today’s on-the-go trainers and human resource professionals.

Essential resources for training and HR professionals

w w w. p f e i f f e r. c o m
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01_977497 ffirs.qxp 4/3/06 7:05 PM Page v

KAREN LAWSON

THE

Trainer’s HANDBOOK
2nd Edition
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Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson.

Published by Pfeiffer
An Imprint of Wiley.
989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741 www.pfeiffer.com
Except as specifically noted below, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
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Certain pages from this book and all the materials on the accompanying CD-ROM are designed for use in a group setting and
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of the following copyright notice at the foot of each page:

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of
Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Lawson, Karen.
The trainer’s handbook / Karen Lawson.— 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7879-7749-8 (pbk.)
ISBN-10: 0-7879-7749-7 (pbk.)
1. Employees—Training of—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Training—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.
HF5549.5.T7L344 2006
658.3’1243—dc22
2005036846
Acquiring Editor: Matthew Davis Editor: Rebecca Taff
Director of Development: Kathleen Dolan Davies Manufacturing Supervisor: Becky Carreño
Production Editor: Dawn Kilgore Editorial Assistant: Leota Higgins
Printed in the United States of America
Printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Contents
List of Tables, Exhibits, and Figures xi
Contents of the CD-ROM xiii
Acknowledgments xv

Introduction 1
1. Assessing Needs 5
Learning Outcomes 5
Understanding the Needs Assessment Process 5
Needs-Assessment Process 7
How to Conduct a Needs Assessment 11
Developing an Action Plan 22
Assessing Participants’ Knowledge, Attitudes, Skills 23
Key Points 26

2. Understanding Adult Learners 27

Learning Outcomes 27
Andragogical Versus Pedagogical Model 27
Understanding How and Why People Learn 28
Learning Styles 30
Application of Learning Principles 39
Key Points 41

3. Training Styles 43
Learning Outcomes 43
Trainer Characteristics and Competencies 43
Training Style 45
Increasing Effectiveness 46
Learner-Centered Versus Information-Centered 69
Key Elements of a Trainer’s Style 70
Key Points 74

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viii Contents

4. Understanding Today’s Learner 75

Learning Outcomes 75
The Changing Training Environment 75
Self-Awareness 76
Diversity Issues 77
Key Points 86

5. Writing Instructional Objectives 87

Learning Outcomes 87
What Are Learning Objectives? 87
Writing Learning Objectives 92
Key Points 96

6. Writing an Instructional Plan 97

Learning Outcomes 97
Design Philosophy 97
Time Needed to Develop a Training Program 98
Cost Considerations 99
Major Components of Design 100
Creating a Design Matrix 100
Purpose of an Instructional Plan 105
Components of an Instructional Plan 106
Instructional Methods 111
Developing Materials 118
Key Points 120

7. Selecting, Designing, and Developing Active-Training Methods 121

Learning Outcomes 121
The Case for Active Training 121
Cooperative Learning 122
Creating an Active-Learning Environment 123
Designing Active-Training Activities 126
Common Methods and Materials 128
Experiential Learning Activities 140
Action Learning 145
Key Points 146
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Contents ix

8. Delivering Training 147

Learning Outcomes 147
Creating a Positive Learning Environment 147
Experiential and Active-Training Techniques 169
Tips for Using Specific Methods 176
Improving Platform Presence 182
Key Points 184

9. Using Visual Aids 185

Learning Outcomes 185
Retention Rate in Visual Learning 185
Why Use Visual Aids? 186
Guidelines for Using Visual Aids 188
Other Commonly Used Visual Aids 192
Key Points 197

10. Distance Learning 199

Learning Outcomes 199
Workplace Trends 199
Advantages/Benefits of Distance Learning 200
Disadvantages/Drawbacks to Distance Learning 202
Types of Distance Learning 203
Guidelines for Designing Distance Learning 205
Designing and Developing Activities 207
Delivering Content and Activities 212
Blended Learning 212
Key Points 213

11. Working with Groups 215

Learning Outcomes 215
The Trainer as Facilitator 215
Ways to Encourage Participation 216
The Art of Questioning 217
Responding to Questions 218
Scaling the Wall of Resistance 221
Problem Situations 226
Key Points 235
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x Contents

12. Using Creativity 237

Learning Outcomes 237
Creativity with Small Groups 237
Props and Other Theatrical Techniques 240
Games 243
Creative Closings 248
Key Points 252

13. Evaluating Training 253

Learning Outcomes 253
Why Evaluate? 253
When to Evaluate 254
Whom to Involve 254
How to Evaluate 255
What to Evaluate 255
Four-Level Model for Evaluation 255
Participant Evaluation and Accountability for e-Learning 267
Accountability for Training 268
Significance of the Evaluation Process 271
Key Points 272

14. The Business of Consulting: Internal and External 273

Learning Outcomes 273
The Changing Role of the Trainer 273
Understanding the Client-Consultant Relationship 274
Selecting an External Consultant 280
Follow-Up Reports 283
Key Points 284

Appendix A: Answers to Exercises 285

Appendix B: Recommended Resources 287
Appendix C: Criteria for Selecting Packaged Programs 293
References 295
Index 299
About the Author 311
How to Use the CD-ROM 313
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List of Tables, Exhibits,

and Figures
Table 1.1 In-Depth Versus Mini Needs Assessment 8
Exhibit 1.1 Needs Assessment Process 12
Exhibit 1.2 Method Selection Criteria 14
Table 1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data-Collection Methods 15
Exhibit 1.3 Confidential Pre-Session Questionnaire 24
Exhibit 2.1 Learning Style Profile 31
Exhibit 3.1 Characteristics of Effective Trainers 45
Exhibit 3.2 Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory 47
Table 3.1 Learner-Centered Versus Information-Centered Training 69
Table 3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 71
Exhibit 3.3 Learner-Centered or Information-Centered Behavior 72
Exhibit 4.1 Diversity-Awareness Inventory 76
Table 4.1 Generational Differences 81
Table 5.1 Reference Chart for Objectives 90
Exhibit 5.1 Editing Learning Objectives 93
Exhibit 5.2 Sample Objectives Worksheet 94
Exhibit 5.3 Objectives Worksheet 95
Exhibit 6.1 Design Matrix 101
Exhibit 6.2 Instructional Plan, Part 1 108
Table 6.1 Instructional Methods 112
Table 6.2 Instructional Methods and When to Use Them 115
Table 6.3 Matching Methods to Desired Outcomes 117

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xii List of Tables, Exhibits, and Figures

Exhibit 6.3 Checklist for a Quality Participant Workbook 118

Exhibit 7.1 Film Preview Form 131
Exhibit 8.1 Sample Participant Cover Letter 149
Exhibit 8.2 Sample Tips for Participants 150
Exhibit 8.3 Sample Memo to Manager 151
Exhibit 8.4 How to Prepare Your Employees for Training 152
Exhibit 8.5 Delegation Assignment 154
Figure 8.1 Classroom Style 155
Figure 8.2 Horseshoe 156
Figure 8.3 Single Square or Round 156
Figure 8.4 Cluster 157
Figure 8.5 Conference 157
Figure 8.6 Semicircle and Full Circle 158
Figure 8.7 Chevron 158
Figure 8.8 The Experiential Learning Cycle 171
Exhibit 8.6 Creating an Activity 177
Table 9.1 Using Visual Aids 189
Exhibit 11.1 Preventing Dysfunctional Behavior 229
Exhibit 12.1 Sample Action Plan 251
Table 13.1 Measuring Training Results 256
Table 13.2 Level 2 Evaluation Methods 261
Table 13.3 Determining Training Costs 269
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Contents of the CD-ROM

Table 1.1 In-Depth Versus Mini Needs Assessment 8
Exhibit 1.1 Needs-Assessment Process 12
Exhibit 1.2 Method Selection Criteria 14
Table 1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data-Collection Methods 15
Exhibit 1.3 Confidential Pre-Session Questionnaire 24
Exhibit 2.1 Learning Style Profile 31
Exhibit 3.1 Characteristics of Effective Trainers 45
Exhibit 3.2 Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory 47
Table 3.1 Learner-Centered Versus Information-Centered Training 69
Table 3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 71
Exhibit 3.3 Learner-Centered or Information-Centered Behavior 72
Exhibit 4.1 Diversity-Awareness Inventory 76
Table 4.1 Generational Differences 81
Table 5.1 Reference Chart for Objectives 90
Exhibit 5.3 Objectives Worksheet 95
Exhibit 6.1 Design Matrix 101
Exhibit 6.2 Instructional Plan, Part I 108
Table 6.1 Instructional Methods 112
Table 6.2 Instructional Methods and When to Use Them 115
Table 6.3 Matching Methods to Desired Outcomes 117
Exhibit 6.3 Checklist for a Quality Participant Workbook 118
Exhibit 7.1 Film Preview Form 131
Exhibit 8.1 Sample Participant Cover Letter 149
Exhibit 8.2 Sample Tips for Participants 150
Exhibit 8.3 Sample Memo to Manager 151
xiii
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xiv Contents of the CD-ROM

Exhibit 8.4 How to Prepare Your Employees for Training 152

Exhibit 8.6 Creating an Activity 177
Table 9.1 Using Visual Aids 189
Exhibit 11.1 Preventing Dysfunctional Behavior 229
Exhibit 12.1 Sample Action Plan 251
Table 13.1 Measuring Training Results 256
Table 13.2 Level 2 Evaluation Methods 261
Table 13.3 Determining Training Costs 269
Appendix C Criteria for Selecting Packaged Programs 293
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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the many people who have attended my training sessions
throughout the years. In essence, they are the authors of this book. They have taught
me what it means to be a training professional.
I am grateful to the many training professionals who have shared their tips and
techniques from conference platforms and also one-on-one. Many of these colleagues
have become my close friends. In particular, I thank Steve Sugar for his willingness
to share ideas and materials. I also thank my dear friend, Harriet Rifkin, with whom
I have shared the joy and pain of growing as a training professional, for her caring
and sharing.
I particularly thank Dr. Mel Silberman for sharing his knowledge and experience.
His influence has truly made a difference in my life.
Finally, to my husband, Bob Lawson, I can never adequately express how much
I appreciate his love and support throughout the years. I thank him not only for his
patience and understanding but for his belief in me even when I didn’t believe in
myself. He is my colleague and partner, my champion and much-needed critic, but
most of all, he is my best friend.

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04_977497 intro.qxp 4/3/06 7:06 PM Page 1

Introduction
The field of workplace learning is growing by leaps and bounds. Along with the
growth of the industry comes the demand for trainers. For our purposes, “trainer”
refers to anyone who is responsible for delivering classroom instruction. A trainer,
therefore, might be an internal HRD professional employed by an organization
and responsible for providing training to the organization’s employees. A trainer
can also be a subject-matter expert who has been enlisted as a full-time profes-
sional trainer. Another category of trainers includes those who deliver training on
a part-time basis as part of their overall job responsibilities. The term also applies to
the external practitioner who contracts with an organization to design and/or deliver
training programs. Often the external trainer is a casualty of corporate downsizing
or maybe someone who just wants a career change. In either case, this individual
has turned to the training profession as a means of utilizing skills or expertise in a
particular discipline or subject area.
Internal or external, full-time or part-time, the demand for trainers often exceeds
the supply. To meet this need, organizations often turn to those in line positions as
a talent pool for trainers. More and more, people are being asked to deliver train-
ing as part of their jobs. These “non-trainers” or subject-matter experts are expected
to deliver training, not just present information. Unfortunately, these folks have
received little or no formal instruction on how to train. They are thrown into the posi-
tion to sink or swim. Left to their own devices, they find themselves training the way
they were trained or taught. In many situations, that means a didactic approach in
which the trainer stands in front of participants and dumps information on often-
unhearing ears.
Although the approach just described never really worked as a sole method of
training adult learners, it is even less effective today. Trainers are no longer viewed
as merely disseminators of information. They are now expected to be facilitators,
agents of learning, and performance consultants. These new roles require them to
direct their efforts away from specific task-oriented instruction and to concentrate
on helping people and organizations improve performance.
Trainers need to design, develop, and deliver training that encourages people
at all levels of the organization to take responsibility for their own learning. The
1
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2 Introduction

trainer becomes a catalyst, a resource person, and often a coach to help people
through the discovery process.
The effective trainer will also have to understand business needs and identify how
those needs are linked to learning and performance needs. Quite simply, the purpose
of training is to help line managers solve business problems. Trainers must develop
partnerships with those managers who are ultimately accountable for the success
of training. Before this can happen, however, trainers must become proficient at
the skills and competencies that define them as professionals. Every profession
requires its practitioners to master a certain body of knowledge and a set of skills.
The training profession should be no different.
To that end, this book, written primarily for the novice classroom-based trainer,
presents a comprehensive, systematic approach to developing training skills and
competencies. Those who are thrown into full-time, professional training positions
with little or no formal training will be able to use this book to learn the fundamen-
tals of training or supplement what they already know. They can be brought “up-to-
speed” in a relatively short period of time. Although best suited to the new trainer,
this book is a good reference for those with more experience. Experienced trainers
will learn new tips and techniques to enhance their current skills and help them
deliver on-target training that meets individual as well as organizational needs.

How This Book Is Organized

The success of any training program or initiative depends on the use of a system-
atic approach to delivering effective instruction with high impact for both the par-
ticipants and the organization. To that end, you, as the trainer, must understand
various principles and concepts of learning and also follow a process that results in
behavioral change. This process (reflected in the arrangement of this book) consists
of five parts: analysis, design, development, delivery, and evaluation.
The analysis phase is covered in Chapters 1 through 4. In Chapter 1, you will learn
how to conduct a needs analysis at both the organizational and individual levels. Chap-
ter 2 addresses the principles of adult learning as well as learning styles. You will have
an opportunity to learn about your own personal training style in Chapter 3. To round
out the analysis phase, Chapter 4 provides additional insights and understanding of
the complexity and diversity of today’s training environment and audiences.
The second phase in the design process is addressed in the next two chapters. Chap-
ter 5 explains how to write training objectives/learning outcomes, and Chapter 6
presents a step-by-step approach to developing a complete instructional plan.
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Introduction 3

After the program has been designed, the next step is to fully develop the pro-
gram, selecting and creating activities and tools to create an exciting and effective
learning experience. You will learn about specific active-training methods and tech-
niques in Chapter 7.
The next step in the instructional process is delivery. Chapters 8 through 12 give
creative tips and techniques for delivering a dynamic and professional training ses-
sion. You will also learn how to deal with difficult people and situations. Chapter 10
specifically addresses distance learning delivery methods.
In Chapter 13 you will learn how to evaluate training and measure its effective-
ness. You will learn how to go beyond the “smile sheet” at the end of a session and
develop more tools and techniques to show the benefits of training to employees and
the organization.
Chapter 14 is offered as a “bonus” for those who find themselves in either an inter-
nal or external consulting role. As a result of the movement or evolution of training
to performance consulting, the training and development professional must learn to
function as a true consultant. In this chapter, you will learn how to develop a client-
consultant relationship that positions you as a valuable resource and business part-
ner within the organization.
By developing your skills in each of these areas, you will indeed become a mas-
ter of your craft.
The book includes checklists, forms, and specific activities that you can use imme-
diately in designing, developing, and delivering your own training programs. The
accompanying CD-ROM makes it easy to print the tables and exhibits included in
this book. Not only will you find them useful as you develop your own programs,
but you may also choose to use them in your own train-the-trainer programs.
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Chapter 1
Assessing
Needs

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn
• To identify key steps in the needs-assessment process
• To select appropriate methods to gather data
• To develop questions for a variety of needs-assessment techniques
• To apply the needs-assessment process to a specific organization and
situation

Understanding the Needs-Assessment Process

Every year companies spend thousands and thousands of dollars in training pro-
grams that fail. Why? Because they fail to provide programs that meet the specific
business needs of the organization and the specific professional development
needs of the employee.
A needs assessment is the core of any training program. It gives you the basis
for program development and establishes the criteria for measuring the success of
the program after its completion.

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6 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

What Is a Needs Assessment?

Needs assessors are much like physicians who ask a series of questions and order a
battery of medical tests to uncover and treat the causes rather than the symptoms of
an ailment. Needs assessment is the process of determining the cause, extent, and
appropriate cure for organizational ills. The process addresses the organizational
context and combines organizational analysis, data gathering, and interviewing
techniques to identify and shrink the gap between desired and actual knowledge,
skills, and performance. It is a careful study of the organizational context, the job it-
self, and the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the job incumbents.
Simply put, the process identifies the desired performance and the current per-
formance. The difference or the gap between the actual and the desired level of
performance becomes the training need and provides the basis for the training de-
sign. The correct problem identification (cause) is the key to developing and imple-
menting appropriate corrective measures (proper cure).

Why Conduct a Needs Assessment?

Before we address how to conduct a needs assessment, we need to take a look at the
reasons for doing one. Overall, the purpose of a needs assessment is to prevent a
quick-fix, bandage approach to business problems. Instead, a needs assessment, if
you do it properly, will ensure that the solution(s) addresses the real issue(s) and
effectively focuses the appropriate resources, time, and effort toward a targeted so-
lution. The following are some valid reasons for conducting a needs assessment.

To Determine Whether Training Is Needed. Poor performance is not always a

training issue. Often performance problems are the result of poor management
practices, organizational barriers, or inadequate systems or equipment. A needs as-
sessment, if conducted properly, will determine whether training is necessary and
avoid the mistake of applying a training solution to a non-training problem. If it is
determined that the problem does require training, the needs assessment will help
you identify the performance issues that training should address.

To Determine Causes of Poor Performance. As noted above, poor performance

can be the result of many other factors, including poor incentives, lack of internal
motivation, the work environment, poor management, inadequate skills and knowl-
edge, or the employees’ lack of confidence. Sometimes, the cause may be poor man-
agement. Poor management practices might include poor hiring decisions, poor
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Assessing Needs 7

communication, unclear expectations, or inadequate coaching and feedback. For ex-

ample, there is a saying that “ducks don’t climb trees.” Unfortunately, corporations
are full of “ducks” in positions that require “cats,” and no matter how hard they try,
they will never succeed in their positions. In other words, if employees are put in
positions for which they are unsuited, all the training in the world will not improve
their performance. In other cases, managers fail their employees by not stating
clearly their expectations or standards of performance.
Often employees do not know what is expected of them. They may have the
knowledge, skills, and ability to do the job quite well but are not meeting the man-
ager’s expectations. If that is the case, then the training needs to be directed toward
the manager rather than the manager’s employees.

To Determine Content and Scope of Training. A needs assessment will help de-
termine the type of training necessary to achieve results. Should it be workshop,
self-study, or on-the-job? It will help you identify how long the training program
should be and who the target audience is. It will also help you identify what should
be included in the program and the degree of urgency.

To Determine Desired Training Outcomes. The needs assessment will help you
determine what knowledge, skills, and attitudes need to be addressed during the
training. It will also help distinguish “need to know” from “nice to know.” By fo-
cusing on what the trainees actually need to know in order to do their jobs better, a
program can be developed that will get results.

To Provide Basis of Measurement. A needs assessment provides a baseline

against which to measure results or changes. It is simply a starting point.

To Gain Management Support. By involving line management and other key or-
ganizational players, you will find the support you need for the training program
to succeed. Because they have had input, they will have a vested interest in the pro-
gram. Management commitment comes if managers and supervisors see that you
are developing training programs in direct response to their specific needs.

Needs-Assessment Process
The needs-assessment process can be as detailed and involved as needed or desired.
Many factors must be taken into consideration, including time, money, number of
people involved, resources available, and so forth.
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8 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

A full-blown needs assessment is both time-consuming and costly. Frankly, few

organizations are willing to make that kind of investment. A typical alternative is to
conduct an abbreviated form of needs assessment, using only two or three methods.
Table 1.1 offers a comparison between an in-depth and an abbreviated needs
assessment.

Whom to Assess
The people assessed depends on the goal and the required depth of the assessment.
Consider the following categories of people and then decide which groups to tar-
get as data sources.

Senior Management. To get a clear picture of the problem and its business impact,
start with senior management. Ask more strategic questions that address the direc-
tion of the organization as well as anticipated industry changes. In other words, start

Table 1.1. In-Depth Versus Mini Needs Assessment

In-Depth Mini
Type of Information Quantitative Qualitative
Methods Multi-tiered approach Interviews
Surveys Focus groups
Observation
Interviews
Focus groups
Document reviews
Scope Widespread organizational Fewer people
involvement involved
Broad-ranging objectives Short-term focus
Length Several months to a year Few days to a week
Cost Expensive Inexpensive
Focus Linked to defined outputs Immediate, quick
Long-term results
Exposure/Visibility High profile and risk Lower risk

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Assessing Needs 9

with an organizational context. If you are an internal consultant, you should already
have a good idea of the issues driving the need for training. If you are external, you
will probably need to do some research first and then ask specific questions to gain
better insight into the organizational issues that can be addressed through training.
Here are some questions that will help you gain a better understanding of the
organization’s business needs:
• “What is the vision of the organization?”
• “What is the mission of the organization?”
• “What are the primary goals and objectives, both short-term and long-term?”
• “What organization or industry issues are driving the need for training?”
• “What is your most critical concern right now?”

Target Population. It is also important to identify the target population, those who
will receive the training. Often they are overlooked. They should be contacted to
find out both their perceived and real training needs. If they are not consulted, it is
unlikely they will have a sense of ownership or “buy-in,” and they will most likely
approach the training experience with resistance and resentment.

Target Population’s Managers. Those who manage members of the target popula-
tion are a critical source of data, since the purpose of the training is to help the line
manager solve a business problem or meet a business need. These business needs
may include improved productivity, decreased errors, fewer accidents, increased
business, decreased turnover or absenteeism, or fewer customer complaints.

Direct Reports. When the target population consists of managers or supervisors,

good sources of data are those who report to these people. Direct reports can often
provide valuable insight into the skills that managers and supervisors need to
improve.

Co-Workers or Peers. More and more organizations are using 360-degree feed-
back as part of their assessment process, providing employees with performance
feedback from multiple sources. Talking with or surveying the target population’s
co-workers or peers, for example, can provide valuable insight into the skills nec-
essary for a successful team environment. The more organizations that use cross-
functional teams, the more critical the need becomes to involve other team
members in the assessment process.
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Human Resource Personnel. The human resources (HR) department is probably

the best source of records and documents. They, of course, will have data on
turnover, grievances, safety violations, and so forth, as well as performance ap-
praisals and the like. The HR professionals can also provide interesting insight into
the organization’s culture.

Vendors. Vendors are a good source of qualitative data. They can share their per-
ceptions of the organization or specific departments with which they interact, plus
give some valuable insights into industry standards and practices.

Customers (Internal and External). Customer surveys provide quantitative data

that can help pinpoint specific deficiencies, that is, gaps between desired and actual
behavior. Survey data will provide information on the level of satisfaction relative
to customer-service practices, the quality of the product or service, and delivery
systems.
For example, an organization may survey external customers to determine
customer satisfaction regarding a call center’s activity, such as response time in
answering the telephone, friendliness of the service representative, ability to solve
the customer’s problem, and turnaround time for a request. An internal customer
satisfaction survey will include similar items but would be targeted to a specific
department. The systems or information technology (IT) department, for example,
may choose to send a survey to all the other internal departments it supports
to identify how well IT is meeting the needs and expectations of its internal
customers.

Competitors. Published competitor data such as sales results, market share, stock
prices, and financial reports help to identify the organization’s position in relation
to its competitors and helps to pinpoint areas for improvement. Gather these data
from an organization’s annual report or from trade publications.

Industry Experts or Observers. Industry experts have their thumbs on the pulse
of the business in which your organization is engaged. They identify trends and
industry standards against which your organization can measure itself. Experts
may be identified through trade publications, where they may have written about
the industry or may have been cited by others as experts in the field. One can also
learn about and from experts by attending their sessions at professional conferences
and “surfing the Internet” for appropriate websites.
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Assessing Needs 11

How to Conduct a Needs Assessment

Exhibit 1.1 provides an overview of the needs-assessment process.

Step One: Identify Problem or Need

A good place to start is to take a look at the organization’s statements of vision, mis-
sion, values, and goals. Ask to look at the strategic plan. If these organizational data
do not exist, suggest that these statements and documents be developed before
addressing any training issues. Because the purpose of training is to help solve or-
ganizational problems, you must have a clear understanding of what the business
problems are.
The first step is to identify the problem or need, stated in dollar terms, if possi-
ble. Find out what the problem is costing the organization in errors, turnover, lost
business, or additional help. Remember that the desired outcome minus the current
outcome identifies the need.
After the need has been determined, define the specific objective the training
program should meet. The objective must state the desired performance or behav-
ior and be measurable, observable, realistic, and “fixable.” Working with line man-
agers, determine what to measure and how to tie it to organizational goals.
Outcomes relate to the specific need. For example, the goal or outcome of safety
training is to reduce accidents by a particular percentage. Customer service train-
ing should result in fewer customer complaints.
While examining possible causes, it is important to ask, “Is the problem due to
a lack of knowledge or skill or is it operational?” For example, improper telephone
use may have been identified as the problem. Incoming calls are being discon-
nected when the person who answers the call tries to transfer his or her calls. At
first glance, it might appear that the people handling inbound calls need telephone
skills training. However, if the telephone system is not set up to handle multiple
functions, then training will not solve the problem.

Step Two: Determine Needs-Assessment Design

To determine the true causes, not just the symptoms, of the problem or need, em-
ploy several investigative tools and techniques, including interviews, surveys,
questionnaires, observation, and document examination. Choose investigative or
data-collection methods on the basis of their appropriateness to the problem. The
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12 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

EXHIBIT 1.1. Needs Assessment Process

Step One: Identify Problem or Need

• Determine organizational context
• Perform gap analysis
• Set objectives

Step Two: Determine Needs Assessment Design

• Establish method-selection criteria
• Assess advantages and disadvantages of methods

Step Three: Collect Data

• Conduct interviews
• Administer questionnaires
• Administer surveys
• Review documents
• Observe people at work

Step Four: Analyze Data

• Conduct qualitative analysis
• Conduct quantitative analysis
• Determine solutions/recommendations

Step Five: Provide Feedback

• Write report
• Make an oral presentation
• Determine next step

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Assessing Needs 13

choice of methods will depend on various criteria such as time, cost, or available re-
sources. These criteria, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of various
data-collection methods will be explained later in Chapter 1.

Step Three: Collect Data

Many methods are available for conducting a needs assessment.

Data-Collection Methods and Tools

• Interviews
• Questionnaires
• Attitude surveys
• Observation
• Tests of proficiency
• Organizational statements and plans
• Turnover records
• Performance appraisals
• Procedures, handbooks, or audits
• Training evaluations
• Exit interviews
• Samples of work
• Job descriptions
• Complaints, error rates, and rejects
• Call reports, incident reports, and grievances
• Trade, government, and business publications

Criteria for Selecting a Method. From the rather extensive list of methods, select
those most appropriate for the situation. Many factors will determine which meth-
ods to select. Look at the criteria in Exhibit 1.2, think about your own needs-
assessment situation, and determine which criteria you believe should be taken
into consideration.
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EXHIBIT 1.2. Method Selection Criteria

• Time
• Cost
• Number of people involved
• Workplace disruption
• Complexity
• Confidentiality
• Trust level
• Comfort level, knowledge, expertise of assessor
• Validity
• Reliability
• Adaptability
• Participant-friendly

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Data-Collection Methods. Data-collection meth-

ods fall roughly into six categories: open-ended questionnaires, closed-ended ques-
tionnaires, survey instruments, interviews, observation, and document examination.
To help determine which data-collection methods to use, it is a good idea to look
at the advantages and disadvantages of each, as shown in Table 1.2. Weigh these
considerations against your chosen criteria.
The most common approaches are covered in detail below.

Interviews. Whether for an in-depth or an abbreviated needs assessment, one-on-

one and group interviews are valuable data sources. When developing interview
questions, be sure to ask open-ended rather than closed-ended questions. Closed-
ended questions can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no.” For example, a ques-
tion such as “Do you think there is a need for training?” elicits a one-word
response. Probe further by asking an open-ended question. To get to the heart of the
matter right away, ask a question that begins with “how” or “what” such as, “What
would help you do your job better?” Try to avoid asking questions that begin with
“why.” First, people may not know why. Also, “why” questions tend to put people
on the defensive.
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Assessing Needs 15

Table 1.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Data-Collection Methods

Advantages Disadvantages
Open-Ended Allow respondent to Communication is one-way
Questionnaires introduce new topics Respondents may not want
Easy to develop to put comments in writing
Inexpensive to administer Prone to ambiguity and opinions
Closed-Ended Easier to answer Limited information
Questionnaires Inexpensive to administer Require more skill and work to prepare
Feeling of anonymity and Items subject to misinterpretation
confidentiality ensured Difficult and time-consuming to construct
Less time-consuming
Instruments Validated through research Administration and coordination needed
Quickly and easily administered Difficulty in choosing most appropriate
Can be administered in groups Difficult and time-consuming to construct
Scored quickly Need to research different types
Individual or Can read nonverbal messages Time-consuming
Group Interviews Easier to talk Some people may feel threatened
Build commitment for training Can be affected by interviewer bias
Clarifies expectations Difficult to organize and analyze data
Can introduce new topics People may be influenced by peers
More detailed information
Observation Better understanding of variables Time-consuming
Provides real-life data and Requires some knowledge of the job
examples that can be used People may be anxious, nervous
in course material Difficult to record data
Real situations, highly relevant
Relatively low cost
Analysis of Existing Factual, highly valid information May be outdated
Information Easy access to many sources May not cover all areas needed;
in one place too generic
Inexpensive and not very Risks misinterpretation
time-consuming May be biased
Unobtrusive
Provides specific examples

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, and imprint of
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Sample Interview Questions. Plan to take considerable time and care in writing
questions. Not only should they be designed to elicit as much information as pos-
sible, but the questions must produce answers that will provide meaningful infor-
mation. Although questions will vary according to the specific situation, some
sample questions are included below that may help. After reading sample inter-
view questions, make a list of questions you might ask. Be sure to identify your in-
terviewees. Different sets of questions are required for the employees in the target
audience and their managers.

Questions for Target Audience

• “What is a typical day for you?”
• “With whom do you interact on a regular basis?”
• “What are the typical situations, customers, or projects that you deal with?”
• “What training have you received to prepare you for this position?”
• “What additional training do you think you need to help you do your job
better?”
• “What are the most difficult aspects of your job?”
• “What do you like best about your job?”
• “How do you know you are doing a good job?”
• “What type of feedback do you receive about your job performance?”
• “How often do you receive feedback?”

Questions for Managers of Target Audience

• “What would you like your employees to do differently?”
• “How would you describe the current level of performance in your depart-
ment (or unit or team)?”
• “What are the important issues, problems, or changes your employees face
at the present time?”
• “What skills, knowledge, or behaviors do you think your employees need
to acquire or improve on in order to do their jobs better?”
• “What are the potential barriers that might get in the way of your training
efforts?”
• “What methods do you use to measure employee performance?”
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Assessing Needs 17

• “How often do you give feedback to your employees about their

performance?”
• “What is the biggest challenge you face as a manager?”

As mentioned earlier, communication is critical throughout the process.

Interviews must be carefully planned and executed. The following guidelines will
help you to conduct interviews smoothly and efficiently.

• Schedule in Advance. Be respectful of people’s time. Be sure to contact your

interviewees well in advance of the interview and arrange meetings at their
convenience. If they view an interview as an imposition and a disruption,
they will probably not be as forthcoming or cooperative in responding to
questions. It is also helpful to send the questions in advance so they can
prepare or think about their answers. This preparation will enable the
interview to move along more efficiently, and the interviewees’ answers
will be more meaningful.
• Prepare an Agenda. Good meeting management includes an agenda, prepared
and sent out well in advance of the meeting. Needs-assessment interviews
are no exception. Be sure to indicate the purpose and provide some direction
or guidelines on how the interviewees can prepare for the interview. Of
course, also include logistical information such as the date, location, and
the time (both starting and ending).
• Ensure Privacy. This point should be a given; however, unless you take spe-
cial care to arrange for a private meeting spot ahead of time, you might find
yourself meeting in a less-than-ideal environment.
• Eliminate Distractions and Interruptions. Once again, planning is key. Take the
necessary steps to ensure that you are not interrupted during the interview.
In many cases, this means that you will need to communicate the importance
of the interview session in advance and request that the interviewee do
whatever it takes to maintain an interruption-free environment. If possible,
try to conduct the interview away from the work site.
• Clarify Purpose. Begin the interview by clarifying the purpose of the meeting.
Emphasize the importance of the needs assessment process and clearly ex-
plain the entire process and what you are going to do with the information.
Give interviewees an opportunity to ask questions about the process before
beginning the formal interview session.
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• Stress Confidentiality. Assure all interviewees that their answers and remarks
will be held in the strictest confidence. Be sure to explain how the informa-
tion will be used. Focus groups, in particular, need to be reminded that,
although the speaker’s identity will be protected, what the person says
will be recorded. It is critical that members of the focus group respect one
another and not divulge any information shared within the group.
• Use Good Communication Techniques. To be an effective interviewer, hone
your active listening skills, particularly your ability to clarify and confirm.
Interviewees are prone to rambling and talking in generalities. Make sure
that you understand clearly what the other person is saying. The following
communication techniques will help you to gather the information you need:
“Tell me more about. . . .”
“Give me an example of. . . .”
“Let me make sure I understand. What I heard was. . . .”
“If I heard you correctly, you believe that. . . .”
Whatever you do, don’t say, “What you mean is. . .” or “What you’re say-
ing is. . . .” These statements imply that the speaker is not articulate enough
to express himself or herself, and you have to help him or her out.

Observation. Observation involves a person who has received training in observa-

tion skills actually observing others on the job. Trained observers look for specific be-
haviors and are skilled in writing down their observations objectively in concrete
behavioral terms. Observations are often used to validate information gathered by
other methods such as interviews or questionnaires. Another observation technique
makes use of an outside “shopper.” Some organizations (banks, retail sales) hire out-
side professionals to conduct telephone or face-to-face shopping surveys. With this
method, representatives from the consulting company go into a store or branch office
and pretend to be customers. They note specific behaviors such as how they were
greeted, friendliness, and knowledge level of the employees. They may look for evi-
dence of cross-selling efforts or an offer of further assistance.

Questionnaires/Survey Instruments. An important consideration in using instruments

is whether to develop them or purchase them. Questionnaires with open-ended ques-
tions are easy to construct, whereas questionnaires with closed-ended questions require
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Assessing Needs 19

more time and thought. Although published surveys can be costly, using them can not
only save you time, but will yield more accurate information because they have been
tested for validity and reliability. Be aware, however, that published instruments may
or may not be specific enough for a given situation. For both questionnaires and sur-
veys, be sure to send a cover letter to participants explaining the purpose and what will
be done with the results of the instrument. Make the instructions crystal clear.

Step Four: Analyze Data

Data analysis can be simple or quite complex, depending on the methods chosen.
For qualitative data, such as individual or group interviews, as well as open-ended
questionnaires and observation, do a content analysis, sorting information into cat-
egories (for example, positive and negative reactions) and identifying common
themes. The goal of the content analysis is to categorize and quantify the data as
much as possible with minimal interpretation.
For quantitative data (survey instruments and close-ended questionnaires), do
a statistical analysis. Keep it as simple as possible. Do not become engulfed in
number-crunching activities. Look at the data in terms of mean (the average, cal-
culated by adding all the values and dividing by the number in the group), mode
(the number that occurs most frequently), and median (the middle number in a nu-
merical listing).
If your research indicates that training is appropriate, specify the type of train-
ing called for. Should it be workshop training, on-the-job, self-study, computer-
based, or what? Training must address the problem specifically, and the systems
must be in place to support the training outcomes. For example, you may iden-
tify a customer-service training program as the solution to customer complaints
and lost business. Participants in the training will learn how to handle customer
complaints tactfully and respond to customer inquiries politely and efficiently.
Yet the program will fail if slow delivery makes it hard for the customer to buy
the product.

Clarify and Define the Problem. Although the problem may have been stated
at the beginning of the needs assessment process by the key players in the orga-
nization, those are really perceptions of the problem. The data-collection process
and subsequent analysis of that data will help to clarify and to define the real
problem.
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NEEDS-ASSESSMENT EXAMPLE
A client asked me to deliver a stress management program for a group of executive
secretaries. In a discussion with my contact, the training director, I probed to un-
cover what events may have triggered the request. During a recent company-wide
employee meeting, several secretaries were quite outspoken in expressing their dis-
satisfaction with the way they were being treated. As a result, senior management
concluded that this group needed stress management.Although actual performance
had not been affected, the morale and interpersonal relationships were deteriorat-
ing rapidly. I suggested that, before I developed a program specific to their situation,
it would be a good idea to talk with a few members of the target audience.The train-
ing director agreed, and we arranged a focus group meeting with six of the secre-
taries. As I listened to the secretaries, it became increasingly clear that most of the
stress the secretaries were experiencing stemmed from a single cause: the inability
of the secretaries and managers to communicate effectively with one another.After
listening to the secretaries’ complaints and perceptions of the problem, I concluded
that a stress management program was not the answer. In fact, it would be a waste
of time and money. I suggested that we attack the cause of the problem, not its
symptoms. I recommended that I design and deliver a program that would promote
open, two-way communication between each secretary and her immediate supervi-
sor by showing them how to improve their communication skills and to work more
effectively as members of a boss/secretary team.

During the analysis phase, you will add to your perceptions of the problem
through qualitative data such as interviews and focus groups. Verify your percep-
tions with survey results and other quantitative data. After categorizing the data,
the next step is to identify priorities, always keeping in mind the business need. The
prioritization process is extremely important since your needs assessment will
probably result in a long list of training needs. Based on an analysis of the data,
make your recommendations for specific training programs or interventions.

Step Five: Provide Feedback

After the data have been collected and analyzed, identify the area(s) of need, design
an action plan or strategies, and communicate your conclusions and recommenda-
tions to key personnel. This feedback should be delivered in both a written and an
oral format. As you prepare to communicate your findings and recommendations,
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Assessing Needs 21

keep in mind that the goal is to get approval for your proposal. Plan a strategy for
presenting the information in a positive light. Carefully think through what (and
how much) to share, how to share, and with whom to share findings and recom-
mendations.

The Written Report. The final report is a critical piece. It should be constructed
in such a way that it presents the data in an easy-to-understand format along with
conclusions and recommendations. The length of the final report, of course, de-
pends on how extensive the assessment is. In any case, the written report should
contain the following elements:

Executive Overview. Provide an overview of your proposal for executives, an ab-

breviated, concise representation of the larger document, limited to one page and
distributed to the key decision makers.

Description of the Process. Provide appropriate background information, such as

the problem statement or current situation, and briefly describe the entire needs as-
sessment process, including purpose, scope, methods used, and the people in-
volved. Be sure to include your rationale, that is, your reason for conducting a
needs assessment.

Summary of Findings. In this section, present your data clearly and concisely,
highlighting patterns or significant results.

Preliminary Conclusions. Address the analysis of the data, focusing on key issues
that have surfaced. It may be appropriate to show how the findings relate to or sup-
port your (or others’) perceptions. Point out how the issues relate to the business
need. Do not assume that readers will make the connection by themselves.

Recommendations. At this point, list your ideas and recommended solutions to

the problem. When identifying training issues, be clear about what programs
should be implemented, who should be involved, and how, when, and where the
training will take place. Be careful not to lock yourself in by being too specific.

Potential Barriers. Solutions to problems are not without problems themselves.

Take a proactive approach by addressing potential barriers up-front and suggesting
ways to overcome them. Potential barriers can be almost anything, but the most
common will probably be cost, time commitment, and the commitment of the tar-
get audience and/or their managers.
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Oral Presentation. In addition to the written proposal, plan to present your infor-
mation and recommendations to a selected audience. The oral presentation is an
opportunity to hear reactions from the key players. Be prepared for questions and
challenges. Anticipate what they may be and have responses and answers ready.
Look at your presentation as a chance to sell your ideas. That means you will need
to fine-tune your persuasion and influencing skills. Ask someone who is a skillful
presenter and persuader to coach you before your presentation or, if you have the
time and the opportunity, participate in a workshop on persuasive presentations.

Selected Audience. Your selected audience depends on a number of factors such

as the corporate culture and internal politics. In general, include key decision mak-
ers and representative stakeholders such as members of the target audience, their
managers, and anyone who may have a vested interest in the program’s success.
Also, the number of meetings and the levels involved in receiving the feedback
should relate to the scope of the assessment. For example, if everyone in the orga-
nization completed an employee-opinion survey, then every employee should re-
ceive feedback. This is generally done in various group meetings, with the
managers sharing the results of the survey along with the appropriate action plan.

Length. In many cases, you may have little control over the length of the presen-
tation. Senior management will probably determine the time available based on
their schedules, priorities, and other commitments. If they do not, then request an
hour. That will give enough time to present your case and address any questions or
concerns the executives might raise.

Format/Approach. The key here is to present findings in summary form. Use

slides or transparencies of bulleted points and simple charts and graphs to illustrate
and highlight important information.

Developing an Action Plan

After presenting the information and making recommendations, solicit reactions
and feedback from the key players. It is possible that they will immediately approve
your proposal. More likely, however, you will be asked to make some modifications.
In some cases, you may have to go back to the drawing board several times.
Once your proposal has been approved, map out a plan for the design, devel-
opment, and delivery of the program(s). Include specific action items with a time
line and appropriate task assignments.
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Assessing Needs 23

The next step in the process of designing a program that meets the specific de-
velopmental needs of the participants and the business needs of the organization is
to write learning outcomes or objectives, which are addressed in detail in Chapter
5. However, before you begin the design and development process, examine some
critical elements that are often overlooked: how adults learn, the different learning
styles of your participants, and your own training style. Finally, examine some of
the diversity issues in today’s workplace that will have an impact on how you de-
sign, develop, and deliver effective training programs. These important considera-
tions will be addressed in Chapters 2, 3, and 4.

Assessing Participants’ Knowledge,

Attitudes, Skills
So far, we have looked at the needs-assessment process that serves as the basis of
training design, development, and evaluation. It may seem that after you receive
the go-ahead to design and develop a program targeted to specific needs, the
needs-assessment task is over. Not so! You also must assess the knowledge, atti-
tudes, and skill level of the participants prior to each session. Different audiences
may have different needs. For example, let’s say the organization has decided to
implement a management development program to include all levels of manage-
ment from first-line supervisor to senior manager level. The needs of a first-line su-
pervisor will be different from those of a mid-level manager, and certainly different
from those of a senior manager. Therefore, participants at each level must be fur-
ther assessed.

Pre-Session Questionnaire
A short, simple, and straightforward questionnaire such as the one shown in
Exhibit 1.3 can be an invaluable tool in fine-tuning your program.
The information you receive from such a questionnaire will help you in the fol-
lowing ways:
1. It can help to design the program at the appropriate level, not insulting
participants’ intelligence (and boring them to death) by dealing with con-
tent they already know. By the same token, you do not want to lose them
by talking over their heads.
2. A questionnaire allows you to identify those participants who have greater
familiarity with the training topic so you can draw on them as resources.
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24 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

EXHIBIT 1.3. Confidential Pre-Session Questionnaire

Management Skills and Techniques: Part III

The purpose of this questionnaire is to provide the facilitator of this program with
insights into your current skills in or knowledge about the subject of managing oth-
ers. By knowing what new skills and knowledge you would like from the program,
the facilitator will be better able to meet your needs.

Name: Current Position:

Organization: City, State:

Previous positions held:

Formal education beyond high school:

What management courses, workshops, or seminars have you attended?

Briefly describe the responsibilities of your current position:

How long have you managed or supervised others?

How many people do you directly supervise or manage?

What do you believe is the most difficult problem or challenge you face when man-
aging people?

What one specific thing do you want to get out of this program?

What concerns do you have about participating in this learning experience?

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Assessing Needs 25

Conversely, by identifying those with less familiarity with a topic, you will
know who may need additional attention or encouragement.

3. The questionnaire will help to weed out those who do not belong in
the session because they are under-qualified, over-qualified, or doing
work for which the program is irrelevant. This is particularly important
for voluntary, open-enrollment programs advertised to all employees
in an organization. Unfortunately, no matter how well the course
description identifies the target audience and learning outcomes,
invariably those who do not read beyond the title will sign up for
programs for which they are not suited. When that happens, take
the person aside, explain that the session may not meet his or her
expectations, and offer the person the option of leaving. Should the
person choose to stay, you have at least been up-front about what
the participant can and cannot expect.

4. The questionnaire can be used to gather information to use in creating

real-life case studies, skill practices, and examples. The more relevant
you can make your material, the more the participants will embrace the
training. Of course, assure the participants that their contributions may
be used but not identified.

5. The questionnaire can identify potential problems caused by negative

attitudes so that you can take steps to overcome these barriers or pockets
of resistance.

6. The questionnaire can create a positive learning environment even before

the program starts. It can help participants be mentally prepared for the
training. Also, your interest in finding out about them even before they
come to your session will make them more receptive to you and what you
have to offer.

On-the-Spot Assessment
Regardless of how extensive your needs assessment is, it is also a good idea to con-
duct an informal, on-the-spot, individual needs assessment at the beginning of the
first session. Start by asking the participants what they expect from the session.
Their answers will give you an indication of whether or not your design is on tar-
get. This on-the-spot assessment will also provide an opportunity to clarify partic-
ipants’ expectations. Reinforce those expectations that are on target with the
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26 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

KEY POINTS
• A needs assessment serves as the basis for program development.
• A needs assessment identifies the gap between the actual and desired performance.
• A needs assessment provides criteria for measuring program success.
• Start with an organizational context, that is, the business impact of the training need.
• Use a variety of methods to assess training needs: surveys, interviews, observations,
questionnaires, performance data, etc.
• Get input from various sources, including senior management, target population, target
population’s managers, direct reports, co-workers, customers, vendors, human resources
professionals, competitors, and industry experts.
• Follow a prescribed five-step process to identify both the business needs of the organi-
zation and the developmental needs of the participants.

training design or make last-minute adjustments to the program, to make sure par-
ticipants’ needs are met. Sometimes, participants may have expectations that you
cannot possibly meet in the session. Chapter 8 covers some specific interactive on-
the-spot needs assessment activities.

✦ ✦ ✦
Once you have completed the needs assessment and developed your action plan,
the next step is to design the training program. Before doing so, however, you need
to have a clear understanding of how adults learn so that you reflect adult-learning
principles throughout your training program.
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Chapter 2
Understanding
Adult Learners

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will
• Examine the basic principles of adult learning that all trainers should
know before undertaking a training assignment
• Identify ways to overcome resistance to learning

Andragogical Versus Pedagogical Model

People have been “brought up” on the pedagogical model of learning that has
dominated education and training for centuries. Because that has been the stan-
dard, people use that approach when they are asked to teach or train others. In
brief, the pedagogical model makes the following assumptions:
• The teacher is responsible for the learning process, including what and
how learners learn. The learner’s role is passive.
• Because the learner has little experience, the teacher is the expert, the guru,
and it is his or her responsibility to impart his or her wealth of knowledge.
This amounts to an “information dump” through traditional means such

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28 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

as lecture, textbooks, manuals, and videos in which other “experts” share

their knowledge and experience.
• People are motivated to learn because they “have to” in order to pass a test,
advance to the next level, or earn certification.
• Learning is information-centered. The teacher “covers” the material so that
the learner can acquire the prescribed information in some type of logical
order.
• Motivation to learn is largely external. Pressure from authority figures and
fear of negative consequences drive the learner. The teacher, in essence,
controls the learning through rewards and discipline.

Understanding How and Why People Learn

Although adult education theorists differ on just how different adults are from chil-
dren, most embrace the andragogical theory of adult learning. During the 1960s,
European adult educators coined the term “andragogy” to provide a label for a grow-
ing body of knowledge and technology in regard to adult learning. The concept was
introduced and advanced in the United States by Malcolm Knowles. The following
assumptions underlie the andragogical model of learning, which Knowles now calls
a model of human learning (Knowles, 1990):

Assumption One
The first assumption involves a change in self-concept from total dependency to in-
creasing self-directedness. The adult learner is self-directed. Adult learners want to
take responsibility for their own lives, including the planning, implementing, and
evaluating of their learning activities. This principle is often misinterpreted.
Learner self-directedness does not mean the trainer abdicates responsibility for the
plan or approach. From the beginning, the trainer establishes the training process
as a collaborative effort. Throughout the process, the trainer and participant should
be partners engaged in ongoing, two-way communication.

Assumption Two
The second principle addresses the role of experience, a principle unique to the adult
learner. According to Knowles, each of us brings to a learning situation a wealth of
experiences that provide a base for new learning as well as a resource to share with
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Understanding Adult Learners 29

others. These experiences may be good or bad, but they will impact the way in
which an employee approaches a new learning experience. Because people base
their learning on past experiences, the new information must be assimilated. The
wise trainer will find out what the participants already know and will build on
those experiences, rather than treating participants as though they know nothing
and must be taught like small children.

Assumption Three
The third assumption is that adults are ready to learn when they perceive a need to
know or do something in order to perform more effectively in some aspect of their
lives. The days of abstract theories and concepts are over for most adults. They
want the learning experience to be practical and realistic, problem-centered rather
than subject-centered. The effective trainer helps participants understand how
learning a particular skill or task will help them be more successful, that is, how the
employee can do the job quicker, easier, more efficiently.

Assumption Four
Fourth, adults want immediate, real-world applications. They want the skills and knowl-
edge to help them solve problems or complete tasks. People are motivated to learn
when they see relevance to their real-life situations and are able to apply what they
have learned as quickly as possible. Therefore, learning activities need to be clearly rel-
evant to the immediate needs of the adult. To be effective, deliver just-in-time training
and emphasize how the training is going to make participants’ jobs easier.

Assumption Five
Finally, adults are motivated to learn because of internal factors such as self-esteem,
desire for recognition, natural curiosity, innate love of learning, better quality of
life, greater self-confidence, or the opportunity to self-actualize.

Principles of Adult Learning

As you begin to design and develop any training program for adults, keep in mind
these additional principles regarding how adults learn:
• Adults must recognize the need to learn.
• Adults want to apply new learning back on the job.
• Adults need to integrate past experience with new material.
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30 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

• Adults prefer the concrete to the abstract.

• Adults need a variety of training methods.
• Adults learn better in an informal, comfortable environment.
• Adults want to solve realistic problems.
• Adults prefer the hands-on method of learning.

Learning Styles
Adults learn through a variety of ways. One person may learn better by listening;
another may be visual or may prefer to read instructions. Someone else will need a
demonstration.
Learning style refers to the way in which a learner approaches and responds to
a learning experience. There are several learning style assessments available on the
market including the following instruments, published in the Pfeiffer Annuals:
• Learning Style Inventory by Ronne Toker Jacobs and Barbara Schneider
Fuhrmann (1984)
• The Learning Model Instrument by Kenneth L. Murrell (1987)
• The Dunn and Dunn Model of Learning Styles by Joanne Ingham and Rita
Dunn (1993)

David Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (1991) is used widely as a basis for other
models and instruments. These, among others, are all excellent tools to help you
identify learning style. The self-assessment process heightens your awareness that
different people learn in different ways and sensitizes people to the importance of
designing training that addresses all learning styles.

Determining Your Learning Style

To get a flavor for these style differences and to further your understanding of your
preferred learning style, complete the learning style assessment in Exhibit 2.1, then
score and study it.
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Understanding Adult Learners 31

EXHIBIT 2.1. Learning Style Profile

Instructions: For each of the numbered items below, rank alternatives A through D
by assigning 4 to the phrase that is most like you, 3 to the one that next describes
you, 2 to the next, and finally, 1 to the ending that is least descriptive of you.

1. When solving a problem, I prefer to. . .

a. take a step-by-step approach
b. take immediate action
c. consider the impact on others
d. make sure I have all the facts

2. As a learner, I prefer to. . .

a. listen to a lecture
b. work in small groups
c. read articles and case studies
d. participate in role plays

3. When the trainer asks a question to which I know the answer, I. . .

a. let others answer first
b. offer an immediate response
c. consider whether my answer will be received favorably
d. think carefully about my answer before responding

4. In a group discussion, I. . .
a. encourage others to offer their opinions
b. question others’ opinions
c. readily offer my opinion
d. listen to others before offering my opinion

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EXHIBIT 2.1. Learning Style Profile, Cont’d

5. I learn best from activities in which I. . .

a. can interact with others
b. remain uninvolved
c. take a leadership role
d. can take my time

6. During a lecture, I listen for. . .

a. practical how-to’s
b. logical points
c. the main idea
d. stories and anecdotes

7. I am impressed by a trainer’s. . .
a. knowledge and expertise
b. personality and style
c. use of methods and activities
d. organization and control

8. I prefer information to be presented in the following way:

a. a model such as a flow chart
b. bullet points
c. detailed explanation
d. accompanied by examples

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
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Understanding Adult Learners 33

EXHIBIT 2.1. Learning Style Profile, Cont’d

9. I learn best when I. . .

a. see relationships among ideas, events, and situations
b. interact with others
c. receive practical tips
c. observe a demonstration or video

10. Before attending a training program, I ask myself: “Will I. . .?”

a. get practical tips to help me in my job
b. receive lots of information
c. have to participate
d. learn something new
11. After attending a training session, I. . .
a. tend to think about what I learned
b. am anxious to put my learning into action
c. reflect on the experience as a whole
d. tell others about my experience
12. The training method I dislike the most is. . .
a. participating in small groups
b. listening to a lecture
c. reading and analyzing case studies
d. participating in role plays

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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EXHIBIT 2.1. Learning Style Profile, Cont’d

Scoring Sheet
Instructions: Record your responses on the appropriate spaces below, then total the
columns.

Feeler Observer Thinker Doer

1c 1a 1d 1b
2b 2a 2c 2d
3c 3a 3d 3b
4a 4d 4b 4c
5a 5b 5d 5c
6d 6c 6b 6a
7b 7d 7a 7c
8a 8d 8c 8b
9b 9d 9a 9c
10d 10c 10b 10a
11d 11c 11a 11b
12c 12a 12d 12b
Total Total Total Total

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
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Understanding Adult Learners 35

EXHIBIT 2.1. Learning Style Profile, Cont’d

Feelers. Feelers are very people-oriented. They are expressive and focus on feel-
ings and emotions. They enjoy affective learning and gravitate toward learning ex-
periences that explore people’s attitudes and emotions. Feelers thrive in an open,
unstructured learning environment and appreciate the opportunity to work in
groups and like activities in which they can share opinions and experiences.

Observers. Observers like to watch and listen. They tend to be reserved and quiet
and will take their time before acting or participating in class. When they do decide
to offer an opinion or answer a question, they are generally right on target. They
enjoy learning experiences that allow them to consider various ideas and opinions,
and they seem to thrive on learning through discovery.

Thinkers. Thinkers rely on logic and reason. They like the opportunity to share
ideas and concepts. They prefer activities that require them to analyze and evalu-
ate. They will question the rationale behind activities and will challenge statements
that they perceive to be too general or without substance. The thinkers prefer to
work independently and question the relevance of role plays and simulations.

Doers. Doers like to be actively involved in the learning process. They will take
charge in group activities and tend to dominate discussions. They like opportunities
to practice what they learned, and they are particularly interested in knowing how
they are going to apply what they learn in the real world. They like information pre-
sented clearly and concisely and become impatient with drawn-out discussions.

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Keep in mind that no one learning style is right or even better than another. The
point is that each person learns differently. A variety of learning styles will be rep-
resented in any training session. To be effective, trainers must design their pro-
grams to accommodate style differences. Predictably, trainers use the styles they
prefer. Although it is natural to use the style with which one is most comfortable,
the most effective trainers will learn how to adapt their styles to meet the needs of
all participants. You will have an opportunity to find out about your preferred
training style in Chapter 3.

Perceptual Modality
In addition to learning styles, an effective trainer must be able to understand the
different perceptual modalities. According to M.B. James and M.W. Galbraith
(1985), a learner may prefer one of the following six perceptual modalities, ways in
which one takes in and processes information:

Visual Videos; slides; graphs; photos; demonstrations; methods and

media that create opportunities for the participant to experi-
ence learning through the eyes
Print Texts; paper-and-pencil exercises that enable the participant to
absorb the written word
Aural Lectures; audiotapes; methods that allow the participant to
simply listen and take in information through the ears
Interactive Group discussions; question-and-answer sessions; ways that
give the participant an opportunity to talk and engage in an
exchange of ideas, opinions, reactions with fellow participants
Tactile Hands-on activities; model building methods that require the
participant to handle objects or put things together
Kinesthetic Role plays; physical games and activities that involve the
use of psychomotor skills and movement from one place to
another

Research indicates that more adults are visual learners than any other perceptual
style; however, a good training design incorporates all six modalities to ensure that
all participants’ needs are being addressed. Vary activities to create multi-sensory
learning that will increase the likelihood of appealing to each participant’s style.
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Understanding Adult Learners 37

This multi-sensory approach also helps each participant reinforce the knowledge or
skills acquired through the preferred modality.
Learning should be presented in a way that complements each person’s pre-
ferred modality. For example, let’s look at a design for training several people in a
group setting to use a personal computer. The trainer includes pictures of the com-
puter screen, illustrating what the person should see when he or she strikes a partic-
ular key. The trainer also demonstrates how to perform certain functions on the
computer (visual). The training design includes print materials such as a manual and
short application-oriented quizzes (print). For review and reinforcement, the trainer
prepares an audiotape (aural). During daily instructional sessions, the trainer pro-
vides many opportunities for the trainee to answer as well as ask questions (interac-
tive). Of course, the design includes multiple opportunities for hands-on practice
(tactile). Finally, the trainer will create simulation activities in which the trainees will
be asked to create “real-life” work-related documents such as spreadsheets, reports,
graphs, etc. (kinesthetic).
Another important consideration is that people generally learn by doing, not by
being told how to do something. For example, a person learns more quickly how to
reach a new location by driving the car rather than by observing as a passenger. So
the more opportunities a person has to “try out” or apply the skills, the more likely
he or she is to learn the skills.
Telling is not teaching or training. How many times have you said to yourself,
“I’ve told him and told him how to do it, but he still gets it wrong”? Just because
you tell someone how to do something doesn’t mean he or she understands it or
has developed the skill to do it.
Still other factors affect the speed at which people learn.

Psychological. Some people prefer the “big picture,” while others want a step-by-
step process.

Environmental. Sound, light, temperature, and seating can all impact learning. For
example, sitting in a hard chair for several hours will put stress on the body, inter-
fering with a person’s ability to concentrate.

Emotional. Participants’ motivation for attending the session will influence the
learning process. Those who attend because they want to are more likely to have a
positive learning experience than those who are there because their supervisors re-
quired them to attend.
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Sociological. People are by nature social beings. Although some people do learn
better alone, studies show that most people learn better and experience greater sat-
isfaction with the learning experience when they are in pairs or small groups.

Physical. People’s physical condition, including hearing, sight, general health, and
energy level, impact their ability to learn. Most people have less energy in the af-
ternoon. Trainers should keep this in mind when designing and developing their
programs.

Intellectual and Experiential. People in your sessions will vary greatly in educa-
tional background, life experiences, innate intelligence, and abilities. That is why
it’s important to find out as much as possible about your participants before they
attend training sessions.

Age. One of the frequent issues that comes up in train-the-trainer and coaching
courses relates to the impact of age on the learning process. Managers, supervisors,
and trainers often say that older workers are slower and more difficult to train.
To set the record straight, researchers are somewhat divided on the issue of age
and one’s ability to learn, depending on one’s interpretation of learning. In general,
research on adult learning shows that adults continue to learn throughout the
years; however, they may take longer to learn new things (Sterns & Doverspike,
1988). Although younger folks seem to be more efficient when it comes to memo-
rizing information, older people are better able to evaluate and apply information.
Research findings show that change in adulthood is a procession of critical periods
during the fifty plus years following childhood and youth. These periods consist of
marked changes and experiences during which some of the most meaningful learn-
ing may occur.
Adults have a potential for continuing learning and inquiry that conventional
wisdom has sometimes failed to recognize. Researchers, however, do recognize that
physical changes play a part in the learning process. As we age, we may experience
some hearing loss, lower energy levels, and slower reaction time. These factors
should be taken into consideration; however, they should not be regarded as proof
that older people are slower or have greater difficulty learning. By observing adult-
learning principles as well as basic concepts of individual differences and accom-
modating them accordingly, a trainer can effectively train any adult.
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Understanding Adult Learners 39

Cognitive Overload
Our minds are like sponges as we soak up knowledge and information. When
sponges are saturated, any additional water will run right through. Just as
the sponge is overloaded, a learner can experience cognitive overload of his or her
working memory. This working memory—the center of conscious thinking—has an
estimated limited capacity of seven “chunks” or pieces of information. The limits on
our working memory depend on the knowledge we have stored in long-term mem-
ory. A person who is quite comfortable with and knowledgeable about a subject can
easily overwhelm those who are less familiar with the information. The challenge to
the trainer is to present information in such a way that the participants do not ex-
perience overload.

Preventing Cognitive Overload

To prevent cognitive overload, use the following strategies when designing, devel-
oping, and delivering your training:
• Minimize the use of lecture. Boil down information into key learning points,
checklists, charts, graphs, or other visuals.
• Have the participants do most of the work. When the participants do the work,
they transfer new information into long-term memory, much like storing
data in a computer. The working memory is now free to absorb the next
chunk of information.
• Create chunks of content or information, and distribute or communicate it incre-
mentally. Use a variety of activities to communicate the material.
• Design workbooks and other participant materials that present information in an
easy-to-follow and easy-to-understand format.
• Create job aids for use during and after the training.

Application of Learning Principles

These concepts have certain implications for the trainer. The traditional or pedagog-
ical orientation is concerned with content. Trainers are concerned with “covering”
material in the most efficient way possible. In contrast, the andragogical orientation
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focuses on process, being attentive to the factors that either promote or inhibit
learning.
Based on what you know about the adult learner and how learning takes place,
take those principles and concepts and translate them into practical applications in
your training programs. Consider the following points as you create a learning ex-
perience for your participants:
• Create a comfortable, non-threatening learning climate in which people are
treated as responsible adults.
• Involve participants in planning their training through interviews, advisory
committees, and other up-front activities.
• Allow participants to engage in self-diagnosis by using questionnaires and
assessment instruments both before and during sessions.
• Give participants an opportunity to set their own objectives by soliciting
their input through pre-session questionnaires and assessment activities at
the beginning of sessions.
• Give them an opportunity to evaluate their own learning through a variety
of activities throughout the training program.
• Help them understand the “big picture” by pointing out how the particular
training program relates to the business objectives and/or problems.
• Make the learning relevant to them, that is, show how it will help them, by
using “real-world” examples and activities that connect with their frames
of reference.
• Use their experience by asking them to share examples from their own
situations.
• Actively involve the participants in the learning process by using learner-
centered activities and structured experiences and by providing them with
many opportunities to master the content.

The more you understand about how and why adults learn, the better equipped
you will be to design training programs that meet participants’ needs and obtain
the results you want.
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Understanding Adult Learners 41

KEY POINTS
• Training adults is different from teaching children.
• Adults need to be involved in planning, implementing, and evaluating their learning.
• Adults base their learning on past experiences.
• Adults expect training to be directly relevant to them and want real-world application.
• Adults learn in various ways.

✦ ✦ ✦
Before you begin to develop your training program, you also need to have a clear
understanding of how your own style and approach to training may impact the
participants’ learning experience.
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Chapter 3
Training Styles

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn
• To identify your own training-style preference
• To identify ways to increase your style flexibility
• To distinguish between learner-centered and information-centered
training
• To define your own role in the success of the training experience

Trainer Characteristics and Competencies

Recall your best and worst learning experiences from any time in your life (elemen-
tary school, high school, college, organizations, work). For each experience, briefly
describe the highlights and list what factors made that experience good or bad.
Description of Good Experience:

Factors That Made It Good:

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44 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

Description of Bad Experience:

Factors That Made It Bad:

Think about your feelings and reactions to both the good and bad experiences.
How effective was the learning experience? To what degree did the training or
learning experience contribute to your success?
During discussions of these questions in train-the-trainer programs, partici-
pants are quick to respond that the single most important factor in the success or
failure of the learning experience was the instructor. People often share that the
positive experiences had a positive impact on their success in life and how the neg-
ative experiences created major obstacles to further education and training. In some
cases, the negative experience prevented them from seeking or taking advantage of
opportunities that could have led to career advancement.

Are You Trainer Material?

Being good at your job does not guarantee that you will be good at training some-
one else how to do it. To be effective, trainers must perfect their competencies in the
following areas:
• First and foremost, training professionals must have a business orientation.
They must concern themselves with improving performance and focus
on business outcomes.
• Training professionals must also be able to recognize and admit when
training is not the appropriate solution for a problem.
• To succeed in a diverse environment, trainers must fine-tune their interper-
sonal skills and be able to adapt to a variety of people, cultures, and situations.
• Those responsible for training others in a workshop setting must develop
and master training skills. True professionals spend their entire lives honing
their craft and perfecting their skills, learning new skills, and they keep up-
to-date on the latest trends, concepts, and application to the field.

Over the years, educational research has identified personal and professional
characteristics or attributes that are associated with successful teachers. These same
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Training Styles 45

attributes can be ascribed to trainers as well. Review the checklist in Exhibit 3.1 to
identify those characteristics you bring to your role as a trainer. Place a check mark
next to those that describe you.

Training Style
Even if you have never done any formal training or teaching, you have already de-
veloped a training style, a combination of training philosophies, methods, and be-
haviors, as the result of the experiences you have had as a learner and as an

EXHIBIT 3.1. Characteristics of Effective Trainers

Knowledge of subject Articulate

Genuine Empathetic; understanding
Well-organized Sense of humor
Goal-oriented Uses a variety of methods
Strong presence; poise Warm; approachable
Professional appearance Tactful
Ability to relate content Good voice quality
to participants’ situations Enthusiastic
Good listener Positive self-concept
Patient Honest and open
Flexible; spontaneous Participant-centered
Positive attitude Respectful of participants
Credible Emotional stability
Ability to relate to others Diagnostician
at all levels Objective
Coach and counselor

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unofficial trainer. The way in which you give directions to others (co-workers,
friends, family members), present information, or explain how to do something re-
flects a preferred training style.

Style Flexibility
Just as you have a preferred style of learning, you have a preferred approach to pre-
senting content and relating to participants. Although you may have a strong pref-
erence for one style over another, you can and should learn to use the entire range
of styles to connect with participants and facilitate the learning process.
Much like management or leadership styles, inherent in training styles is the
need to balance continually concern for task or content with concern for people.
This is further complicated by the fact that different training styles impact different
types of learners in different ways.

Identifying Your Training Style

To heighten your awareness of your own style preferences, complete the assess-
ment instrument in Exhibit 3.2, using your most recent training assignment as a
frame of reference. You are evaluating yourself as “the trainer” and thus ranking
statements in terms of how you think you behave. To gain a more accurate and
complete picture of your training style, ask others to evaluate you by completing
the assessment, and then compare results.

Increasing Effectiveness
As mentioned in the description of styles in the interpretation section of the
Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, the “coach” is probably the most appro-
priate style for a true training situation. This style and its underlying philosophy
are reflected throughout this book. The coaching style supports and reinforces the
cooperative learning approach to training adults.
Keep in mind, however, that the coaching style is not going to be appropriate for
every learner. The challenge is to increase style flexibility and learn to assess what
style or approach is the most appropriate with a particular situation, group, or in-
dividual learner. Flexibility is the key to success, that is, changing and adapting
throughout the training program as you are faced with new challenges from the
participants. Trainers have trouble when they either cannot or will not adapt to
the styles and needs of the participants.
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Training Styles 47

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory

Instructions: Think of your most recent learning experience with the trainer who is
being evaluated. Each of the twenty items that follows contains four statements
about what instructors can do or ways in which they can act.
Rank each set of statements to reflect the degree to which each statement
in the set describes the trainer’s instructional style. Assign a ranking of four
(4) to the statement most characteristic or descriptive of the trainer; assign a
three (3) to the next most descriptive statement; a two (2) to the next most de-
scriptive statement; and a one (1) to the statement that is least descriptive of the
trainer. Record your response for each statement in the blank next to it.
For some items, you may think that all statements are very descriptive or that
none fit very well. To give the most accurate feedback, force yourself to rank the
statements as best you can.

“When Instructing Adults,This Person

Would Be Most Likely to . . .”
1. ____ a. Allow extended practice or discussion in areas of particular interest
to learners.
____ b. Judge trainer’s effectiveness by how well the prepared materials are
covered.
____ c. Sit down with learners while instructing them.
____ d. Set trainer up as a role model and encourage learners to emulate
trainer.

2. ____ a. End a training session by summarizing the key subject matter

and recommending that learners find ways to apply it on the job.
____ b. Arrange the room so as to provide for better discipline and control.
____ c. Use specific course objectives to inform learners as to what they
should expect to be able to do.
____ d. Focus learners’ attention more on themselves and their own perfor-
mance than on trainer.

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48 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

3. ____ a. Gain supervisors’ involvement by providing ideas on how to

support learners’ attempts to apply new skills.
____ b. Let the group “handle” difficult learners or privately explore
reasons for problems.
____ c. Evaluate learners by giving examinations to test their retention of
presented materials.
____ d. Carefully lead and control any group discussions.

4. ____ a. Put his or her primary focus on giving a technically polished

presentation.
____ b. Avoid reducing impact by not disclosing any course materials prior
to the program.
____ c. Show willingness to learn from learners by admitting errors or lack
of knowledge when appropriate.
____ d. Collect background information and adjust the level of content
material for each particular group.

5. ____ a. Involve learners in activities designed to stimulate critical or reflec-

tive thought.
____ b. Communicate positive expectations to slower learners through feed-
back and encouragement, in order to help them improve.
____ c. Motivate learners with enthusiastic talks, humorous stories, and
entertaining or inspirational videos.
____ d. Maintain punctuality of published program schedules.

6. ____ a. Make occasional use of media tools to support other primary learn-
ing activities.
____ b. Present materials in the most logical order.
____ c. Allow learners to influence or prioritize course content and objectives.
____ d. Ensure that learners perform and apply newly learned skills as
instructed.
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Training Styles 49

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

7. ____ a. Thoroughly cover all subject-matter areas in the scheduled time

allotted.
____ b. Change course materials or training methods based on feedback
about performance changes after training.
____ c. Maintain a consistent pace of presentation throughout the program.
____ d. Express concern for and interest in individual learners and their
problems.

8. ____ a. Judge trainer’s effectiveness based on learners’ “liking” of trainer.

____ b. Allow learners to make mistakes and learn from session experiences.
____ c. Expose learners to traditionally accepted subject matter and correct
procedures.
____ d. Ask learners questions designed to guide them to self-discovery of
key points.

9. ____ a. Frequently assess learners’ body language and emotional states and
adjust activities or schedule appropriately.
____ b. Explore content-related controversial issues as potential learning
experiences.
____ c. Plan and structure course materials in considerable detail.
____ d. Begin program by informing learners of trainer’s experience or
qualifications and trainer’s goals for the program.

10. ____ a. Cite a bibliography of resources concerning materials discussed for

further learner self-development.
____ b. Use position as instructor to quickly resolve “difficult learner” prob-
lems (e.g., monopolizers, side conversations, sharpshooters, etc.).
____ c. Encourage casual or comfortable dress to increase the informality of
the learning environment.
____ d. Avoid potentially time-wasting tangents by dealing with learners’
questions quickly and moving on.
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50 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

11. ____ a. Direct learners’ attention primarily to trainer and to what is being
said or demonstrated.
____ b. Frequently redirect learners’ questions to other learners to be
answered.
____ c. Send out self-study “prework” materials to spark learner interest
and formation of course expectations.
____ d. Consistently cover the same material with each group.

12. ____ a. Arrange the room so as to promote group activities and

discussions.
____ b. Always stand in front of the class while instructing.
____ c. Send learners’ bosses an overview of course subject matter.
____ d. Judge trainer’s effectiveness based on how proficient learners
are in performing new skills or applying new concepts on
the job.

13. ____ a. Project a professional image by maintaining a separation between

trainer and learners.
____ b. Help learners motivate themselves by developing new skills
through involvement and participation.
____ c. Closely direct learners’ activities.
____ d. Allow learners to analyze materials and draw their own
conclusions.

14. ____ a. End a training session by helping learners create action plans to
apply course content to real-world problems.
____ b. Criticize slow learners to help them improve.
____ c. Avoid controversy as a potential distraction or turnoff.
____ d. Coach learners as they practice new skills.

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Training Styles 51

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

15. ____ a. Encourage detailed note taking by learners.

____ b. Encourage learners to challenge outdated course materials or
concepts of questionable value on the job.
____ c. Sequence activities so as to stimulate and hold learner interest.
____ d. Use media (video, slides, overheads, etc.) extensively to increase the
professionalism of the presentation.

16. ____ a. Use an introductory overview to inform learners of the subject

matter to be covered.
____ b. Judge trainer’s effectiveness based on learners’ increase in confi-
dence and self-esteem.
____ c. Maintain a formal dress code to establish a more serious atmosphere.
____ d. Encourage creativity in the performance and application of course
concepts.

17. ____ a. Change course materials or training methods based on update of

expertise in the subject matter.
____ b. Begin a program by having learners introduce themselves to one
another and communicate to trainer what their expectations are.
____ c. Adjust time schedules during the program in response to learners’
interests and concerns.
____ d. Enhance credibility with learners by answering all questions quickly
and accurately.

18. ____ a. Avoid potentially embarrassing questions and protect material by

keeping content resources confidential.
____ b. Highlight key points in detail, speaking from carefully prepared
notes.
____ c. Vary pace of the program to adjust to natural daily highs and lows
in learners’ energy levels.
____ d. Evaluate learners based on their abilities to perform specific
objectives.

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52 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

19. ____ a. Defend trainer’s expertise and credibility when challenged by a

learner on a content issue.
____ b. Emphasize establishing open, two-way communication.
____ c. Leave the structure of the program loose to respond to the specific
needs of the group.
____ d. Aim the level of sophistication of course material at the “average”
learner.

20. ____ a. Listen attentively and observe group discussion of content issues or
problem applications.
____ b. Ensure that learners reach the right conclusions and accept the key
points or concepts presented.
____ c. Explore reasons that learners ask questions, to bring out individual
concerns and hidden agendas.
____ d. Project confidence and assurance by using effective gestures, pos-
ture, and vocal dynamics while instructing.

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Training Styles 53

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

INSTRUCTIONAL STYLES DIAGNOSIS INVENTORY

SCORING SHEET
(To be completed by trainer)

Step 1. Instructions: Transfer the rankings from the ISDI to the Scoring Chart below.
Note that the letter items in each set are not in alphabetical order.
Scoring Chart
A B C D
1 d a c b
2 b c d a
3 d a b c
4 a d c b
5 c a b d
6 b c a d
7 c b d a
8 a b d c
9 d b a c
10 b a c d
11 a c b d
12 b d a c
13 a d b c
14 b a d c
15 d b c a
16 c d b a
17 d c b a
18 b d c a
19 a c b d
20 d c a b
Total ____ ____ ____ ____

Step 2. Determine the sum of the rankings in each column and record them at the
bottom of that column.
Step 3. Subtract the lower of the Column A or C totals from the higher.
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EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

Step 4. Subtract the lower of the Column B and D totals from the higher.
Step 5. Plot the result from Step 3 on the vertical scale of the graph that follows. If
the “A” total is higher, plot the result below the midpoint “O.” If the “C”
total is higher, plot the result above this point.
Step 6. Plot the result from Step 4 on the horizontal scale. If the “B” total is
higher, plot the result to the right of the midpoint “O.” If the “D” total
is higher, plot the result to the left of this point.
Step 7. Extend lines from the plotted points on each scale to the point where the
two lines intersect.

60
I IV
50

40
LEARNERS

30 SELLER COACH

20

10
WHO?

10
INSTRUCTOR

20

30 PROFESSOR ENTERTAINER

40

50
II III
60
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

CONTENT LEARNING
WHAT?
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Training Styles 55

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

INSTRUCTIONAL STYLES DIAGNOSIS INVENTORY

INTERPRETATION SHEET
(For the trainer)

Components of Instructional Styles

The styles that trainers use in developing and presenting learning experiences are
based on their personal beliefs about what the purposes of instruction are and how
they can best contribute to achieving those purposes.
The ISDI attempts to determine training style as the interactive product of two di-
mensions: what the trainer’s attention is focused on and who is the focus of attention
while the trainer is instructing. Each dimension is a function of two sets of concerns.
The what dimension (the horizontal scale) represents the tradeoff between:
1. Concern for content quality and thoroughness of presentation coverage
(represented by the Column D total); and
2. Concern for the actual learning that takes place with learners who are
working with the content (represented by the Column B total).

The who dimension (the vertical scale) represents the tradeoff between:
1. Concern for the trainer and how polished, impressive, or entertaining his
or her delivery is (represented by the Column A total); and
2. Concern for the learners and how effectively or positively they are receiv-
ing, practicing, considering, discussing, or applying new skills (represented
by the Column C total).

No model of this type is perfect. For instance, you may be able to think of train-
ers who are able to balance a high concern for content with a high concern for the
learning that the content produces. However, for most instructors, it is realistic to
expect that balancing the two involves influencing one at the expense of the other.
The same may be said for the who dimension.

Interpreting Your Scores

The point on the graph at which the scores of these two dimensions intersect rep-
resents your overall training style.
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56 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

To interpret your results, you must consider three things:

1. The comparative strengths of the four individual column totals,
2. The position of each of the two dimension scores, and
3. The direction and distance from the center of the point where the two di-
mension scores intersect.

For instance, were the four column totals high and low or were they close to one
another? This indicates whether you tend to balance each aspect of training style
equally or whether some aspects differ greatly to you in degree of importance. This
directly effects the position of the dimension scores, which is the next considera-
tion. If a dimension score is far toward one extreme or the other, this indicates a
higher degree of tradeoff between the two sets of concerns involved. Dimension
scores more near the middle represent a balanced degree of tradeoff, regardless of
individual emphasis.
The intersection of the two dimension scores represents your overall training
style, the product of your attempt to achieve balance among concerns for content,
learning, delivery, and reception. The further this point is from the center of the
graph, the more extreme your training style tends to be. The closer to the center this
point is, the more “balanced” it tends to be.

Descriptions of Styles
Following are short descriptions of the types of behaviors, attitudes, tendencies,
and preferences that characterize each of the four styles.

I. “The Seller”
A person who has the “seller” instructional style is primarily concerned with the
content and how positively it is received and understood. Learning is the partici-
pant’s responsibility, and it may or may not happen as a result. Because getting the
message across and creating a good attitude toward it are the primary goals,
“seller” instructors tend to focus their attention on the learners and the learners’ re-
ceptivity to the message.

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Training Styles 57

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

They build a receptive atmosphere by creating a comfortable learning environ-

ment, encouraging learners, answering questions, varying the pace of the program,
and so on. They tend to use lectures or prepared media presentation methods, in-
terspersed with discussion to hold interest and attention. Note taking is encour-
aged to aid retention of material.
Homework, prework, and course-summary materials are used extensively to
communicate or reinforce the content. Pass/fail or nongraded examinations are
preferred to assess retention without turning the learners off.
The “seller” style is common in public schools and is probably more appropri-
ate for building general educational backgrounds than for developing specific
skills. It may also be appropriate for situations in which the selling of a technique,
concept, or product is more important than the learners’ becoming proficient in it.
It is not as appropriate when learners are expected to perform better or differently
as a result of the training.

II. “The Professor”

Instructors who have a high concern for both content and delivery probably see
themselves primarily as presenters. The “professor” types tend to be highly con-
cerned about such things as their image, their technique and smoothness of speak-
ing, and creating a proper impression. They prefer to have the spotlight on
themselves, because this focuses the learners’ attention on them. The atmosphere in
their sessions tends to be formal, and the separation between the presenter and the
audience is emphasized.
“Professor” types are, at the same time, concerned with the adequacy of what
they are presenting. Their presentations are usually well-researched, often impres-
sively footnoted and referenced, planned and organized in detail, and well-
rehearsed. Time is important because it reflects on their images as presenters
(i.e., punctuality is impressive) and on their ability to cover all important content.
Their preferred teaching method is to lecture, as this allows them to focus at-
tention on themselves, to control time, and to cover the content they believe is im-
portant. There is a tendency to overuse or inappropriately use media such as video,
slides, or overheads because of their perceived ability to impress, entertain, and
present large amounts of information in short time spans.

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EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

Typical situations where the “professor” style would be appropriate are making
a speech, delivering an after-dinner talk, communicating a report, and presenting
or selling ideas to decision makers. This style usually is not as effective where ac-
tual skill development or behavioral change is expected from the learners. It may
be appropriate for attitude change purposes; however, change produced by this
method typically is short-lived unless constantly reinforced.

III. “The Entertainer”

Instructors who use the “entertainer” style focus on the results of training but also
feel that people will learn best from instructors they like, respect, or admire. They
have many of the same personal-image concerns as “professors.” They are very
concerned with their credibility and whether the learners have confidence in their
expertise.
“Entertainers” are concerned about involvement in the learning process, but
more with their own than with the learners’. Thus, methods such as watching a role
model (the instructor) demonstrate proper technique are preferred over self-
discovery or group learning activities. When more participatory methods are used,
these instructors tend to exercise close control and make themselves an integral
part of the learning process.
Because these instructors generally believe that learners need to be “inspired” if
they are going to perform differently, sessions often are designed to be highly mo-
tivational or entertaining. This can be effective but has the potential limitation of
making what is learned instructor-dependent. When this occurs, learners can suf-
fer drops in motivation when attempting to apply new skills on the job because the
dynamic instructor is not there.
The fact that they are personally influencing learners is often more important to
these instructors than the specific change that takes place or the input that causes
it. Thus, specific content is not an important issue.
This style probably is most appropriate for personal growth seminars, sales
meetings, and programs that are meant to “recharge learners’ batteries.”
In its worst case, the “entertainer” style could be likened to a medicine-show
huckster who dazzles you and takes your money before you have a chance to judge
the value of his product.
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Training Styles 59

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

IV. “The Coach”

Instructors who are oriented both to learning and to the learners tend to have the
spotlight reversed so that the learners’ attention is focused on themselves most of
the time. These trainers see their role more as facilitators of learning experiences
than as presenters of information. They see value in course content only insofar as
it enables learners to perform in new ways.
The focus of most coaching activities is on skill development, confidence build-
ing, and application, rather than on retention of information. Learners are evalu-
ated, but mostly through observation of performance or behavioral change rather
than through written tests. Grades usually are ignored, because most instruction is
aimed at upgrading everyone’s skills to a minimum or improved level rather than
on determining who is most proficient.
There is less concern for polished delivery because “coach” instructors spend
much less time “delivering.” Also, because of the informal atmosphere created,
there is less pressure on the instructor to perform, motivate, or entertain. Use of a
high ratio of self-discovery and group-learning activities allows the learners to mo-
tivate and entertain themselves. The responsibility to perform is, in effect, shifted
from the instructor to them.
Separation between the instructor and the learners is de-emphasized. The pre-
vailing philosophy typically is that the best instructor is the one who sets high ex-
pectations, guides and coaches the learners, and then gets out of the way so they
can perform.
The instructor has a message, but the message is determined more by specific
learner needs and less by what the instructor thinks might be good for the learners.
Rather than forcing learners to understand and accept new ideas, “coaches” use
questions, discussions, self-study, group work, and other involving techniques to
lead learners to conclusions, but they allow the learners to make the commitments
on their own.
The “coach” style tends to be most effective in bona fide training situations where
skill building and behavioral change are the primary concerns. Potential problems
with this style are tendencies to ignore time constraints, skip over important content
issues, lose control of the class, turn off learners who are used to more traditional in-
structional styles, or be overly influenced by learners’ perceptions of their own needs.
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60 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

A Quick Reference Sheet

The following figure provides an overview of the instructional styles measured by
the Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory.

ISDI QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE

SELLER COACH
Sellers are: Task-oriented Coaches are: Learner-oriented

They see themselves as: They see themselves as:

Taskmasters/persuaders Facilitators/guides
Sellers’ main concern is: Coachesí main concern is:
Product/content Results/performance
They strive to be: Driving, They strive to be: Driving,
aggressive, enthusiastic, accepting, empathic,
convincing supportive
Programs are structured to be: Programs are structured to be:
LEARNERS

Informal but inflexible Informal and flexible

Leading to sessions that are: Leading to sessions that are:
Informative, productive, efficient, Involving, encouraging,
complete, persuasive constructive, developmental
Learners are evaluated by: Learners are evaluated by:
Objective testing Comparing behaviors or
WHO?

performance objectives

PROFESSOR ENTERTAINER
Professors are: Instructor-oriented Entertainers are: Relations-oriented
INSTRUCTOR

They see themselves as: They see themselves as:

Presenters/experts Role models/stars
Sellers’ main concern is: Entertainers’ main concern is:
Process/delivery Reactions/feelings
They strive to be: Impressive, They strive to be: Dynamic,
polished, professional, animated, charismatic,
aloof outgoing, inspirational
Programs are structured to be: Programs are structured to be:
Formal and inflexible Formal but flexible
Leading to sessions that are: Leading to sessions that are:
Scheduled, controlled, Motivated, lively, fun,
organized, disciplined entertaining
Learners are evaluated by: Learners are evaluated by:
Subjective testing and Assessment of their feelings
instructor judgement and opinions

CONTENT LEARNING
WHAT?
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EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

Sources of Answers
Obviously, the preceding descriptions are those of the more extreme examples in
each quadrant. The closer the intersection of the two scales to the center of the
graph, the closer one would tend to be to a more “middle of the road” style with
aspects of all four dimensions.
If you think that some respondents ranked you as more to the “ideal” than the
“real,” it would probably be worth your time to go back and rank the items your-
self, being brutally honest, to get a more balanced picture of yourself.
The following shows the location of the polar statements for each item mea-
sured by the ISDI.

WHAT
Content Learning

Application of Skills
L 16. d. Encourage creativity in the performance and application of course
concepts.
C 6. d. Ensure that learners perform and apply newly learned skills as
instructed.

Punctuality of Scheduling
L 17. c. Adjust time schedules during the program in response to learners’
interests and concerns.
C 5. d. Maintain punctuality of published program schedules.

Currency and Applicability of Materials

L 15. b. Encourage learners to challenge outdated course materials or concepts
of questionable value on the job.
C 8. c. Expose learners to traditionally accepted subject matter and correct
procedures.
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EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

Degree of Program Structure

L 19. c. Leave the structure of the program loose to respond to the specific
needs of the group.
C 9. c. Plan and structure course materials in considerable detail.

Evaluation of Learners
L 18. d. Evaluate learners based on their abilities to perform objectives.
C 3. c. Evaluate learners by giving examinations to test their retention of
presented materials.

Direction of Activities
L 8. b. Allow learners to make mistakes and also learn from session
experiences.
C 13. c. Closely direct learners’ activities.

Handling of Controversy
L 9. b. Explore content-related controversial issues as potential learning
experiences.
C 14. c. Avoid controversy as a potential distraction or turnoff.

Role of the Learner

L 5. a. Involve learners in activities designed to stimulate critical or reflective
thought.
C 15. a. Encourage detailed note taking by learners.

Updating Methods or Materials

L 7. b. Change course materials or training methods based on feedback about
learners’ performance changes after training.
C 17. a. Change course materials or training methods based on update of
expertise in the subject matter.

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EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

Probing Individual Concerns

L 20. c. Explore reasons that learners ask questions, to bring out individual
concerns and hidden agendas.
C 10. d. Avoid potential time-wasting tangents by dealing with learners’
questions quickly and moving on.

Determining Level of Material

L 4. d. Collect background information and adjust the level of content
material for each particular group.
C 19. d. Aim the level of sophistication of course material at the “average”
learner.

Sharing Resources
L 10. a. Cite a bibliography of resources concerning materials discussed for
further learner self-development.
C 18. a. Avoid potentially embarrassing questions and protect material by
keeping content resources confidential.

Controlling Learner Expectations

L 11. c. Send out self-study “prework” materials to spark learner interest and
formation of course expectations.
C 4. b. Avoid reducing impact by not disclosing any course materials prior to
the program.

Flexibility of Course Content

L 1. a. Allow extended practice or discussion in areas of particular interest to
learners.
C 7. a. Thoroughly cover all subject-matter areas in the time allotted.

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EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

Instructor Evaluation
L 12. d. Judge trainer’s effectiveness based on how proficient learners are in
performing new skills or applying new concepts on the job.
C 1. b. Judge trainer’s effectiveness by how well the prepared materials are
covered.

Gaining Learner Commitment

L 13. d. Allow learners to analyze the materials and draw their own
conclusions.
C 20. b. Ensure that learners reach the right conclusions and accept the key
points or concepts presented.

Maintenance of Learned Behavior

L 14. a. End a training session by helping learners create action plans to apply
course content to real-world problems.
C 2. a. End a training session by summarizing key subject matter and recom-
mending that learners find ways to apply it on the job.

Communicating Course Intent

L 2. c. Use specific course objectives to inform learners as to what they
should expect to be able to do.
C 16. a. Use an introductory overview to inform learners of the subject matter
to be covered.

Involving Learners’ Bosses

L 3. a. Gain supervisors’ involvement by providing ideas on how to support
learners’ attempts to apply new skills.
C 12. c. Send learners’ bosses an overview of course subject matter.

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Training Styles 65

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

Responding to Learners’ Needs

L 6. c. Allow learners to influence or prioritize course content and objectives.
C 11. d. Consistently cover the same material with each group.

WHO
DELIVERY RECEPTION

Communication of Expectations
I 9. d. Begin program by informing learners of trainer’s experience or qualifi-
cations and trainer’s goals for the program.
S 17. b. Begin a program by having learners introduce themselves to one
another and communicate to trainer what their expectations are.

Dress/Atmosphere
I 16. c. Maintain a formal dress code to establish a more serious atmosphere
for the learning environment.
S 10. c. Encourage casual or comfortable dress to increase the informality of
the learning environment.

Motivation of Learners
I 5. c. Motivate learners with enthusiastic talks, humorous stories, and enter-
taining or inspirational videos.
S 13. b. Help learners motivate themselves by developing new skills through
involvement and participation.

Improving Learner Performance

I 14. b. Criticize slow learners to help them improve.
S 5. b. Communicate positive expectations to slower learners through feed-
back and encouragement, in order to help them improve.

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EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

Establishing Program Pace

I 7. c. Maintain a consistent pace of presentation throughout the entire
program.
S 18. c. Vary pace of the program to adjust to natural daily highs and lows in
learners’ energy levels.

Building Communication Patterns

I 4. a. Put primary focus on giving a technically polished presentation.
S 19. b. Emphasize establishing open, two-way communication.

Use of Media
I 15. d. Use media (video, slides, overheads, etc.) extensively to increase the
professionalism of the presentation.
S 6. a. Make occasional use of media tools to support other primary learning
activities.

Method of Presentation
I 18. b. Highlight key points, in detail, speaking from carefully prepared notes.
S 8. d. Ask learners questions designed to guide them to self-discovery of
key points.

Building Instructor Credibility

I 19. a. Defend trainer’s expertise and credibility when challenged by a
learner on a content issue.
S 4. c. Show willingness to learn from learners by admitting errors or lack of
knowledge when appropriate.

Guiding Learner Performance

I 1. d. Set trainer up as a role model and encourage learners to emulate trainer.
S 14. d. Coach learners as they practice new skills.

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Training Styles 67

EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

Sequencing Activities
I 6. b. Present materials in the most logical order.
S 15. c. Sequence activities so as to stimulate and hold learner interest.

Positioning the Instructor

I 12. b. Always stand in front of the class while instructing.
S 1. c. Sit down with learners while instructing them.

Evaluating Instructor Effectiveness

I 8. a. Judge trainer’s effectiveness based on learners’ “liking” of trainer.
S 16. b. Judge trainer’s effectiveness based on learners’ increase in confidence
and self-esteem.

Use of Body Language

I 20. d. Project confidence and assurance by using effective gestures, posture,
and vocal dynamics while instructing.
S 9. a. Frequently assess learners’ body language and emotional states and
adjust activities or schedule appropriately.

Arranging the Room

I 2. b. Arrange the room so as to provide for better discipline and control.
S 12. a. Arrange the room so as to promote group activities and group
discussions.

Focusing Learners’ Attention

I 11. a. Direct learners’ attention primarily to trainer and to what is being said
or demonstrated.
S 2. d. Focus learners’ attention more on themselves and their own perfor-
mance than on trainer.

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EXHIBIT 3.2. Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory, Cont’d.

Personal Concern for Learners

I 13. a. Project a professional image by maintaining a separation between
trainer and learners.
S 7. d. Express concern for and interest in individual learners and their
problems.

Controlling Activities
I 3. d. Carefully lead and control any group discussions.
S 20. a. Listen attentively and observe group discussion of content issues or
problem applications.

Maintaining Discipline
I 10. b. Use position as instructor to quickly resolve “difficult learner” prob-
lems (e.g., monopolizers, side conversations, sharpshooters, etc.).
S 3. b. Let the group “handle” difficult learners or privately explore reasons
for problems.

Handling Learners’ Questions

I 17. d. Enhance credibility with learners by answering all questions quickly
and accurately.
S 11. b. Frequently redirect learners’ questions to other learners to be answered.
Source: Greg Cripple. The 1996 Annual:Volume 1,Training. San Francisco: Pfeiffer, 1996.

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Training Styles 69

Learner-Centered Versus Information-Centered

To better understand the difference between learner-centered and information-
centered learning, study Table 3.1.
Notice that, with learner-centered training, the primary focus is on what the
learner or participant is able to take away from the learning experience. The learner
is actively involved in the process and, therefore, is much more likely to retain the
information and be able to apply it on the job.

Table3.1. Learner-Centered Versus Information-Centered Training

Learner-Centered Information-Centered
Stated Objective To improve performance To cover the material; present
of participants content
Underlying Objectives Meet participants’ need to know To establish trainer as expert
and do
Role of Trainer Facilitator; coach Imparter of information;
lecturer
Methods Trainer asks questions; Trainer lectures, explains,
does no more than 50 percent demonstrates; does most of
of the talking the talking while participants
listen and watch
Participant’s Role Active participant in learning Passive learner; absorbs
process; learns by doing information
How Feedback Opportunities to apply skills Asking participants whether
Is Obtained through role plays, case studies, they have any questions; asking
simulations, and other participants questions about
structured experiences what trainer has said
Purpose of Feedback To see whether participants can To see whether participants
apply what they learned; to see understand the information; to
whether they need more practice test their retention
or remedial instruction

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Advantages and Disadvantages

Both learner-centered training and information-centered training have advantages
and disadvantages, as seen in Table 3.2. Although research supports learner-
centered instruction over information-centered, the reality of life is that sometimes
“the powers that be” apply pressure on trainers to put massive numbers of people
through so-called “training” in a short period of time. Although we know this “cat-
tle car” approach to training is not effective, it is often difficult to convince others.
Regardless of whether you are an internal or an external practitioner, if your
client—that is, the decision maker—insists on what amounts to the simple dissem-
ination of information, you may want to suggest an alternative approach.
Alternatives may include sending required reading material to employees, creating
an audiotape or videotape of a presentation, or even communicating via the orga-
nization’s intranet system. Be sure to stress that these other approaches should not
be mistaken for training. They are one-way communication methods designed to
present information.

Recognizing Learner-Centered Behavior

To test your understanding of learner-centered versus information-centered behav-
ior, complete the activity in Exhibit 3.3. You could also use this checklist as a re-
minder of what you need to do to become more learner-centered in your training
sessions. Answers are provided in Appendix A.

Key Elements of a Trainer’s Style

As you work through this text, you will be challenged to examine and perhaps
even modify your own beliefs and practices. Should you decide to make some
changes in your current thinking or behaviors, realize that change is not easy. In
fact, it can be downright painful. When it seems that changing the way you train
(or had planned to train) is just too much work, ask yourself the following ques-
tions: “Am I as effective a trainer as I would like to be?” and “Am I obtaining the
results I want?” If the answer to either of these questions is “no,” then be open to
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Training Styles 71

Table 3.2. Advantages and Disadvantages

Learner-Centered Information-Centered
Advantages Two-way communication Efficient in that more
Participants directly involved information presented
in learning; opportunities to apply in short period of time
learning Effective in presenting
Participants receive immediate “nice to know” rather
feedback through application than “need to know”
opportunities information
Greater satisfaction with learning Cost-effective in that one
experience trainer can present to
Increased understanding and many people at once
retention
Addresses different learning styles
Disadvantages Takes longer because participants One-way communication
have opportunities to practice Participants have no
Less content covered in a given opportunity to apply
time period learning during the
Can be expensive because training session and
of smaller class size receive feedback
Participants’ questions
often are not addressed
Information overload
often results in poor
retention
Less satisfaction with
learning experience
Limited effectiveness in
appealing to differences
in learning styles

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EXHIBIT 3.3. Learner-Centered or Information-Centered Behavior

Instructions: For each of the following items, indicate whether it is descriptive of learner-
centered (LC) or information-centered (IC) behavior.
1. The job of an trainer should be to present the material in a clear, logical,
well-organized manner.
2. At the beginning of a training session, the trainer clearly identifies the
session or course objectives.
3. The trainer encourages participants to ask questions when they need
clarification.
4. Visual aids are used minimally.
5. The trainer uses tests to find out how well the participants retained the
material.
6. The trainer begins a session by reviewing ground rules dealing with
breaks.
7. The most important factor to consider when evaluating packaged train-
ing programs is the amount of content.
8. The best trainer is one who involves the participants.
9. The room is arranged classroom style with participants seated in rows,
all facing the trainer.
10. Good trainers are experts in their subject matter.
11. Experience and knowledge of subject are more important than the abil-
ity to involve the participants in the learning experience.
12. The trainer asks participants what they want to know and learn.
13. The trainer builds in many opportunities to try out new skills and ideas.
14. The trainer establishes himself or herself as the expert or authority on
the subject.
15. The trainer’s role is to facilitate the learning process.
16. The trainer frequently puts participants into small groups to discuss
questions or solve problems.
17. The trainer chooses a variety of learning methods or approaches.
18. The primary role of the participant is to receive information from the
trainer or subject-matter expert.

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Training Styles 73

learning and trying out new ways of structuring and conducting your training
sessions.
Use the following list of behaviors as a reminder for creating participant-
centered training:

• Organize the program and behave in such a way that participants feel they
have “ownership” of the program.
• Create many opportunities for participants to discover things for themselves.
• Establish both participant and trainer expectations at the very beginning of
the program.
• Create a supportive learning environment in which people feel free to
take risks, to ask questions, and to try out new ideas and ways of doing
things.
• Be sensitive to the communication process, including your own body
language as well as that of your participants.
• Maintain a high energy level throughout the session. It becomes
contagious.
• Accept ideas you may not agree with, and accept the fact that some people
will not agree with you.
• Show respect to all participants, no matter how difficult they may be.
• Don’t be afraid to admit what you don’t know; be willing to find out the
information and pass it on to the participants later.
• Use positive reinforcement throughout the session.
• Look at every training experience as an opportunity to learn from your
participants.
• Make the learning experience enjoyable.
• Seek feedback from the group about your own behavior so you can further
grow and develop as a trainer.

You will learn specific strategies throughout the book that reflect participant-
centered trainer behavior and will help you create a powerful learning experience
for all.
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74 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

KEY POINTS
• The trainer determines the success or failure of a training program.
• Effective trainers are those who learn how to flex their style according to the needs of
the participants.
• Effective training is learner-centered rather than information-centered.

✦ ✦ ✦
Now that you have gained some important insight into the way in which you ap-
proach the training experience, it is important to understand the complexities of
today’s learning environment and the challenges of training an increasingly diverse
workplace population.
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Chapter 4
Understanding
Today’s Learner

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn
• To identify the diversity issues that impact the design, development, and
delivery of training
• To use tools and techniques to create a risk-free and bias-free learning
environment

The Changing Training Environment

Organizational training and workplace learning have changed dramatically in the
last two decades and will continue to change in order to meet the needs and demands
of the workplace. A more diverse workforce has not only changed the way compa-
nies do business but also the way they train their workers. In addition to different
learning styles, differences such as age, gender, race, ethnicity, lifestyles, religion, lan-
guage, disabilities, and literacy impact how trainers design, develop, and deliver
training. The challenge of meeting the individual needs of participants often seems
overwhelming. Armed with an understanding of today’s learners and equipped with
a toolkit of tips, techniques, and tools, you as a change agent and influencer of be-
havior will be able to create an environment that both respects and celebrates
differences. 75
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76 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

Self-Awareness
To be effective in meeting the needs of a diverse audience, first examine your own
attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors toward those who are different from you. Your own
unintentional biases and inadvertent insensitivity may undermine your attempts to
create an environment that values the individual and promotes learning. To increase
your self-awareness of the ways in which your behavior and beliefs are transferred
to the session, complete the Diversity-Awareness Inventory in Exhibit 4.1.

EXHIBIT 4.1. Diversity-Awareness Inventory

Instructions: This inventory is designed to increase your awareness of the ways in which
you judge, stereotype, and sometimes discriminate. Please respond to each of the follow-
ing questions by placing a check mark in the appropriate column.

Do I. . . no yes sometimes

1. Recognize that I have prejudices and biases?

2. Make efforts to get to know people from
cultures and races other than my own?
3. Accept that other people may not share
my values, views, or lifestyle?
4. Try to learn about other cultures
by reading and asking questions?
5. Try not to judge others by my behavior or standards?
6. Help people from other cultures learn about mine?
7. Respect other cultures’ traditions and practices?
8. Make certain that I include examples,
case studies, and other types of activities
that reflect the diversity in my classroom?
9. Create a classroom environment in which all
students feel free to express and be themselves?
10. Make a special effort to become familiar with the
verbal and nonverbal communications of other cultures?

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Understanding Today’s Learner 77

There is, of course, no score for this assessment. Its purpose is to help you iden-
tify areas in which you might need to acquire information or make a concerted ef-
fort to modify your behavior.

Diversity Issues
The most important thing to remember is that you are training individuals who just
happen to be in a group setting. Before you deal with specific design and delivery
considerations, let’s look at some specific diversity issues.
Although many diversity categories may be represented in a training session,
let’s focus on those that have the greatest impact on the session climate.

Age Differences
The so-called “generation gap” seems to be widening more and more throughout
the world, particularly in corporate America. At one end of the workplace contin-
uum are the young professionals in their early twenties; at the other end are the
older employees, for whom the idea of an early, comfortable retirement is no longer
viable. The result is a much greater age span in the workplace than ever before.

Meeting the Training Needs of Older Participants

As noted in Chapter 2, the ability to learn does not diminish with age. There are
those, however, who believe that anyone over forty cannot learn new skills. Forty,
the somewhat arbitrary number that separates “younger” workers from “older”
workers, seems to stem from the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967,
designed to protect workers over forty from unfair employment policies and prac-
tices. Trainers make statements such as, “Older workers don’t catch on as quickly”
or “Older people can’t adapt to change.” These beliefs are bound to be reflected in
the trainer’s behavior toward older participants. According to Harvey Sterns, di-
rector of the Institute for Lifespan Development and Gerontology (Sterns &
Doverspike, 1988), many people over forty may indeed take longer to learn new
skills, primarily because they have to first unlearn the way they are currently doing
things. Younger employees who have grown up with computers and video games
will, of course, find it easier to learn new computer systems and software programs
than will their older colleagues who learned to use typewriters and carbon paper.
One of the biggest barriers to older workers learning new skills is their lack of
confidence or fear of failure, created, in part, by society’s myths and stereotypes
about aging. So the trainer’s first challenge is to build older participants’ confidence
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78 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

by encouraging them. Hands-on learning is even more critical for those over forty,
as well as using materials and methods that are directly job-focused and relevant to
the participants’ work situations. Because older adults experience a decline in vision
or hearing, the trainer must pay attention to the room arrangement, lighting, and the
use of larger print on visual aids and even in participant workbooks.
Those forty and older are interested in receiving training that is relevant, imme-
diately applicable, and in an easy-to-absorb format. Participants over forty are in a
hurry to learn. They realize that they must keep up and, in some cases, catch up in
order to survive in today’s fast-paced, high-pressured, and rapidly changing work
environment.

Connecting with Younger Participants

Younger workers, the so-called “Generation X” born during the years 1965 to 1978,
present a different challenge. Many erroneous assumptions are made about them
as well. Trainers as well as managers may think that these younger workers have a
short attention span, are disrespectful, apathetic, lazy, and think they know it all.
The truth is that they are enthusiastic, confident, and achievement-oriented. They
can process large amounts of data at a time; however, they want information pre-
sented to them in abbreviated forms such as sound bites and checklists. These char-
acteristics create different challenges as well as opportunities for trainers.
During the training event, these participants need many opportunities to apply
their knowledge and solve problems through group discussion, simulations, case
studies, and so forth. They like to be challenged but also to receive immediate and
meaningful feedback. They are bored easily and, therefore, programs must be de-
signed that offer a variety of learning experiences. The entertainment factor cannot
be overlooked. Remember: This is the MTV generation. They expect high-quality
materials, including participant workbooks, videos, and other visual aids. They
also expect more technology-based learning opportunities and experiences.
Because they like to challenge as well as be challenged, they will question and
demand proof of what is being said. They will not accept your word at face value
just because you are the trainer. Be prepared with facts and figures to support your
statements and explain why they are learning a particular skill or piece of informa-
tion, focusing particularly on outcomes and results. They do not like to be told what
to do, so provide opportunities for them to discover things on their own through
structured experiences and self-assessment instruments.
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Understanding Today’s Learner 79

SAMPLE ATTITUDES OF YOUNGER WORKERS

I conducted a problem-solving and decision-making session for new associates in a
Wall Street investment firm.These recent college graduates were the “cream of the
crop”—intelligent, well-educated, energetic, enthusiastic, and clearly “fast-trackers.”
They came to the session with the confidence and bravado that are typical of the
uninitiated. They expressed early on that they thought this session was a waste of
time because they knew how to make decisions and solve problems. Rather than
argue with them, I put them into small groups and gave them a rather complicated
business simulation in which they had to analyze six problem situations and come
up with solutions.They were given fifteen minutes to solve each problem and then
were given the recommended solution so they could score their teams before mov-
ing on to the next situation.
Without exception, all five groups quickly arrived at the solution to the first
problem and waited impatiently for the correct answer. Much to their surprise, they
all got it wrong.Thinking this was just a fluke, they quickly solved the next problem
and were wrong on that one, too. Getting the message that this was not as easy and
simplistic as they first thought, they began to buckle down and took the time to look
beneath the surface and beyond the obvious.When they finished the last four prob-
lems, they were not only exhausted but humbled because they realized and readily
admitted that they had not known as much about solving problems as they thought
they did.

An even younger group of workers entering the workplace learning environ-

ment is referred to as “Gen Yers,” “Nexters,” or “Echo Boomers” (born after 1978).
Even more than their slightly older counterparts, “Gen Yers” need technology and
multimedia. They want information presented in sound bites, and they expect re-
wards such as prizes for their participation. More than any other group, the “Gen
Yers” crave interaction of any and all sorts. They also have a greater need to be en-
tertained and to have fun. According to Susan El-Shamy, author of How to Deliver
Training for the New and Emerging Generation (El-Shamy, 2004), to meet the needs of
this younger audience, trainers need to increase the speed and interaction of the
training, make the training more relevant to the learners, give learners more op-
tions and choices, use more technology, and make learning fun.
Because many grew up as latch-key kids, today’s younger participants have
learned to be self-reliant and independent problem solvers. To function in the current
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80 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

work environment, they need to be involved in learning experiences that will help
them develop the interpersonal and team skills they lack.
It is even more critical that these younger employees participate in planning the
training program and that self-study and projects outside the structured class en-
vironment be included.
Today’s audiences, regardless of age, are conditioned by television, and conse-
quently, they expect to take frequent “commercial breaks” of sorts. The training de-
sign must reflect the participants’ need to stand up and move around or at least
experience a change in venue or delivery methods. To better understand how to meet
the training needs of participants in all age groups, refer to Table 4.1, Generational
Differences.

Gender Differences
Gender issues continue to exist in corporations and find their way into the corpo-
rate training. As a role model, you must demonstrate appropriate behavior at all
times. Make sure task assignments are evenly distributed to both genders, pre-
venting participants from falling into traditional roles such as a woman recording
and a man leading the discussion. The trainer must also avoid sexist remarks or
using examples and activities that appeal more to one gender.
Help bridge the gender gap by providing opportunities to heighten awareness
of the different perspectives each gender brings to the same situation. Promote this
exchange of perspectives through small-group activities, making sure all groups in-
clude both men and women. During general discussions, solicit ideas and reactions
from both men and women.

Cultural Differences
Today’s corporate training room is a patchwork quilt of many cultures that can en-
rich the learning experience. Learn how to draw on the experience and background
of these participants to add value to training, regardless of the topic. You have a re-
sponsibility to understand and meet the learning needs of those whose experiences
and frames of reference may be quite different from yours. Create opportunities for
participants from different backgrounds to learn about each other by working to-
gether in structured experiences.

Accommodating Cultural Differences

Cultural differences include ethnicity, race, gender, age, and chosen affiliations.
When planning your training session, be sure to keep the following issues in mind.
 Table 4.1. Generational Differences
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Veterans
(Also Called Mature) Baby Boomers Gen Xers Gen Yers
4/3/06

Preferences 1922–1945 1946–1964 1965–1978 1979–1984

Learning Traditional classroom; Interactive; non- Self-directed learning; Teamwork with
Environment risk-free; orderly authoritarian; interaction; two-to-four-hour technology;
7:07 PM

teamwork; networking segments; honest cooperative

opportunities feedback; fun; personal; learning
fast-paced
Page 81

Type of Trainer/ Traditional; shows respect Views participants as Gets right into material; Authority figure
Facilitator for their experience equals; shares personal gives solid examples and who provides
examples real-life cases; demon- structure
strates their expertise
Motivation for Tied to good of the Will help them be stars Adds to their Learn skills and
Learning organization at work marketability information that
makes work less
stressful; increases
their marketability;
helps them deal
with difficult
people
Preferred Straightforward Interactive; hate role Simulations; role Entertaining;
Activities presentation plays; want skill-building play; learn by doing; creative;
activities discovery method incorporate games,
music, art
Training Well-organized; Readily accessible Few words; chunks of Lively and varied;
Materials summaries; information (like information; lots of visual graphics; include
Reader’s Digest format Internet); USA Today stimulation such as reprints of articles
format headlines, subheads, and job aids
quotes, graphics, lists;
Fast Company format
Adapted from “Generation Gaps in the Classroom” by Ron Zemke, Claire Raines, and Bob Filipczak. Training, November 1999.
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82 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

Materials. When selecting both methods and materials, you must make sure you
choose videos, case studies, and other activities that are inclusive and reflect your
diverse audience. Eliminate gender-specific language such as chairman, mailman,
fireman, or salesman. Instead, use chairperson, postal carrier, firefighter, or sales-
person. Role plays and case studies should reflect various cultures in the choices of
names and situations. If you are writing your own, be careful not to create profiles
or situations that illustrate and thus perpetuate stereotypes. For example, in a role
play or case study illustrating an interaction between a manager and an employee,
make sure that the manager is not always identified as a white male and the em-
ployee as a female or a minority person.
For case studies, select names that clearly reflect the diversity in your organiza-
tion such as Kwan Lee, Jose, Rosa, Tamera, Antonio, Amalia. For role-play assign-
ments, use gender-neutral names like Robin, Pat, Chris, or Kim, or indicate that the
role can be either gender by expressing both: Robert or Roberta, Sam or Samantha,
Michael or Michele.
If you buy a packaged program or use published materials authored by some-
one else, make sure they meet these same criteria or alter them as needed. Use sim-
ilar care in choosing videos that reflect diversity. The same holds true for graphics
you might add to your participant workbooks or those included in materials pur-
chased from a training vendor.

Trainer Behavior. Think about the different ways in which people from various
cultures communicate both verbally and nonverbally, so that you can prevent com-
munication miscues. For example, you may interpret head nodding to mean that
the participant is agreeing with what you are saying. In some cultures, however,
nodding one’s head is only an indication that the person is listening and is also en-
couraging the speaker to continue. In U.S. culture, people often make negative
judgments about those who do not engage in direct eye contact. Once again, other
cultures view direct eye contact as challenging or disrespectful. It is important that
you not misinterpret a participant’s behavior that may be culturally based.
Learning about your participants also includes learning how to pronounce their
names and addressing them correctly during the session.

SAMPLE OF IMPORTANCE OF USING NAMES

I learned the importance of using people’s names the hard way in a session on in-
fluencing skills for a group of new associates in a bank. The members of the group
were in their early twenties with an equal distribution of women and men. The
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Understanding Today’s Learner 83

group, however, was quite diverse in terms of cultural backgrounds with a mix of
those from North America, Asia, the Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent. One
young man from Afghanistan was particularly interesting and very participative. He
spoke with me at length at breaks and at lunch, and seemed to have developed rap-
port with me. I was, therefore, quite surprised when I read in his session evaluation
that he was offended because I had not made any attempt during the day to say his
name. He was not the only person I did not address specifically by name. In his cul-
ture, however, addressing a person by name is very important, and I had demon-
strated disrespect by not doing so.

To avoid similar incidents, make an effort to learn about those from other cul-
tures by talking with them and asking them questions about their customs. Ask
them the correct pronunciation of their names and then practice saying their names.
Read articles and books about intercultural communication so that you are some-
what familiar with the cultures that are most frequently represented in your train-
ing sessions.

Activities. Keep in mind that in many cultures, the approach to learning is very
traditional. The trainer is regarded as an authority figure. Participants are expected
to assume a passive role, with the trainer delivering content in a very structured
and rigid manner. As a result, some people may be uncomfortable with the partic-
ipative and interactive approach to learning. These participants may need a little
more nudging and encouragement to help increase their comfort level with the
learning process. Cooperative-learning techniques such as asking them to discuss a
question or problem in pairs or small groups are effective ways of involving those
who are not accustomed to interactive learning.

Participants with Disabilities

Today’s training audiences represent a variety of special needs and considerations.
Some participants may have one or more disabilities. As with other differences, be
sensitive to their situation, accommodate their special needs, but at the same time,
be sensitive to their need to be treated just like everyone else.

Accommodating Disabilities. It is incumbent on you to learn how to adapt your

training methods and materials to accommodate the needs of participants with
physical, mental, and even medical impairments. Find out in advance about those
who may have special needs and accommodate those needs in the initial design.
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For example, if a hearing-impaired person will be attending the session, find out
whether an interpreter will be accompanying the individual or, if not, to what de-
gree the participant can read lips. If lip reading is required, make sure the partici-
pant is positioned in such a way that he or she is able to see your face. You, of
course, must make sure that you turn toward that individual when speaking. When
other participants respond to a question or make a comment, remind them to do the
same, if possible.
Be sensitive to those who may have learning disabilities, literacy problems, or
for whom English is a second language. Choose or create materials written at an
appropriate reading level. This is where a pre-session questionnaire or other
needs-assessment methods can be quite helpful. Know as much as you can about
the individuals who will be attending your session! Do not make assumptions
about people just because they hold particular jobs or are at certain levels within
the organization.

EXAMPLES OF ACCOMMODATING DISABILITIES

I was asked to conduct a multi-session business-writing program for bank managers
and assistant managers. About halfway through the program, just at the time when
assignments became more complex, one of the participants (a branch manager)
came to me after a session and explained that she was having a very difficult time
writing the assigned letters and memos. She had dyslexia, and not only did no one
in the bank know about her learning disability, but she did not want them to know.
I worked with her one-on-one either before or after each session.
In another situation, I was conducting a four-session supervisory-training pro-
gram for twelve first-line supervisors in a manufacturing environment. At the first
session, eleven of the twelve came to the training session.The next evening, the man
who had missed the first class called me at home. He apologized for missing class,
and he wanted to explain why. He said that he had heard from the others that the
session was really good and he wanted to come but was afraid to because he would
have to read “stuff” and discuss it. He then explained that he was concerned be-
cause he could not read, and he didn’t want the others to know. I assured him that
I would make sure he would be able to participate and that his colleagues would
never know.To accommodate his special need, I either read or paraphrased the as-
signment before they broke into small groups.
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Understanding Today’s Learner 85

Activities. It is also a good idea to provide written materials and to write instruc-
tions for activities and exercises on a flip chart or transparency. Be sure to think
through the logistics of activities, keeping in mind participants with special needs.
Be aware that you cannot anticipate everything. No matter how well you plan,
sometimes you will be caught off guard.

EXAMPLE OF FLEXIBILITY
I had been contracted by the Pennsylvania Industries for the Blind and Handicapped
to present a customer-service program to their employees who staffed the photo
license centers throughout Pennsylvania. Many of the participants had some visual
impairment, and several were in wheelchairs.
Because I used many small-group activities throughout the day, requiring peo-
ple to change groups, I arranged the room so that those in wheelchairs would be
able to move about the room as easily as possible. I also accommodated the needs
of those who were visually impaired by reading materials as appropriate. Despite all
my planning and preparation, there was still a surprise. At one of the sessions, one
of the participants was deaf and her interpreter did not show up.Although the par-
ticipant was able to read lips, I had to make a last-minute adjustment in an activity
that was designed to illustrate poor listening skills.

Adapting Materials. Many special needs are obvious, but there are many others
that are difficult to detect unless someone brings them to our attention. One good
technique to move people quickly into small groups is called a “grouping card,”
which will be explained in more detail in Chapter 11. Each person receives a card
that includes a colored dot. To form a specific small-group arrangement, ask par-
ticipants to group themselves according to the color of their dots. This works well
until you have someone who is color blind. An alternative is to use various shapes
and symbols instead.
As a trainer, you have a responsibility to create a learning environment in which
all participants feel free to express and be themselves. Begin to create this environ-
ment when you design a program, taking into consideration all types of differences,
including learning style differences. Not only respect the individual differences of
those in your sessions, but make sure you incorporate into your program design a
variety of methods and materials that will accommodate those differences.
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KEY POINTS
• Diversity issues impact the design, development, and delivery of training.
• The trainer is responsible for creating a risk-free and bias-free learning environment.
• An effective trainer is one who is aware of and sensitive to diversity issues.
• Both methods and materials must reflect your diverse audiences.
• The trainer’s own behavior can have a profound impact on participants’ reactions.

✦ ✦ ✦
Armed with knowledge of adult learning principles, learning styles, and diversity
issues, as well as an understanding of yourself as a trainer, your next step is to de-
velop specific objectives, that is, learning outcomes for your training program.
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Chapter 5
Writing
Instructional
Objectives

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn
• To determine the desired performance-based outcomes based on the
needs analysis
• To write properly constructed learning objectives
• To use outcomes or objectives as the basis for program design and
development

What Are Learning Objectives?

After the needs assessment has been completed and the data gathered, analyzed,
and reported to the appropriate people, the next step is to design the training pro-
gram. The first step in the design process is to write learning objectives.
Learning objectives or outcomes state what the learner will be able to do at the
end of the training program or at the end of a phase of training. They describe
the planned outcome of the training rather than the training process—results
rather than procedure.
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Why Set Objectives?

Objectives serve as a type of contract. If participants know the program or session
objectives from the beginning, they will know what they are expected to learn.
Objectives give participants a sense of direction. They know what to expect from
you and what you expect from them.
Objectives serve as the basis for the design and development of the program, that
is, the instructional plan. They help the trainer focus clearly on the desired outcomes
and determine what the participants need to know and do in order to meet those ob-
jectives. The concept of designing a training program is analogous to planning a trip:
the objectives are the destination and the instructional plan is the itinerary. First de-
cide where you want to go (objectives) and then decide how you are going to get
there—how long the trip will take and what means of transportation you will use
(methods and materials).
Objectives should be written from the participant’s point of view, not the
trainer’s. The emphasis should not be on what you want to cover but on what you
want the participant to value, understand, or do with the subject, information, or
skills after the training program is over.
Objectives are used to measure success. Because they describe what the partici-
pant will be able to do at the end of the training, the objectives automatically become
the standard against which success is measured.
Finally, objectives are a sales tool. Develop the program objectives based on the
needs assessment you conducted earlier. Then use these objectives to tell the partici-
pants’ managers exactly what your training will do for their employees. These man-
agers will have a much better understanding of what the training will and will not do.

Types of Objectives
Objectives fall into three categories of development: attitude (affective), skill (be-
havioral), and knowledge (cognitive).

Attitude Development—Feel. Objectives that address attitude development deal

with attitudes, values, or feelings. These objectives are appropriate when you want to
change people’s attitudes or increase their awareness of or sensitivity to certain issues
or ideas.

Skill Development—Do. Objectives for skill development deal with behavior.

These are much easier to identify and to determine whether they have been met.
They focus on a person being able to perform a task or procedure.
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Writing Instructional Objectives 89

Knowledge Development—Think. Knowledge-development objectives have to

do with content or cognitive learning. They relate to the ability to demonstrate ac-
quired knowledge, to comprehend information, and to analyze concepts.

Essential Characteristics of Objectives For objectives to be useful, they must meet

certain criteria. They must be
• Objective and measurable. Objectives should describe exactly what the partic-
ipants will be able to do at the end of the training session, that is, specify
the kind of behavior (if possible) that will be accepted as evidence that the
participants have achieved the objective.
• Results-oriented, clearly worded, and specific.
• Focus only on important aspects of the job.
• Measurable with both qualitative and quantitative criteria.
• Action-oriented statements. They must outline specific activities and how
performance will be measured.
• Written in terms of performance. The trainer can then select the most appro-
priate methods and activities.
• Specific about what the participants will be able to do. They must be specific about
results, rather than describing the trainer or the experience of the session.
• Descriptive of the participants’ behavior or performance. Objectives should not
describe what participants must know or understand, but what partici-
pants must do to demonstrate their understanding, knowledge, or skill.
• Descriptive of desired competence at the end of the training.
• Specific about the conditions under which the participants will be performing.
• Indicate the minimum level of performance acceptable.

Components of an Objective
Writing objectives is not an easy task. The first challenge is to think of objectives
from the participants’ viewpoints, and the second challenge is to write them as per-
formance outcomes. The easiest way to write an objective is to start by examining
its three components: performance, condition, and criteria.

Performance. Ideally, the objective should describe behavior that can be observed,
that is, what the participants will be able to do as a result of the training. This is
not always possible, particularly when dealing with attitude or affective objectives.
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When the objective is not observable, specify the consequences of the learned be-
havior that can be accepted as evidence of achievement. For example, for a diver-
sity training program, an objective might be that the participants will “explore their
feelings about workplace diversity issues.”
The objective must use specific action verbs that are not subject to various in-
terpretations. Words such as understand, know, and learn, for example, are not ac-
ceptable. You cannot observe those behaviors. Table 5.1 offers a few action verbs for
each of the desired learning outcomes.

Table 5.1. Reference Chart for Objectives

Learning Type Related Action Verbs
Attitude Development adjust decide
analyze evaluate
assess pick
choose select
criticize
Skill Development assemble prepare
compute process
construct prove
copy record
count repair
demonstrate solve
design speak
develop transcribe
draw type
measure write
operate
Knowledge Development cite identify
compare list
contrast name
define quote
describe recite
detect recognize
differentiate relate
distinguish repeat
enumerate reproduce
explain
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Writing Instructional Objectives 91

For example, a performance component for a sales training objective might be

that the participants will be able to “suggest other bank services to the customer.”

Condition. The objective explains the circumstances under which the participant
will be performing the activity. It also describes the equipment, supplies, and job
aids that may or may not be used on the job. Furthermore, the objective describes
the work setting and any information used to direct the action. For example, a state-
ment such as “Using open-ended questions to identify customer needs, the partic-
ipant will. . .” identifies the materials the participant will use to help him or her
perform an action.

Criteria. Finally, the objective specifies the level or degree of proficiency that is
necessary to perform the task or job successfully. It indicates the quality of the per-
formance required to achieve objectives. Thus, information in the criteria is used to
evaluate performance. The objective may involve speed, accuracy with a margin of
error, maximum of mistakes permitted, productivity level, or degree of excellence.
Keep in mind that not all standards can be quantified. Following the sales example,
the criteria might be to identify how many or which services the participant would
tell the customer about. Putting it all together, the objective reads: “Using open-
ended questions to identify the customer’s needs (condition), the participant will
suggest (performance) at least two additional products or services to every customer
(criterion).”
In many cases, the trainer will need to rely on input from subject-matter experts
and/or supervisors to establish the criteria, especially if the objective relates to spe-
cific tasks that can be measured. This standard of performance is usually deter-
mined by the line manager and thus directly links the training to real-world
projects and job expectations.
To gain a better understanding of the format and components of an objective,
take a look at the following examples:
• “Using brochures and desk-top charts (condition), customer-service repre-
sentatives will answer (performance) all customer questions about standard
products and services (criteria).”
• “Employees will answer the telephone (performance) within three rings (cri-
terion) using the standard identification message and greeting (condition).”
• “Following prescribed bank procedures (condition), employees will
balance the teller windows (performance) each day within twenty minutes
(criterion).”
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• “Using PowerPoint® software (condition), employees will create (perfor-

mance) a thirty-minute presentation that includes animation and sound
(criteria).”
• “Managers will write (performance) a two-page, error-free request proposal
(criteria) following the proposal format introduced in the business writing
workshop (condition).”

Writing Learning Objectives

To help you gain a better understanding of how to write learning objectives, com-
plete the activity in Exhibit 5.1. Suggested solutions are provided in Appendix A.

Using an Objective Worksheet

To better understand and master the objective-writing process, take a look at the
Sample Objective Worksheet in Exhibit 5.2, which identifies the component parts of
a well-written objective.
On the left are the components of a well-written objective along with a brief ex-
planation of what information is included in each component. To the right of each
component is an example of the specific piece(s) of information that would satisfy
that component. In this example, the subject is “leadership characteristics.” The ob-
jective (taken from the previous activity) “Know the characteristics of a leader” is
not specific enough. In fact, this objective does not even come close to meeting the
criteria listed earlier.
In this particular example, the trainer will be giving the participants “results
from several recent studies” (condition). Having given that information, the trainer
then expects the participants to be able to “identify” (behavior) “six characteristics
of effective leaders in a team environment” (criteria). As you can see, the worksheet
can help you identify the components more easily. You can then put those compo-
nents together to create a useful and meaningful learning objective: “Using the re-
sults of several recent studies on leadership, participants will identify the six
characteristics of effective leaders in a team environment.”

Writing Your Own Objectives

Choose a particular topic from your own situation and write three learning objec-
tives that include all three components. Use the Objective Worksheet in Exhibit 5.3.
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Writing Instructional Objectives 93

EXHIBIT 5.1. Editing Learning Objectives

Instructions: Examine each of the following objectives from a leadership program

and decide whether it is a well-stated learning objective. If not, change it so that it
is acceptable, noting what component needs to be added.

• Develop an understanding of the leader’s role.

• Know the difference between authority of rank and authority of respect.

• Understand the theories of motivation.

• Know the characteristics of a leader.

• Know the role of the manager in a team environment.

• Appreciate the advantages and disadvantages involved in group decision

making.

• Identify ways to motivate employees.

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EXHIBIT 5.2. Sample Objectives Worksheet

Subject: Leadership Characteristics

Instructions: In the box to the right of each component, write the specific pieces(s)
of information that satisfy that component.

Condition Results from several recent studies

• What participant will be given
• Tools, supplies, equipment
• Use of notes, simulated situation

Behavior/Action Identify
• What participant will be doing
• Emphasis on verb
• What can be observed

Criteria Six characteristics of effective

• What standards apply leadership in a team environment
• Time limits
• Degree of accuracy
• Level of performance
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Writing Instructional Objectives 95

EXHIBIT 5.3. Objectives Worksheet

Subject:

Instructions: In the box to the right of each component, write the specific pieces(s)
of information that satisfy that component.

Condition
• What participant will be given
• Tools, supplies, equipment
• Use of notes, simulated situation

Behavior/Action
• What participant will be doing
• Emphasis on verb
• What can be observed

Criteria
• What standards apply
• Time limits
• Degree of accuracy
• Level of performance

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KEY POINTS
• Learning objectives serve as the starting point and basis for program design and
development.
• Objectives are outcome-based, written from the participants’ point of view.
• Objectives fall into three categories: attitude, skill, and knowledge.
• An objective should describe behavior that can be observed.
• An objective may also explain the circumstances under which the participant will be
performing the activity.
• An objective specifies the level of proficiency required to perform the task or job.

✦ ✦ ✦
At first, the practice of writing objectives may seem difficult, tedious, and time-
consuming. With practice, though, it will become easy. After you have determined
your learning outcomes and written objectives, you are ready to design your train-
ing program.
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Chapter 6
Writing an
Instructional
Plan

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter you will learn
• To develop a clear and complete design matrix
• To write an instructional plan
• To select appropriate methods of instruction
• To determine how to sequence content and activities
• To develop and select appropriate participant and trainer materials

Design Philosophy
The training approach described in this book can be summarized in one word:
active. The underlying philosophy, as described in Chapter 2, is that adult partici-
pants are actively involved throughout the training session. The design and devel-
opment strategies, therefore, reflect an active, experiential approach to training,

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allowing participants to discover ideas, principles, and concepts through a series of

well-planned and well-executed structured experiences. Because the adult, in par-
ticular, learns by doing, not by being told, the design and development process in-
cludes very few didactic elements.

Time Needed to Develop a Training

Program
The most frequently asked question in train-the-trainer sessions is “How long does
it take to design and develop a training program?” The answer: “It depends.” As
frustrating as that might be to those who want and need to know how much time
they must devote to this effort, there are just too many variables to give an accurate
answer. A “rule of thumb” is ten to twenty hours of development for every hour of
delivery.
However, this figure can change dramatically. In the September 1996 issue of
Training & Development, published by the American Society for Training and
Development, author Karen White tells the reader that a good estimate is “forty to
one hundred hours of development for each hour of an instructor-led course.” The
May 1997 issue of Training magazine cites a study by the U.S. Office of Personnel
Management, which offers the following estimates for development hours per
classroom hour for an instructor-led course (Zemke & Armstrong, 1997):

Formal technical course 5 to 15 hours

Self-contained, ready for handoff to other instructors 50 to 100 hours
Conventional management development 20 to 30 hours

As you can see, all estimates have a wide range. Contributing variables include
the designer’s skill and experience, the complexity of the content, and whether one
develops activities or uses those already developed. Will you use an “off-the-shelf”
case study, or will you write your own? Do you have the skills to write a case
study? If you choose to use one already written, will you use it as written, or will
you modify it for a specific situation? Also, can you readily find an appropriate case
study, or will you have to spend time looking through various resources to find one
that serves your purposes? These are all critical decisions that involve varying
amounts of time required to produce the training session.
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Writing an Instructional Plan 99

The reality of life is that others will often dictate how much time is available to
develop the training program. Because situations change so rapidly and unex-
pectedly, you may not have the luxury of developing a training program the way
you would like. For a new product launch, for example, your client or decision
maker may require you to put together a training session, sometimes literally
overnight.
Also, like it or not, your client may also dictate how long the session can be.
Based on your needs assessment and your training experience, you may know that
a customer-service training program should be at least two days. This would give
you enough time to present the content and give participants many opportunities
to assimilate the information through experiential activities and to fine-tune their
skills through a variety of skill-building activities. More often than not, however,
you will be told that the training must be limited to one day. This is where it is ex-
tremely important for you to identify your objectives quite clearly. Be realistic about
what you can and cannot accomplish within the prescribed time frame.
The time constraints will also impact your choice of methods. For example, if
you had to deliver a time-management program in three hours, it is highly un-
likely you would be able to use a structured experience that takes an hour and a
half.

Cost Considerations
Cost is another factor in the design and development of a training session. For a
customer-service program, you may want to demonstrate the proper way of han-
dling an irate customer. In your research, you might have come across a video that
would be perfect. However, limited budget might preclude you from using it.
Videos are expensive to buy or even to rent. Unless you can demonstrate that buy-
ing the video will be cost-effective because you will be using it numerous times,
you may find yourself searching for another means of communicating your mes-
sage. (Cost issues are discussed further in Chapter 7.) All is not lost, though. A less
costly alternative is to write a scripted role play demonstrating the correct approach
to handling an irate customer. During the training session, you can ask for two vol-
unteers to read the role play, and then you can lead a discussion, just as you would
following the video. The downside is that it takes time to write the script, and it
probably will be considerably shorter than the video.
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Major Components of Design

Designing a training program is much like planning a trip. In both cases, you must
ask yourself the following questions:

Trip Training Session

WHO Who is going? Who should participate?
WHEN When are we going? When will I conduct the training?
WHERE Where are we going? Where am I taking the participants
(in terms of outcomes)?
WHY Why have we chosen Why am I conducting this training?
this destination
WHAT What do we want to see What do I want the participants to
and do? know or be able to do?
HOW How will we get there? How will I communicate the
information or develop
the participants’ skills?

An instructional plan identifies what you are going to accomplish (learning out-
comes for the participants), what will be said or presented (content), and how content
will be communicated (methods and media). The purpose of the initial design docu-
ment is to organize one’s thoughts and sequence the material and activities to cre-
ate the optimum learning experience and meet learning outcomes.
After determining the objectives and before writing a detailed instructional
plan, it is helpful to first design or lay out the course using a design matrix. This is
truly the planning phase of the development process.

Creating a Design Matrix

A design matrix (Exhibit 6.1) is used to visualize the course or session. It enables
you to take a broad view of what you want to accomplish and how to meet the
learning outcomes. The design matrix provides a framework or skeleton for the
course. You will then “put the meat on the bones” as you make decisions about
methods and materials and prepare your instructional plan. The design matrix con-
sists simply of four parts: duration, content or learning points, methods or activi-
ties, and materials or aids.
EXHIBIT 6.1. Design Matrix
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The design matrix is a rough sketch of the training session. Use it to identify and
sequence content subtopics; estimate the amount of time devoted to each subtopic;
consider the methods to communicate the content; and identify potential training
materials and aids.

Determining Content
Content flows naturally from the learning outcomes or objectives. The important
point to remember when developing or determining content is that you want to
focus on what the participants “need to know” versus what’s “nice to know.” This
is particularly important when there are time constraints.
Many trainers new to the profession with little or no experience in designing a
training program often ask: “Where do I start?”

Research the Topic

Unless you are a subject-matter expert, start by researching the topic. Search the
Internet, read books and articles to gather facts and other important information,
and, whenever possible, work with subject-matter experts, especially for job-
specific content. Approach the research process in much the same way you col-
lected information for a research paper in school. In this case, however, be careful
to collect information that is vital to the program, always keeping in mind your
learning objectives and the “need-to-know” concept. In other words, don’t go over-
board collecting information. Read and distill the material. Make sure you cite
sources of specific data and give credit for proprietary models. Include a full refer-
ence for every source cited, including the author’s or editor’s initials and last name,
the title of the book (and article, if applicable), the city of publication, the name of
the publisher, and the year of publication. Concentrate on recent sources—ones that
have been published within the last three to five years.

Mind Mapping
Often trainers have no idea where to start in terms of what specific subtopics they
should include. One way to begin thinking about your content is by using a varia-
tion of brainstorming called mind mapping. Start by putting the title of your pro-
gram in the center of a piece of paper. Draw a circle around it to give it focus. Then
just start generating ideas related to your topic and writing them down (anywhere
on the paper). When the ideas have stopped flowing, begin combining ideas into
natural groupings, which become subtopics. Determine which are “need to know”
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Writing an Instructional Plan 103

and which are “nice to know.” Decide whether to include or eliminate the “nice to
know” topics based on time parameters. After determining the subtopics, the next
step is to sequence them.

Sequencing
After you have determined the major content and learning points for the training,
determine the order in which you will present the content. This is the time to orga-
nize. Several ways can be used, depending on the type of training and what you are
trying to accomplish. Although there are no hard-and-fast rules for sequencing, the
following guidelines may help you as you make decisions about the order of con-
tent and activities.
• Start with easy activities and move to more complex.
• Use less risky activities before those that some participants might find
threatening.
• Vary your activities and methods in terms of length and format.
• Present easy concepts first.

Sequencing Example
As a result of a mind mapping process, let’s assume that the following subtopics
will be used for a one-day customer-service training session:
• Irate customers
• Internal service
• Telephone skills
• Communication problems
• Professional image
• Definition of customer service
• Personal action plans

Think about the logical arrangement of the topics and, based on knowledge of
the subject, you might arrange the topics in the following order:
1. Definition of customer service
2. Professional image
3. Telephone skills
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104 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

4. Communication problems
5. Irate customers
6. Internal service
7. Personal action plans

Sequencing Activity
Assume that you are going to develop a time-management program, and you have
identified the following subtopics. Determine the order in which you are going to
address each one by numbering them from 1 to 7.

Personal action plans

Tips and techniques for managing time
Assessing how you spend time
Barriers to good time management
Dealing with interruptions
Overcoming procrastination
Determining priorities

Approaches to Organizing Training

Present the information in a way that will maximize the learning. You want the par-
ticipants to retain the knowledge (cognitive), develop the skills (behavioral), or heighten
their awareness (affective), and at the same time enjoy the learning experience.
Many of your designs will be variations of the behavior-modeling approach in-
troduced in the 1970s by James Robinson and William Byham (Pescuric & Byham,
1996): content, positive role modeling, skill practice, feedback, and application on
the job. There are, however, other ways to organize your session, depending on
your intent. The following are other approaches to consider:

Sequential. Sequential designs present a step-by-step process leading to a conclu-

sion. For example, in a sales-training seminar, the content might be presented in
this order: (1) establishing rapport, (2) identifying customer needs, (3) matching
product benefits to needs, (4) overcoming objections, and (5) closing the sale. With
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Writing an Instructional Plan 105

this approach, the subtopics follow the pattern of the process that serves as the
training focus.

Job Order. This approach teaches tasks as they occur on the job. For example, a
bank teller-training program might present subtopics for opening procedures in the
following order: (1) getting cash drawer from vault, (2) verifying cash, (3) ordering
cash, (4) logging on the computer, and (5) preparing settlement sheet.

Priority. Skill or knowledge essential to the completion of a task is taught first as a

prerequisite to the training that will follow. Returning to the teller-training exam-
ple, trainees would need to have knowledge about how to log on to the computer
before learning how to complete other transactions.

Topical. This approach addresses job knowledge in terms of topics rather than se-
quence of activity. Sales representatives, for example, would have to learn about the
products before they could sell them; however, they would not have to learn about
those products in any particular order.

Purpose of an Instructional Plan

The instructional plan is a detailed guide to delivering a training program. It serves
a number of purposes:
• It forces you to organize material or content and present it in a logical
manner.
• It identifies what materials are needed, learning points, and how content
will be communicated.
• It helps you stay on track, make the points you want to make, and avoid
spending too much time on a particular topic.
• In the long run, it saves time. After it is created, file it away until the next
time you have to present this particular subject. Rather than “reinvent the
wheel,” review the plan, assemble the necessary materials, and go.

The ability to create a detailed instructional plan will also help you in your own
career development. First, it gives you credibility, enhancing your image as a
trainer. Second, once you have designed and developed a complete program, you
will find it easier to create subsequent programs.
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Components of an Instructional Plan

An instructional plan consists of two parts: (1) the program overview and (2) the in-
structional guide.

Program Overview
The program overview details the components of the course or training session. It
consists of the following:
1. Title. The title should be brief but descriptive.
2. Course Description. Identify the overall goal of the course, along with a brief
description of the content.
3. Learning Outcomes. List exactly what the participants should be able to do
as a result of this program.
4. Length. Give the length of the course in terms of the number of sessions,
number of hours in each session, frequency, time of day and/or day of
week, if appropriate.
5. Format/Methodology. Describe the approach and methodology you will use,
such as case studies, role plays, experiential learning activities, discussion,
and so forth.
6. Audience. Identify who should attend (in terms of levels, job titles, or job
duties) as well as group size.
7. Participant Preparation. If applicable, identify any pretraining assign-
ments such as reading, completing assessment instruments, or meeting
prerequisites.
8. Instructional Materials and Aids
• Document list: handouts, transparencies, textbooks, instruments, etc.,
along with the source.
• Equipment list: computer, LCD projector, flip charts, chalkboards, over-
head projector, video equipment, whiteboards, and markers.
• Media list: video titles (include name of producer and length of video),
audiotapes, or software.
9. Reference List. Identify sources used in putting the program together such as
books and articles. This is particularly helpful if someone else delivering
the program wants further information.
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10. Facility Checkoff List. Reminders or “To Do’s” such as table setup, water
pitchers and glasses, refreshments, markers for flip chart and transparen-
cies, pointers, extension cords, and participant materials (folders, paper,
pencils, name tents).

Exhibit 6.2 is an example of Part I of an instructional plan for a customer service

training program.

Instructional Guide
Part II is the real meat of the plan. It consists of the following four parts: time
frames, content outline, training aids and materials, and trainer notes. Let’s take a
look at each of these in detail.

Time Frames. Identify how much time each major content section takes. Indicate
a time frame for each by listing the number of minutes required (for example, 15
minutes) or express time as a digital clock (0:15).

Content Outline. This section outlines in detail the ideas, principles, concepts, or
skills the participants are to learn. There are many possible formats; however, an
outline is best as it helps you see relationships as well as the sequence of topics and
subtopics. Although you do not have to worry about adhering religiously to the
rules of outlining, it is important to observe some basic rules or guidelines:

• Main points and subpoints follow the order of general to specific.

• Subdivisions or subpoints must flow logically from the each main point.
• Use the standard system of numerals, letters, and indentations as follows:
I. Roman Numerals
A. Capital Letters
1. Arabic Numerals
a. Small Letters
(1) Arabic numerals in parentheses
(a) Small letter in parentheses
• If you have the heading “I”, you must have “II.” By the same token, if you
have an “A”, you must have a “B”, and so forth. There cannot be just one
point under a heading.
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EXHIBIT 6.2. Instructional Plan, Part I

1. Title: Ensuring Quality Service and Customer Satisfaction.

2. Course Description: To provide participants with the tools and techniques
to help them enhance and fine-tune their telephone customer-service skills
as well as build and improve the performance of their individual work
teams.
3. Learning Outcomes: Participants will learn how to. . .
• Create a positive initial contact
• Ensure effective two-way communication with each customer
• Solve customer problems effectively and efficiently
• Handle customer complaints and difficult situations confidently and
professionally
• Develop a personal strategy for satisfying customer needs and building
good will
• Use customer-service skills in their interactions with internal customers
• Develop a customer-focused mindset
• Build a quality service team
4. Length: The standard program is designed as two full-day sessions. This is
subject, however, to modification based on client requirements.
5. Format/Methodology: The workshop format will use interactive and experi-
ential activities, including customized role plays, case studies, group dis-
cussions, assessment instruments, and lecturettes. The exercises and
activities are designed to ensure both individual and group participation.
6. Audience: For all employees in a primary customer-contact position; maxi-
mum twenty participants
7. Participant Preparation: Pre-session questionnaires and interviews: A ques-
tionnaire will be designed by the trainer and sent to each participant prior
to program implementation. The purpose of this survey is to identify par-
ticipants’ perceptions of customer service and identify areas in which they
would like skill development. The data collected from this will be used to
develop customized role plays, case studies, and activities.
The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Writing an Instructional Plan 109

EXHIBIT 6.2. Instructional Plan, Part I, Cont’d.

8. Instructional Materials and Aids

a. Document List
• Participant workbooks containing reference materials and learning
exercises
• Custom-designed role plays and case studies based on participant
input
• Various individual assessment surveys and inventories
• Simulations
• Skill practice using individual audio feedback and trainer critique
b. Equipment List
• Flip chart
• Overhead projector
• VCR and monitor
c. Media List: Passion for Customers, CRM Films, Running Time: 25 minutes
9. Reference List
• Davidow, William H., and Bro Uttal. Total Customer Service: The Ultimate
Weapon. New York: Harper & Row, 1989.
• Lele, Milind M., with Jagdish N. Sheth. The Customer Is Key. New York:
John Wiley & Sons, 1987.
• Sanders, Betsy. Fabled Service: Ordinary Acts, Extraordinary Outcomes. San
Francisco: Pfeiffer, 1995.
10. Facility Checkoff List:
• Tables
• Facilitator: Water and glass, extension cord, course materials, markers for
flip chart and for overhead transparencies
• Participants (four tables of five seats): Water and glasses, tent cards, fold-
ers, and pens
• Break Table: Coffee, tea, soft drinks, Danish

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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110 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

Training Aids and Materials. Training aids and materials include assessment in-
struments, videos, transparencies, slides, computer-generated visual aids, audio-
tapes, games, and evaluation tools. Include brief notations to cue you when to use
a slide, an overhead projector, video, handout. To make it easy for you (or someone
else) to see at a glance what to do, you might use abbreviations or icons. The fol-
lowing are some ways to indicate your training aid without writing it out.

Training Aid Abbreviation Icon

Slide SL

Transparency TR

Workbook WB

Flip Chart FC

Handout HO

Video V

Trainer’s Notes. In essence, your trainer’s notes are your “stage directions” and
methods. They tell you how you will communicate the content. They might include
specific questions to ask the group or instructions for activities. Here are some pos-
sible “stage directions” you might choose to use:
Distribute. . . Write. . .
Conduct role play Show video
Demonstrate. . . Ask. . .
Discuss. . . Instruct participants to. . .
Break into subgroups Explain. . .
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Writing an Instructional Plan 111

Instructional Methods
Instructional methods are the various means by which content or material is com-
municated. They include the use of assessment instruments; activities such as role
plays, case studies, and simulations; and a host of cooperative-learning or active-
training techniques (which are explored in detail in Chapter 7). Some of the issues
to consider when using some of the standard experiential methods are discussed
below.
When selecting training methods, remember that there is no one best method;
however, do try to use a combination of strategies. In selecting your methods of de-
livering instruction, consider the following:

• Subject matter
• Group’s knowledge of the subject
• Training objectives
• Available time
• Group size
• Kind of participation desired
• Equipment available
• Type of room
• Cost
• Comfort zone of the trainer
• Comfort zone of the participants
• Participants’ learning styles and perceptual modalities (see Chapter 2)

Table 6.1 lists the advantages and disadvantages of the various instructional
methods. Study it to help determine which methods you want to use.
When deciding which methods to use, determine your purpose. Refer to Table
6.2 as another guide for when to use any particular method to communicate your
content.
Table 6.1. Instructional Methods
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Method Advantages Disadvantages

Role Playing: Acting out real-life situations Develops skills Some participants are
in a protected, low-risk environment Opportunity for participants resistant
4/3/06

to practice what they learn Contrived situations

Participants gain insight Requires considerable
into their own behavior planning
7:08 PM

Games: An activity governed by rules Promotes active learning Time-consuming

entailing a competitive situation Provides immediate feedback May lead to loss of
Boosts interest facilitator control;
Page 112

Stimulates excitement sometimes difficult to

Increases learning monitor
Improves retention Some degree of risk
Simulations: Activity designed to reflect reality Promotes high level of Can be costly
motivation and participation Time-consuming
Provides immediate feedback Requires significant planning
Approximates real-world and excellent facilitation
environment skills
May require more than one
facilitator
Observation:Watching others without Generates interest and Focus could easily shift
directly participating; give constructive enthusiasm from learning factor to
feedback Is less threatening than other entertainment factor
methods Demonstrators may not do
Promotes sharing of ideas adequate job
and observations Requires skilled facilitator

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Table 6.1. Instructional Methods, Cont’d.
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Method Advantages Disadvantages

4/3/06

Instruments: Paper-and-pencil device Personalized; helps to achieve Some participants might be

used to gather information participant buy-in and fearful
commitment Participants might argue
7:08 PM

Helps focus on most with data

appropriate material Time-consuming
Helps clarify theory, concepts, Requires skilled facilitator
terminology Participants may feel
Page 113

stereotyped or “pigeonholed”
Mental Imagery:Visualize situations; mentally Everyone can participate Some participants may be
rehearse putting skills into action Stimulates thinking, imagination uncomfortable or impatient
No way to monitor
participation
Writing Tasks:Worksheets in conjunction Everyone can participate Individual task; little or
with materials; list and evaluate information Particularly effective for shy no interaction
participant Time-consuming
Some people have aversion to
writing
Lecturette: Short, structured, one-way Trainer controls what material Participant in passive mode
communication from trainer to participants is covered May be boring to participants
Saves time One-way communication

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Table 6.1. Instructional Methods, Cont’d.
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Method Advantages Disadvantages

Small Group Discussion: Small groups formed Increases participation One participant might
from larger group; composed of five to seven Creates risk-free environment dominate
4/3/06

individuals; assigned to discuss a certain topic Stimulates thinking No guarantee that all will
within certain time limit Draws on knowledge and participate; some may choose
experience of all group members to remain in passive role
7:08 PM

Helps participants to assess Easy for group to get “off

their understanding of material track”
Time-consuming
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Case Study:Written description of a problem Allows participants to discover Contrived situation

or situation trainees might be faced with on learning points by themselves No opportunity to solve real
the job; working in small groups, trainees read Participants apply new knowledge problem
and discuss the case to determine the pertinent to specific situations Can cause frustration
facts, identify problem, suggest alternative Stimulates discussion and because there is no one
solutions, and agree on a final solution participation “right” answer
Participants receive immediate Time-consuming
feedback
Task Exercise or Activity: Participants are Stimulates thinking Time-consuming
divided into small groups of five to seven Promotes group interaction Difficult to keep groups on
and work on a specific task or activity; track
often present results to the total group

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Table 6.2. Instructional Methods and When to Use Them
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Method Purpose When to Use

Role Playing Help participants practice skills To practice newly acquired skill
4/3/06

used in interactions To experience what a particular situation feels like

To provide feedback to participants about their behavior
7:08 PM

Games Provides non-threatening way to To help grasp total program content

present or review course material To present dry material in an interesting way
To add a competitive element to the session
Page 115

Simulations Re-creates a process, event, or set To integrate and apply a complex set of skills
of circumstances, usually complex, To elicit participants’ natural tendencies and provide
so that participants can experience feedback on those tendencies
and manipulate the situation without To provide a realistic, job-related experience
risk and then analyze what happened
Observation Certain participants act out or To show group how to perform procedure or apply a
demonstrate behaviors, tasks, or skill or behavior
situations while others observe and To increase participants’ observation, critiquing, and
give feedback feedback skills
To demonstrate behavior modeling
Instruments Provide feedback; self-assessment To identify areas for improvement
To establish a baseline for future growth
Mental Imagery Helps participants increase To address affective learning
understanding, gain insight To stimulate thinking, imagination
To replace role playing
Writing Tasks Helps participants reflect on their To provide for individual input
understanding of concepts,
information, ideas

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Table 6.2. Instructional Methods and When to Use Them, Cont’d.
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Method Purpose When to Use

Lecturette Conveys information when interaction To convey information quickly within short time period
or discussion is not desired or To communicate same information to large numbers of
4/3/06

is not possible people

To provide basic information to a group that is not
knowledgeable
7:08 PM

Small-Group Offers opportunity for participants To generate ideas

Discussions to express opinions, share ideas, To find out what participants think about a particular
solve problems, interact with others subject
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To increase level of participation

To encourage group interaction and build group
cohesiveness
Case Study Allows participants to discover To apply new knowledge to a specific situation
certain learning points themselves To practice problem-solving skills
Task Exercise Allows participants to work with To test participants’ understanding of concept or
or Activity the content in small groups process
To promote group collaboration
To increase participants’ confidence in their ability
to apply learning on the job

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Writing an Instructional Plan 117

Always keep your objectives and desired outcomes in mind as you design a
training session. Table 6.3 will help you match the methods to the desired outcomes.

Table 6.3. Matching Methods to Desired Outcomes

Desired Outcome Suggested Training Method

Knowledge Textbook
Lecture
Small-group discussion
Games
Computer-assisted instruction
Videotape
Attitudes/Values Guided discussion
Small-group discussion
Role play
Dramatization
Business games
Case study
Videotape
Simulation
Debate
Understanding Guided discussion
Small-group discussion
Role play
Business games
Videotape
Computer-assisted instruction
Case studies
Demonstration/Dramatization
Skill Development On-the-job performance
Role play
Business games
Skill practice
Simulation
In-basket activity
The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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118 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

Developing Materials
Writing training materials is a time-consuming process. Not only do you have to
create the participant materials, but you also have to create materials for yourself—
or for another trainer, if applicable. Always keep your purpose in mind. Don’t get
carried away by including everything you know about a particular subject. It is also
a good idea to have someone who is unfamiliar with the topic take a look at the ma-
terials to determine whether they are understandable and user-friendly.

Participant Materials
When creating participant materials, remember what you know about adult learners.
First and foremost, keep in mind that you are dealing with a sophisticated audience
with high expectations of the trainer, the course content, the methods used, and the
materials they receive. The materials should be high quality, easy to read, and visu-
ally appealing. Also provide ample space on handouts and workbooks for partici-
pants to take notes. Workbook materials should be presented in “chunks” so that the
participants can quickly and easily digest the information. To make participant ma-
terials even more useful and meaningful, include specific work-related examples.
Create memory aids (called mnemonic devices) such as rhymes, acronyms, or peg-
ging (associating words with images) to help people remember lists or important
points. Create models or flow charts to present processes and procedures. Use the
checklist (Exhibit 6.3) to ensure that your materials are easy to understand and use.

EXHIBIT 6.3. Checklist for a Quality Participant Workbook

Headings and subheadings

Bullets
Boxes
Short paragraphs
Wide margins
Graphics/illustrations; cartoons
Space for note-taking
Exercises
Checklists
Conversational tone

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Writing an Instructional Plan 119

Participant materials also include other ancillary pieces and job aids that help
reinforce the learning. These takeaway pieces may include checklists, pocket-size
reminder cards that list key points, or computer screen savers.

Trainer Materials
Trainer materials include the detailed instructional plan; master copies of the slides
or transparencies and participant materials; background reading; and copies of the
leader’s guides for videos, games, and other activities. In some cases, you may
want to include an actual “script” that would tell the person who delivers the train-
ing exactly what to say. This may be necessary if someone other than the de-
signer/developer is going to conduct the training session. My personal philosophy
and approach is that you prescribe what the trainer is to address or cover, but the
actual wording is left to the trainer.
The amount of detail in the trainer’s guide depends on several factors:
• Who is going to use it
• The experience level of the trainer(s)
• The budget
• Amount of detail required by the key decision maker

Regardless of how elaborate the finished product needs to be, it should contain
these basic components:
• Table of contents
• Introductory material providing background information
• Presentation guide that includes facilitation tips
• Instructional plan
• Master copies of handouts, participant workbook, transparencies
• List of materials
• Resources
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KEY POINTS
• You should determine “need-to-know” versus “nice-to-know” before designing the
program.
• The design of an instructional plan should reflect an active, experiential approach to
training.
• An instructional plan begins with a design matrix that includes learning outcomes, a
brief content outline, methods, materials, and timeframes.
• An instructional guide includes a detailed content outline and trainer’s notes in addition
to specifics on how to deliver the training and facilitate activities.
• Participant materials should be high-quality and user-friendly.

✦ ✦ ✦
Before you complete the instructional plan, study and select from the many active
training methods presented in Chapter 7 to help you create a training program that
achieves the results you want.
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Chapter 7
Selecting, Designing,
and Developing
Active-Training
Methods

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn
• To use active-training methods to increase retention, build understand-
ing, and improve skills
• To involve all participants in the learning process
• To adapt active-training methods to any course content

The Case for Active Training

Based on what we know about adult learning, learning styles, and the characteris-
tics of today’s learner (as presented in Chapters 2 through 4), active training is the
most effective means of delivering training. Research shows that people under-
stand concepts better and retain information longer when they are actively in-
volved in the learning process
121
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122 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

Active-training expert Mel Silberman, author of several books on active-training

techniques, defines active training as the process of getting the participants to do the
work. To illustrate the active training philosophy and its powerful impact,
Silberman has developed the “Active Training Credo” based on an old Chinese
proverb (Silberman, 1998).

The Active Training Credo

What I hear, I forget.
What I hear and see, I remember a little.
What I hear, see, and ask questions about or discuss with someone
else, I begin to understand.
What I hear, see, discuss, and do, allows me to acquire knowledge and skill.
What I teach to another, I master.

This chapter deals with developing and selecting specific activities and materials.
The chapter provides an in-depth look at the methods introduced in Chapter 6, tells
where to locate materials and activities, gives some examples of active training de-
signs, and finally provides some guidelines for selecting and using active-training
techniques in the overall design. Chapter 8 describes how to use these techniques.
We know from experience and through research that active training works. The
active-training approach, however, requires the trainer to think through the design
thoroughly. The trainer must spend time visualizing how the activity will play out,
deal with logistics, anticipate participants’ reactions, and identify potential prob-
lems. Active training is based on a well-researched, proven approach to learning
called cooperative learning.

Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is the “instructional use of small groups so that students work
together to maximize their own and each others’ learning” (Johnson, Johnson, &
Smith, 1991). This approach to learning is based on two assumptions: (1) learning
by nature is an active endeavor and (2) different people learn in different ways.
Cooperative learning is not simply putting people in pairs or groups and ask-
ing them to work on an assignment. The approach must be carefully planned and
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Selecting, Designing, and Developing Active-Training Methods 123

orchestrated by a skilled facilitator who composes and arranges learning experi-

ences. Participants work in concert, encouraging and facilitating one another’s ef-
forts to achieve, complete tasks, and reach the group’s goals. For this to happen, the
trainer must function as an observer, advisor, coach, and consultant throughout the
cooperative learning activity.

Benefits of Cooperative Learning

The beauty of cooperative learning is that it can be used in any setting and adapted
for content and individual differences. Because it focuses on individual differences,
cooperative learning addresses the concerns voiced by women and culturally di-
verse participants, echoing the changes we are experiencing in society and the
workplace. As more culturally diverse individuals enter the workforce, managers
and trainers are being challenged to re-examine old assumptions and look for new
approaches to developing their employees.
Cooperative learning also addresses the real-world issues of interdependence,
conflict, and change. Group learning serves as an introduction to project teams and
self-directed work groups found in many businesses. Organizations have found
that work teams must be trained to function effectively as units.

Research Data
Research on cooperative learning began in the late 1800s. Since then, more than 575
experimental and one hundred correlational studies have been conducted comparing
the relative effects of competitive, cooperative, and individual efforts on instructional
outcomes. Studies show that cooperative learning produces higher achievement,
more positive relationships among participants, and healthier psychological adjust-
ment than do individual experiences (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991). Involving
participants in the learning process results in more higher-level reasoning, more fre-
quent generation of new ideas and solutions, and greater transfer of what is learned
from one situation to another. Furthermore, cooperative learning results in greater
productivity.

Creating an Active-Learning Environment

For an active learning environment, the instructional design should maximize the
effectiveness of instruction for both the learner and the trainer.
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Physical Setting
A safe, positive environment is critical to a successful learning experience. The cre-
ation of such an environment begins with the physical setting. By using music,
posters, and props, the trainer creates a mood and sets the tone for the learning ex-
perience. Beginning the session with an icebreaker, opener, or other active-learning
technique will help learners focus on the course content and involve them immedi-
ately (Silberman, 1998). Other techniques such as showing a film clip or displaying
a photo, artifact, or cartoon and asking participants to comment is an excellent way
to build interest and prepare the participants for the learning that follows.
An integral part of the physical environment is the actual seating arrangement,
which we will discuss in detail in Chapter 8. Because room size and configuration
are often less than ideal, it is important to determine the type of interaction desired,
then arrange the seating to achieve the desired results. For example, research con-
ducted by the 3M Company with the Wharton School of Business found that the
U-shape configuration is very effective in promoting group interaction with a min-
imum of trainer control (Meyers & Jones, 1993).
Another way in which trainers can create a positive learning environment is to
find out what participants think and feel about the subject well in advance so that
this information can be used to design active-learning activities that take into ac-
count individual differences and levels of experience. This can be accomplished
through pre-session surveys and phone calls to participants. On-the-spot assess-
ment through opening activities can also help the trainer learn about participants’
knowledge, attitudes, and experience (Silberman, 1998).

Strategies and Techniques

Based on learning, teaching, and motivation theories as well as research findings
primarily at the pre-college level, the following strategies and techniques appear to
characterize the successful implementation of cooperative learning in an adult
training environment.

Structure and Organization. As noted above, cooperative learning is characterized

by structured learning groups. The trainer places participants in specific groups and
gives specific assignments with clear instructions and time limits. These assign-
ments may include group tasks as well as individual roles such as recorder, time-
keeper, or spokesperson. Cognizant of the different ways in which individuals
perceive and process information, the trainer should first form the groups to avoid
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confusion and then give instructions in both oral and written form by displaying
them on a flip chart, a transparency, or a handout.

Moderate Level of Content. Because cooperative-learning programs focus more

on process than on content, trainers should be guided in their design by determin-
ing “need to know” rather than what would be “nice to know.” Content is no longer
limited to facts, dates, formulas, definitions, and so on. It has been redefined to in-
clude skills and understanding, thus ensuring a balance among the cognitive, af-
fective, and behavioral domains of learning (Meyers & Jones, 1993). By clearly
defining what participants will know and be able to do by the end of the sessions,
trainers clarify content and select appropriate learning strategies. It is imperative
that these expectations be communicated clearly to the participants at the begin-
ning of the session—and preferably before. One strategy for communicating ex-
pected outcomes is to send a memo to the participants welcoming them to the
session and briefly outlining learner-centered course objectives and content as well
as instructions for any pre-work.

High Level of Participation. As mentioned earlier, the trainer’s role is that of a facil-
itator whose primary function is to manage the learning process. Participants are ac-
tively engaged in activities from the start, continually involved in doing, discussing,
and reflecting.

Interdependence. One of the primary purposes of cooperative learning is to cre-

ate interdependence among group members. In order to facilitate that outcome, the
trainer requires all group members to master the content of the assignment. This
might be accomplished by a jigsaw design (discussed later in this chapter) in which
the learning activity is structured in such a way that each group member is re-
sponsible for learning a specific piece of the content and then teaching it to the rest
of the participants.

Minimal Lecture. Although there is a place for lecture as a training method, it

should be used in small doses of ten to fifteen minutes. Based on research con-
ducted during the 1960s, lengthy, uninterrupted periods of leader-centered dis-
course result in confusion, boredom, and low retention (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith,
1991). Lectures, however, need not relegate learners to a passive role. Participants
can be involved through various interactive techniques that promote both under-
standing and retention (Silberman, 1998). These techniques are addressed later in
this chapter.
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Use of Small Groups. “Small groups” may consist of pairs, trios, or groups of five
to seven. Small groups are very effective. Not only do they incorporate all the ele-
ments of active learning, but they help participants to develop interpersonal skills
and provide those who might be reticent to participate a risk-free environment in
which they can express opinions or ask questions. This helps participants gain con-
fidence and develop the self-direction central to the adult learner.

Peer Teaching. We know from our study of adult-learning theory that adults bring
a wealth of experience and expertise to the learning environment. Encouraging
them to draw on and share their experiences with others in the group can be re-
warding for both the trainer and participants.

Variety of Methods. By using a variety of methods including role plays, case stud-
ies, simulations, games, and other experiential activities, participants are actively
engaged in the learning process.

Iterative Process. Throughout the session, the trainer uses activities that build on
and overlap concepts and skills learned earlier. In this manner, learning is rein-
forced and participants have more opportunities to digest and integrate what they
learn.

Real-World Application. Through many of the methods described above, partici-

pants are able to use real-life situations when learning new concepts and skills.
Sometimes the trainer solicits examples of hypothetical or real problems for the par-
ticipants to use throughout the session. In addition, before the session ends, the
trainer gives participants the opportunity to develop individual action plans, identi-
fying how they are going to apply what they have learned in the real world.

Designing Active-Training Activities

After you have decided the content and have some idea of the methods and mate-
rials you want to use, the next step is to come up with specific activities or struc-
tured experiences and specific training aids.
The term “design” was used in Chapter 6 to describe the process of planning or
laying out the training session or program. “Design” is also used in conjunction
with the methods and materials chosen. Each technique or activity must be care-
fully thought out prior to actually developing the activity.
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Design Principles
As you begin to develop your activities and materials, keep in mind the following
three principles:
• One design can accomplish two things at once. For example, an icebreaker
can build group cohesiveness and assess group needs.
• The same design can often be used for different purposes.
• Published designs can often be modified to suit your own needs.

Think about your training design as an accordion. Accordion designs are activ-
ities that can be stretched, compressed, or eliminated, depending on the time avail-
able and the experience of the participants.
Before moving on to specifics, let’s address a critical issue in course develop-
ment: the decision whether to use materials and activities already developed or to
create your own.
Many trainers, particularly those new to the field and often those faced with
time and cost constraints, choose to use “off-the-shelf” training materials that they
integrate into their own designs. In this chapter, you will learn how to select or de-
velop individual activities, exercises, assessment instruments, and so forth.
Most trainers use a combination of developing their own, buying, customizing,
and tailoring. For example, using published assessment instruments helps to main-
tain the integrity and professionalism of the program, providing a high degree of
validity and reliability. Also, purchasing simulations is wise because of their com-
plexity and their proven success. In general, customizing or tailoring published
role plays and case studies to clients’ specific situations is easier and less time-
consuming than writing your own.

Factors to Consider
Before jumping headlong into investigating resources for activities and materials or
developing your own, consider several key factors that will influence your decision.

Time. Course or program development takes time—a lot of time. Coming up with
your own activities, exercises, assessment instruments, role plays, case studies, and
so forth can take hours, days, or even weeks. Many people are surprised to dis-
cover, however, that the process of locating the most appropriate activity or even a
video for a given situation is also extremely time-consuming.
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Cost. Cost plays an important role also. If you develop your own materials, take into
consideration your salary per hour as well as the salaries of any support personnel
involved. Even if you select published material, factor in the cost of your research
time and remember that there are costs associated with purchasing or licensing that
you will incur each time you deliver the program.

Quality. The quality of the materials and activities is also important. Quality can
relate to the actual appearance of the materials, the credibility of the content, or the
level of detail provided.

Suitability. Your biggest concern should be the appropriateness of the material for
your purposes. Take into consideration the audience, the topic, and your objective.
Does each proposed activity or material do what you want it to do?

Your Experience and Expertise. Also evaluate your own skills and abilities. If you
want to develop your own role play or case study, for example, consider your level
of creativity as well as your writing ability.
To help you decide whether to create, buy, or adapt materials, refer to Appendix C:
Criteria for Selecting Packaged Programs.

Common Methods and Materials

Even if you develop many of your own active-training activities, you will still need
to use other sources for methods and materials such as videos and assessment in-
struments. In some situations you must lecture. All of these tried-and-true instruc-
tional methods, even lecture, can be redesigned to involve the participants more
actively, which is discussed further in this chapter.

Videos
New or inexperienced trainers will often develop training programs designed
around videos. Videos can be very helpful in communicating a message. They ap-
peal to visual learners and also to those who are part of the MTV generation. A
video is often quite effective as a method of demonstrating skills or presenting con-
cepts. Selecting the right video is also time-consuming, and then, of course, videos
are costly to buy or even rent.
Ignoring the cost issue, though, let’s look at what is involved in selecting the
right video for the right situation.
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Do’s and Don’ts

• Keep in mind that the purpose of a video is to complement, enhance, or
reinforce your message. A video is not meant to stand alone.
• Quality is very important. Today’s media-sophisticated audiences have
high expectations. Make sure the video you choose is not “dated” or
“hokey.” Participants expect a professional production.
• A training video should reflect the diversity of today’s business world. The
characters should not be stereotypes; they should represent a variety of
races, nationalities, and ages and have gender balance.
• Be sure the video meets your needs and satisfies your objectives. In their
catalogues, video producers always provide brief descriptions as well as
the objectives of the videos.

Benefits
• Videos offer models of positive behavior, and therefore they fit nicely into
the behavior-modeling approach to training.
• For multiple sessions, videos help ensure that your message is consistent
for all groups.
• Videos are an efficient and cost-effective means of dealing with multiple
sessions and locations.
• Videos often provide the opportunity to bring well-known experts into
your session.
If you are not receiving video producers’ catalogues as yet, contact those listed in
Appendix B; they will be more than happy to put you on their mailing lists. Spend
time looking through the catalogues and reading the descriptions. If you find any
videos that you think might meet your needs, simply contact the producer and ask
to preview. The preview charge is minimal, and sometimes even free; in this case
all you have to do is pay for traceable return postage.
Another option is to contact a distributor who represents several producers. The
advantage of dealing with a distributor is that you do not have to spend hours por-
ing over catalogues. Just call the distributor and tell the service representative your
topic, the intended audience, and your objective in using the video. The distributor
will recommend one or more and will also be happy to send you preview copies for
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130 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

your review. After you have made your selection, the distributor will handle the
arrangements for you to buy or rent the video. If you are lucky enough to live in a
city where one of these distributors is located, you can even arrange to preview
videos at their site. Many even provide free popcorn!
Whatever route you choose, be sure to preview several videos for each topic and
choose the one best suited to your purpose. It’s a good idea to keep records of the
videos you preview to help you make your selection and for future reference. See
the sample form in Exhibit 7.1 and use it the next time you preview some videos.

Instrumentation
An instrument is any paper-and-pencil device used to gather information about an
individual, group, or organization. Types of instruments include surveys, check-
lists, inventories, questionnaires, tests, and reactionaries. An instrument can be
used to provide feedback or self-reflection and examination, identify areas for im-
provement, or establish a baseline or starting point for future growth.

Selecting and Developing Instruments. As was mentioned earlier, assessment in-

struments can be purchased for a variety of purposes. For example, when addressing
personality and style differences, use a personality-style profile to enable people to
identify their own styles. Use this as a basis of exploring and adapting to style dif-
ferences. The Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inventory from Chapter 3 is an example
of this type of instrument and is also an example of one that does not have to be pur-
chased individually, as it was published in one of the Pfeiffer Annuals and can be
copied for internal use. Others can be purchased individually.
Instruments can be used to help people gain a deeper understanding of them-
selves and their approach to something. For example, the Coaching Skills Inventory
(Phillips, 2004) can be used to identify respondents’ behaviors in various coaching
situations.
Questionnaires, checklists, and even some surveys are fairly easy to develop.
Make them very specific to your situation. Techniques for using instruments will be
introduced in Chapter 8.
When selecting an assessment instrument, consider the following guidelines:

Selection Guidelines
Validity
• Does the instrument measure what you want it to measure?
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Selecting, Designing, and Developing Active-Training Methods 131

EXHIBIT 7.1. Film Preview Form

Film Title:

Distributor/Producer:

Topic:

Length:

Synopsis:

Uses:

Value:

Additional Comments:

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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132 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

Reliability
• How accurate is the scoring?
• Does it yield the same results each time it’s administered?
Theoretical Basis
• What is the theory behind the instrument?
• Does the instrument have a sound theoretical framework?
Language
• Is the reading level appropriate for the audience?
Accessibility
• How easy is it to acquire the instrument?
• Can it be purchased directly from the publisher or does a distributor have
to be found?
Fear Factor
• Could the questions or items or the reported results be intimidating or
embarrassing for participants?
Ease of Scoring
• Is the scoring process easy?
• How much help will the participants need?
Ease of Administration
• How complex is the entire process?
Interpretation of Data
• How meaningful is the interpretation of the data for participants?
Norms/Comparative Data
• Are norms comparative data available?
Time
• How long does it take to complete, score, and discuss the outcomes?
Cost
• How expensive is the instrument?
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• Is it worth the investment?

• Can the instrument be used again for other training events, or is it de-
signed for one-time use?
Copyright
• What are the restrictions on its use?
Facilitator’s Guide
• How complete and easy to understand is the facilitator’s guide or instruc-
tion manual?

Lectures
Unfortunately, many people, trainers included, believe that training is nothing
more than standing in front of a group of people with a series of PowerPoint® slides
or a stack of transparencies and delivering what amounts to an information dump.
People seem to know intuitively from their own experience as students that lecture
is not only boring but that retention is limited. So why do these same people con-
tinue to lecture?
1. For one thing, a lecture is relatively easy to prepare. Of course, a lot of time
has to be spent in advance putting your lecture or presentation together,
but once that is done, it’s done, and it can used over and over.
2. Another reason is that lectures save time. For those who believe that their
goal is to cover vast amounts of content in a short period of time, lecture is
the only way to go, with the trainer talking and the participants listening
and taking notes.
3. The third reason is control. It is much easier to remain in control of the situ-
ation through lecture. There is no danger of getting off-track unintentionally.

Pure lecture does have its place, but a very small place in the overall training de-
sign. Sometimes lectures are needed due to time constraints or to provide certain
background information. If you absolutely must lecture, deliver “lecturettes” in seg-
ments of no more than ten minutes each. One of the biggest challenges facing train-
ers is how to communicate cognitive material (content) without lecture. There are
some very effective ways, however, of making the lecture more interesting and even
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134 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

interactive. Interactive lecture incorporates activities and involves the participants

physically, mentally, or emotionally. Many of the techniques are advocated and used
by professional speakers and taught in presentation skills courses, such as:
• Question-and-answer periods
• Interesting visual aids
• Stories and anecdotes
• Case problems
• Examples and analogies

Alternatives to Lecture
You may be wondering, “How do I cover all this material without lecturing? They
need so much information!” Believe it or not, there are many ways to present
straight and even dull and boring information in an interesting and active way.
Remember the principles and concepts from Chapters 2 and 3, particularly the con-
cept that “people learn by doing, not by being told.” Cognitive information can be
taught actively, using cooperative-learning techniques. Cooperative-learning de-
signs have been used formally for decades, primarily in academic settings. Training
experts Mel Silberman, Bob Pike, and Sivasailam “Thiagi” Thiagarajan have
adapted, refined, and pioneered their use for a corporate training setting.
Many of these active-training or cooperative-learning methods can be used in
combination. Rather than being designed for use with a specific topic, most active-
training techniques are “frames” that can be adapted to any content. As you design
your program, look at the content and think about the different techniques that could
be used to put across the information without taking an active role. There is no one
right answer; it is a matter of judgment and personal preference in many cases.
The following designs can be used to present content without lecturing. For
more specific examples of the following training designs as well as ideas on pre-
senting cognitive material in an active way, see 101 Ways to Make Training Active
(Silberman, 2005).

Group Inquiry. Put participants in pairs to study information directly related to

the course content. Ask them to study a handout containing broad information,
then discuss the piece with a partner, trying to understand as much as they can,
placing question marks and making notes on those things they do not understand.
After a period of time, reconvene the entire group and begin answering questions
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the participants have generated. The purpose of this design is to arouse interest and
stimulate questions. Learners raise questions as a result of their innate curiosity.

CASE EXAMPLE
When I conduct a train-the-trainer session, I refer participants to the “Experiential
Learning Cycle” included in Chapter 8. I explain that the Experiential Learning Cycle
applies to individual activities. Then I ask people to work in pairs for five to eight
minutes, studying and discussing the graphic, trying to make sense of it. I ask them
to jot down questions they may have.At the end of the time period, I begin the dis-
cussion by asking, “Who has a question?” Generally, the first question posed by the
participants is, “Where does the cycle begin?” I then ask, “Who has an answer?”
Without exception, someone answers, “I believe it starts with the experiencing
phase.” I then confirm the answer and solicit other questions.This process contin-
ues until I am satisfied that the key points have been addressed. I clarify and fill in
gaps as necessary throughout the discussion.

Information Search. Rather than giving information to participants, make them

find it themselves. For example, you might create a worksheet listing a number of
questions related to the information you want them to learn. Provide resource ma-
terials such as brochures, manuals, job aids, journals, or books. Put people into pairs
or small groups, give them the study sheets and resource materials, and put them to
work searching for information. At the end of the designated time period, reconvene
the entire group, ask the small groups to report, and discuss what they have found.

CASE EXAMPLE
In a new employee orientation session, you want to familiarize the employees with
the employee handbook. Rather than simply “going over” the material page by page
as many people do, you would develop an information search. In addition to distrib-
uting the employee handbook, you would also give each participant a worksheet
with key questions such as the following:
• What is our standard work week?
• When do you get paid?
• How is overtime handled?
• What is the policy on sexual harassment?
• How many sick days (or paid time off) days do you receive?
• What is the procedure for calling in sick?
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The participants then work in pairs to search out the answers in the handbook.
After the designated time period, you would reconvene the group and discuss their
answers.

Guided Discussion. Guided discussion or guided teaching is also known as the

Socratic method. Socrates guided his students in the learning process by asking them
a series of questions. With this approach, the trainer poses questions that draw on the
participants’ knowledge and experience and require them to think about concepts
and ideas. Following cooperative-learning guidelines, pose a somewhat-broad ques-
tion and ask participants to work in pairs or small groups to come up with answers.

CASE EXAMPLE
In a session on “Coaching for Improved Performance,” the trainer asked the partic-
ipants to arrange themselves in small groups or clusters of four or five people and
discuss the following questions:“What is the difference between coaching and coun-
seling?” “How do you know when coaching is required?” “How do you know when
counseling is required?” After a designated period of discussion, the trainer recon-
vened the entire group and asked for a representative from each group to present
their points.

Active Knowledge Sharing. When trainers cite some interesting facts or statistical
information about a subject, participants’ reactions can range from genuine interest
to polite attention to glazed eyes. Rather than giving participants the facts and fig-
ures, use an activity called “Active Knowledge Sharing” (Silberman & Lawson,
1995). Ask participants to work together in twos or threes and make an educated
guess about the facts or statistics. Then show a prepared slide, transparency, or
computer screen on which you have provided the factual statement with the num-
ber or percentage to be filled in by the participants. For example, in sessions deal-
ing with listening skills, present the information using the following format (correct
answers can be found in Appendix A):
• A speaker can speak at a rate of words per minute; we can hear
at a rate of words per minute.
• On the average, we spend percent of our waking hours commu-
nicating; percent of that time is spent listening.
• People learn percent by sight; percent by listening;
and percent by all other senses combined.
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If the participant group is small (twenty to twenty-five), I go around the room

and ask people to quickly give me their figures, which I write on a flip chart or on
the overhead transparency. If the group is large, ask a few people at random to
share their figures. Then show the correct information. Participants really enjoy this
activity. It takes very little time, yet it piques their interest and curiosity. They are
motivated to listen because they want to find out whether they were correct. It is
important to have them work together so that no individual is put on the spot and
to create a safe environment for the audience members. People are much more
likely to remember these facts and figures because they were directly involved.

Peer Lessons. Choose learning material that can be broken into several parts, such
as an article with several sections. Divide the participants into small groups ac-
cording to the number of segments and ask each group to master one section of the
text. Have each group study its material, with group members reading, discussing,
and deciding how to teach the information to others. They may communicate the
information any way they choose. They could select one person from the group to
present the information or they could have several people involved. Some groups
may even choose to act out their segment. At the end of the designated study pe-
riod, reconvene the entire group and ask each group to present its content segment
to the rest of the group.

CASE EXAMPLE
During a session on “How to Develop a Winning Team,” the trainer wanted to con-
vey the four stages of team development: forming, storming, norming, performing.
The trainer prepared a handout that described each stage in detail. After dividing
the group into four subgroups, the trainer assigned each group one of the stages to
study and explain.
When the entire group reconvened, the “forming” subgroup conveyed their in-
formation by asking the rest of the participants to think about any experience they
may have had during which they were part of a newly formed group and to describe
what is was like and how people behaved. As the participants gave their input, one
of the subgroup members captured the points on a flip-chart page. Key points in-
cluded being confused, feeling uncomfortable, waiting to be told what to do, and
making judgments about other team members. The subgroup then compared the
newly generated list to the one the subgroup had developed, pointing out similari-
ties and differences.
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The “storming” subgroup chose to present a “skit” or demo role play in which
they acted out what a team might do in that stage of development. Behaviors in-
cluded people talking over each other, arguing, challenging the team leader, openly
criticizing each other, and struggling for control.
The “norming” subgroup created a short true-false quiz that reflected the
key characteristics of a team in the norming stage. The following are a few sample
questions:
• Team members no longer argue. (F; conflicts continue, but team members
deal with them in a more constructive way.)
• Member satisfaction increases. (T)
• There is more sharing of ideas as well as giving and receiving feedback. (T)
• Team leader is still very much in control. (F; leader’s role becomes more
consultative.)
Finally, the “performing” group chose a spokesperson to simply explain the
characteristics of that stage:
• Group has open communication structure
• Subgroups work on important tasks
• Members develop rapport and closeness
• Members try to minimize criticism from outside the group
• Work is performed at a high rate of efficiency

Jigsaw Design. This activity is very similar to Peer Teaching, except for one vari-
ation. After the adequate study and preparation period, form cooperative or “jig-
saw” learning groups by taking one representative from each study group to
become part of a new group. Each new group then has a person who has studied
each segment. Have each member of the new group teach his or her particular as-
signed segment to the other group members. Reconvene the large group to review
and answer questions, thus ensuring accuracy and uniform understanding. An ex-
ample of synergetic learning, the jigsaw design creates interdependence among
group members who are responsible for combining separate pieces of information
to create a single, coherent body of knowledge.

CASE EXAMPLE
Another way of presenting the four stages of team development would be to cre-
ate a handout describing each stage (just as in the example of Peer Teaching). Form
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four subgroups and assign each subgroup one of the stages to study and be ready
to teach that stage to someone else.The groups may decide among themselves how
best to “teach” or convey the material assigned to them. After the study period,
form new subgroups, each containing a representative from each of the four origi-
nal study groups. The newly formed groups now have an “expert” on each of the
four phases, with each person teaching the others what he or she knows about the
assigned stage.

Learning Tournament. Divide the group into teams of five to seven people each.
Give the teams time to study, discuss, and coach one another using material they
have been given during the session. At the end of the study period, reconvene the
entire group and distribute a handout with quiz items to each participant. Have
participants complete and score the quiz individually; then have each team com-
pute a team average. Post team scores and repeat the process. Decide how many
rounds to conduct; three rounds work well. At the end of the designated number
of rounds, total each team’s score and award prizes to the winning team. With this
design, there is individual accountability (individual quiz scores), cooperative
learning (team coaching sessions), and interdependence (average team score).

CASE EXAMPLE
In a session on leadership in which the participants learned about Situational
Leadership, the trainer divided the participants into teams of four to six members.
The trainer asked the teams to study the material and class notes dealing with lead-
ership styles, the Situational Leadership Model, and stages of group development.
The trainer explained that they would be participating in a learning tournament con-
sisting of three rounds. They were told that they would have ten minutes before
each round to study the material and coach each other.
After the study period, the trainer distributed five scenarios and asked the par-
ticipants individually to indicate which leadership style they would use in each situ-
ation. After the participants completed the scenarios, the trainer shared the correct
answers and explained the rationale for each correct choice. The participants
counted the number of items they answered correctly and pooled their scores to
obtain a team score.
The process (study, coach, quiz, score) was repeated for the next two rounds.
At the end of the third round, the trainer totaled the scores for all three rounds for
each team and rewarded the team with the highest overall score.
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Experiential Learning Activities

Experiential learning means that the participants are directly involved in the learn-
ing process. They learn by actually experiencing the activity. Experiential activities
include role plays, case studies, in-basket activities, simulations, and games. Each
is addressed separately below.

Role Plays
The term “role play” often strikes a note of fear in the minds of even the most con-
fident people. Role play conjures up all types of negative images and reactions, and
the wall of resistance immediately goes up. Unfortunately, more than a few partic-
ipants have had horrible experiences with role playing, being forced to act out or
perform in front of their peers and subjected to criticism and ridicule. Embarrassed
and humiliated, they vow to do everything in their power to avoid participating in
role plays ever again. Others have only heard of these experiences, but the horror
stories have been enough to convince them that they don’t want any part of it.
The cause of bad role-play experiences is not the method but the trainer. Most
problems can be traced to poor preparation and planning, as well as a lack of sensi-
tivity on the trainer’s part. To ensure that your use of role play is a positive learning
experience, consider the benefits and then follow the tips for risk-free role-play ex-
periences discussed below.

Why Use Role Play? An effective role play promotes affective, cognitive, and be-
havioral learning. Participants practice the skills taught, demonstrating their knowl-
edge and understanding of the content through their application in the role-play
situation. They also have an opportunity to gain insight into their own behavior.

Types of Role Plays. Several role-play options are available. The first decision is
what type of role play to conduct and how to do it. Do you want to write scripts and
have participants read their parts? Or do you want to create a general scenario and
give each role player specific instructions that include facts about the role and how
each should behave? Or you might decide to give the participants extensive detail
and information about the situation, but not tell them how to behave. A fourth pos-
sibility is that the role players can create their own scenarios. The choice is yours.
Other decisions involve how you want the role play to be performed. Will role
players act out the scenario in front of the room with the rest of the group observing
and giving feedback? Will people in pairs or trios role play simultaneously while
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Selecting, Designing, and Developing Active-Training Methods 141

some participants observe each role play? Will there be one role-play situation or
several? To reduce the risk during role play, try the four-part approach described
below.
This approach assumes a training session that is six hours or more. It can be used
with any topic to build skills or change behavior. For maximum success, design the
program to include the following four types of role plays in the order presented
here. Notice that the sequence starts with a type of role play that is fairly easy to do
and doesn’t really put anyone on the spot and then moves incrementally to more dif-
ficult and challenging activities.
Scripted Role Play. A scripted role play is one in which the trainer writes (or buys)
a prepared script and asks for volunteer participants to read their lines in front of
the entire group while the rest observe. The trainer then conducts a general discus-
sion with the entire group. This type of role play should be used fairly early in the
session to demonstrate desired behavior, or if you prefer, to illustrate undesired be-
havior. In either case, participants should be able to identify either what they
should or should not do.
Coaching Role Play. A coaching role play involves both the trainer and the par-
ticipants. It gives participants an opportunity to draw on the information already
presented and demonstrate how well they understand the concepts and principles.
In this type of role play, the trainer asks for a volunteer participant to come to the
front of the group. The trainer creates the scenario and explains it to both the vol-
unteer and the entire group. The trainer plays the role of the person whose skills are
to be developed, and the volunteer will play the foil. The trainer begins the role
play, stops periodically, and asks the group to tell the trainer what to say next. The
trainer then takes the group’s suggestions and continues the role play. The trainer
repeats this stop-action technique several times and then conducts a discussion
about what skills or principles were applied in the activity.
Spontaneous Role Play. A spontaneous role play is used during a general group
discussion. For example, the trainer may want to communicate ways of dealing
with an employee who is defensive and resistant. Instead of telling the group how
to handle the situation, he or she engages in a spontaneous role play to demonstrate
the appropriate approach, asking one of the participants to pretend to disagree and
argue. Because this role play seems to spring from nowhere and appears to be spon-
taneous, the participant playing the other role does not even realize he or she is role
playing. A variation of this would be for the trainer to reverse roles and play the
person who disagrees.
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Rotating Trio Role Play. The rotating trio role play gives each participant an op-
portunity to try out his or her skills. This type of role play should be used near the
end of the session as a means of bringing it all together. The trainer breaks the group
into groups of three. The role play consists of three rounds with three different sce-
narios. The participants in each trio take turns playing the primary character, who is
to demonstrate the skills; the secondary character, who is on the receiving end; and
the observer. Each person assumes a different role for each round. The trainer can ei-
ther create the scenarios and roles or have the participants come up with their own
three scenarios. If the participants come up with their own, additional time must be
allowed.

Case Studies
A case study is a written account of a problem, generally a real situation, and how it
was handled. In one approach, participants are asked to analyze and discuss how
the case illustrates the learning points from the training session. In another type of
case study, participants are given a written description of a situation or problem, real
or fictional, confronting an individual or organization and asked to analyze the sit-
uation, evaluate alternatives, and recommend an appropriate approach or solution.
Case studies, like other experiential activities, enhance retention, recall, and ap-
plication of knowledge in actual work situations. The sense of realism and the par-
ticipation required in small groups to discuss the case create a satisfying and
fulfilling experience for the participants. Case studies are used in training on man-
agement, customer service, sales, and many other human relations topics.
Case studies are more complicated than they first appear. Many participants
read the case and arrive at a solution or recommendation quickly. They fail to ad-
dress the most critical part of case analysis: identification of the underlying prob-
lem. Therefore, be sure to provide specific directions when introducing the activity.
As with role plays, case studies can be purchased and used as is or customized
for the specific situation and organization. They can also be written, either from
your own experience and knowledge of the organization and industry or by inter-
viewing people within the organization to gather more specific details and a deeper
understanding of the problems represented in the cases. Although the latter ap-
proach is time-consuming, it is well worth the effort. When participants know they
are working with real-life cases, the training program has instant credibility.
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Selecting, Designing, and Developing Active-Training Methods 143

Because the cases are realistic and relevant, participants are more interested and
eager to contribute. Cases can range in length from one paragraph to several pages,
and they can also be used as the basis for role plays.

Guidelines for Writing Cases Studies. The beauty of writing cases is that you are
completely in charge. Create any scenario you choose, and make the case simple or
complex. The following are some guidelines for writing a case study for any topic
or situation:
• Write it in story form. Create the scenario, and then just start writing what
you imagine. Make it as realistic as possible.
• Create characters. To avoid potential problems with diversity issues, give the
characters humorous names. For example, for a financial-services organiza-
tion, name the characters Penny Less and Mort Gage.
• Create some realistic dialogue. It does not have to be much, but it makes the
story more interesting and adds a sense of realism.
• Provide specific details as appropriate. You may or may not want to provide
background information. If the details enhance the case study or provide
essential information that could impact the outcome, them include it. Be
careful not to include extraneous information that might detract from the
main task or confuse the participants.
• Be descriptive. Create a picture in the minds of the participants. If appropri-
ate, describe the physical environment or a character’s emotional state.
• Make the story easy to follow. A lengthy or complicated case study needs sub-
headings. With shorter cases, the most easily read and understood are those
that follow a logical sequence of events.
• Provide discussion questions or guidelines for participants to follow as they ana-
lyze the case. Many people, unfamiliar with this type of activity, could easily
become confused and discouraged. Make the case challenging but not over-
whelming.

In-Basket Activities
An in-basket activity is another type of experiential activity that re-creates as closely
as possible situations that participants would encounter on the job. These situations
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also include representative materials. The most common in-basket activities are
used in time-management training to help participants learn how to delegate or set
priorities. The trainer provides the hypothetical scenario. For example, participants
may be told that they are about to leave on a two-week vacation and that all the
work on their desks must be cleaned up before they go. An emergency has kept
them from dealing with their in-baskets, and they now have only thirty minutes to
go through the items and decide what to do with each one.
The trainer can have the participants work on the task individually, in pairs, or in
small groups. Using pairs or small groups makes the activity more interesting and
adds the dynamic of discussion and joint decision making. The trainer distributes to
each person or small group an envelope containing ten to twelve items that would
typically be in someone’s in-basket: phone messages, memos, letters, reports, minutes
from meetings, and so forth. At the end of the designated time period—generally
thirty minutes—the trainer conducts a discussion about what the participants did
and why. Again, use an in-basket activity already developed or create your own.

Simulations
For our purposes, the term “simulation” refers to lengthy, case-like scenarios that
simulate problems in the work environment. The design is complicated, often re-
quiring participants to make decisions at various points during the activity. The
most well-known simulations are the consensus-seeking survival simulations used
in sessions dealing with teamwork.
Business simulations also fall into this category. Generally, business simulations
are tied to management or financial disciplines and address a specific skill within
that discipline such as problem solving, delegation, coaching and counseling, or
planning. Unlike the survival simulations, the business game presents realistic
management situations that test participants’ knowledge and skill.
Survival simulations and business simulations are generally lengthy, requiring
anywhere from one to three hours to complete and process. They are a great way to
sharpen analytical thinking and task and people skills, and they help participants
gain insight into their own behavior as they interact with others. More and more
organizations are using computer simulations, but mostly for individual rather
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than group training. Simulations are available from several publishers listed in
Appendix B.

Instructional Games
To distinguish games from simulations, “game” is defined here as a rule-based,
competitive activity based on a defined set of goals. Instructional games are often
elaborate, professionally prepared packages related to a specific topic such as cus-
tomer service, diversity, or communication. Another type of instructional game is a
“frame game” that is designed generically so that different content can be inserted
and the game adapted for many different topics. Frame games based on game
shows such as “Jeopardy®” or the ever-popular BINGO are often used to review or
reinforce content. Games are addressed in more detail in Chapter 11.

Action Learning
Action learning is a real-time learning experience that occurs on the job and with
the dual—and equally important—purposes in mind of (1) addressing a business
need and (2) further developing individuals by exposing them to important, chal-
lenging, and useful learning experiences. Participants meet together in groups to
solve organizational problems.
In action learning, the problem or project becomes the central learning expe-
rience. Participants are encouraged to learn from their attempts to solve a prob-
lem and then reflect on their decisions and behaviors during the process. Often
the work on these projects continues long after the training program has been
completed.
The following is a list of potential projects for a range of action-learning groups:
• Career-development process
• Succession planning
• Improvement of various processes
• Developing benchmarks for performance
• Strategic planning
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KEY POINTS
• People understand concepts better and retain information longer when they are
actively involved with the learning process.
• The trainer’s role is to create the environment and to facilitate the learning process.
• All instructional methods, including lecture and video, can be redesigned to involve
participants more actively.
• Deliver “lecturettes” in segments of no more than ten minutes each.
• Use various ways to present cognitive material without lecturing.

✦ ✦ ✦
Now that you have selected active-training techniques you would like to use and
incorporated them into your design, the next step is to learn how to use them.
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Chapter 8
Delivering
Training

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn
• To create a positive learning environment
• To use active-techniques to gain 100 percent participation
• To set up, conduct, and process an activity for maximum learning
• To fine-tune your platform skills and stage presence

Creating a Positive Learning Environment

The success or failure of your training session is often determined long before the
first participant sets foot in your training room. The trainer’s job is to create and
maintain an environment conducive to learning and to create opportunities for
participants to experience personal growth, a sense of achievement and accom-
plishment, and recognition and rewards.
Much of the difference between success and failure has to do with one simple
word: preparation. This includes preparing yourself and the learning environment,
preparing the participants, and preparing the participants’ managers.

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Active from the Start or Before

Participant preparation is critical to the success of the training session. Some ways
to involve participants prior to the session are covered below.

Pre-Session Questionnaire. Several weeks before the session, send a letter and
questionnaire to the participants. Use a letter similar to the one in Exhibit 8.1 to wel-
come them to the session, provide them with an outline of the session and logisti-
cal information, and explain anything that should be done prior to the session, such
as reading assignments, self-assessment instruments, or the questionnaire.
The purpose of the pre-session questionnaire is to find out about participants’ ex-
pectations and perceived needs as well as gather information to create customized
role plays, case studies, and other activities. The questionnaire helps to prepare them
mentally for the learning experience. A tip sheet can be included to help participants
get the most out of the training program. This is particularly helpful for those who
may be attending a training session for the first time or when the participants are
coming from different locations or organizations and are unlikely to know each
other. Exhibit 8.2 is a sample of a tip sheet. It is sent to participants from different or-
ganizations attending a three-day residential program at a conference center.

Pre-Session Assignments. Pre-session assignments are a good way to save valu-

able workshop time and get participants ready for the learning experience. Keep
the pre-work minimal—a one- or two-page reading assignment and perhaps a self-
assessment instrument. Participants overwhelmed with too much will be turned off
before they begin. Also, keep in mind that there will always be some people who
don’t complete the pre-work assignments. Have a plan to deal with that situation.
Ask them to work on the assignment during a break, or ask participants to work on
the assignment while the group is involved in an activity.

Manager Involvement and Support. Ideally, managers of those attending training

programs should sit down with their employees and tell them how the training re-
lates to their jobs, explain what the program is about, tell employees why they are
going and what the managers expect the participants to gain from the program, and
find out what the employees hope to learn. The reality is that this scenario does not
play out very often. Although managers cannot be forced to prepare their employ-
ees for the training experience, they can be prodded a little. Send the managers a
memo such as Exhibit 8.3, suggesting how they can help prepare their employees
for training.
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Delivering Training 149

EXHIBIT 8.1. Sample Participant Cover Letter

Dear Program Participant:

Welcome to the “Managing Conflict” workshop! I am looking forward to meeting

and working with you as we explore ways to resolve conflict and prevent it from
negatively impacting your business results.

In preparation for this session, I am asking you to complete the following pre-
session assignments:

(1) Confidential Pre-Session Questionnaire: Please fax your completed ques-

tionnaire to me by [date]. My fax number is XXX–393–0000.
(2) Pre-Session Assessment: Please bring your completed assessment to the
session on [date].
(3) Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Please complete pages 1
through 4 prior to the workshop session and bring the instrument with you
on [date].

It is imperative that you complete these pre-session assignments. We do not

want to take valuable class time to complete this work. It should take you about one
hour to complete all three assignments.

This session will be highly interactive, and you will have several opportunities
to apply concepts and skills to “real-life” scenarios.

See you on [date]!

Sincerely,

Karen Lawson, Ph.D.

Program Facilitator
The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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EXHIBIT 8.2. Sample Tips for Participants

Tips to Help Participants Get the Most Out of

“Management Skills and Techniques”
We are committed to making this the most rewarding learning experience you have
ever had. For some of you, this will be your first professional-development program;
others may be attending as part of an ongoing program. In either case, we want to
help you get the most from your learning experience. To that end, we are offering
the following tips to help you reap both personal and professional rewards.
1. This program is demanding in both time and energy. Not only will you be
spending a full and active day in class, you will also be required to com-
plete evening assignments. To minimize your stress, we strongly suggest
that you make every effort to limit personal commitments while you are
attending this program.
2. Because this is an intense, concentrated program, you won’t want to miss
a minute of exciting activities and exhilarating class discussions. Try to arrange
your travel plans so that you can take advantage of every learning moment.
3. One of the greatest benefits of a program such as this is the opportunity to
share with and learn from others, so come prepared to share your needs
and concerns about the challenge of managing others.
4. Take advantage of the wealth of resources in the class. Spend your time
during meals, breaks, and after class networking with others—both trainers
and fellow participants. Take the opportunity to talk with others about
common problems and possible solutions. Your goal is to learn as much
outside class as in the class itself.
5. One of the major benefits of a residential program is meeting new and in-
teresting people. Make a real effort to avoid “chumming” with people from
your own organization or with your roommate exclusively.
6. You’ll discover many new ideas and techniques that you will want to apply
“back home.” You’ll be so excited you’ll want to try everything! To prevent
personal frustration, plan to return from the program with a “personal-
development plan” of one or two new ideas that will help improve your
performance on the job.
The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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EXHIBIT 8.2. Sample Tips for Participants, Cont’d.

7. Jump right in and get involved as much as possible when there are partici-
pative activities. You’ll not only learn more, but have more fun, too.
8. Because there are so many new things to learn, you may sometimes feel
overwhelmed. To maintain focus for yourself, continually refer to the objec-
tives of the program and ask yourself, “What am I learning?” “How can I
use this on the job?”
9. Use your time well to make friends, stimulate thinking, get new ideas, and
strengthen your own thoughts. This is what makes an enriching learning
experience. You’ll leave the program “pumped up” and ready for action!

EXHIBIT 8.3. Sample Memo to Manager

To: Participant’s Manager

From: Trainer

Date:

Subject: Title of Training Program

Your employee, , is scheduled to attend the training pro-

gram entitled on .

During the program, the following topics will be addressed:

The overall goal(s) of the session(s) is/are to

In order for the participants to be successful in transferring learning from the class-
room to the job, the manager must be actively involved. Please take a few minutes
and identify areas or skills you would like the participant to work on in this pro-
gram. Be as specific as possible. Please share this information and discuss your ex-
pectations with the employee before the session.
The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Be sure to include an outline of the program and send a separate tip sheet, such
as How to Prepare Your Employees for Training, shown in Exhibit 8.4.

EXHIBIT 8.4. How to Prepare Your Employees for Training

Before the Training Session

• Well in advance of the training session, sit down with your employees and
explain your reasons for sending them to the program.
• Explain what the program is all about, including objectives and content.
• If the employees are attending a program out of town in an unfamiliar
setting, explain what they can expect. This should include a discussion of
travel arrangements, lodging, and appropriate attire, along with travel-
reimbursement policies and procedures.
• Tell them what you expect them to get out of the program and how the
program relates to their jobs.
• Ask them what they would like to gain from the program. Encourage them
to identify specific skills they would like to develop, information they want
to learn, or problems they would like help in solving.
• Indicate that you will expect them to discuss the program with you when
they return. You might even suggest that they write brief summaries of their
learning experiences, including what they learned, how they are going to
use the training back on the job, and how the training will benefit them, the
organization, and if applicable, their customers. You may even want them to
share what they learned with their co-workers at a staff meeting.
• Employees often worry about being away from the job because of work
piling up. Assure them that the work will be there when they get back and
not to worry about it. Emphasize that you want them to get as much out of
the program as possible.

After the Training Session

• Shortly after they have returned from the training, meet with the employ-
ees to debrief.

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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EXHIBIT 8.4. How to Prepare Your Employees for Training, Cont’d.

• Ask them what they learned and whether or not it met their expectations.
Ask if they would recommend that others attend.
• The discussion should center on how they are going to apply what they
learned. Press them to be specific, and ask how you can support them as
they try to use what they learned.
• If appropriate, ask them to share their experience, key learning points,
materials, etc., with their co-workers.
• Follow up with the employees over the next few months to make sure they
are applying what they learned. After they have had adequate time to use
what they learned on the job, you might ask them what they still want or
need to learn.

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

For multi-session training programs, involve the participants’ managers in an-

other way. Create “homework” assignments or projects that the participants must
complete outside the sessions, discuss with their managers, and have the managers
sign off on them. For example, with one or two weeks between sessions, partici-
pants can be asked to apply what they learned in the session, write a summary, dis-
cuss it with their managers, and be prepared to discuss it during the next session.
Exhibit 8.5 is an example of an assignment following a session on delegation.
The more supportive and involved participants’ managers are, the more posi-
tive and participative the participants are in the training session. Studies also find
that the more voluntary the training, the higher the motivation and involvement of
the participants.

Rehearsal
Now that the up-front work to prepare your participants is over, do not overlook or
short-shrift your self-preparation. You must be completely comfortable and proficient
with the content and the activities. Take nothing for granted. Spend plenty of time
practicing. Make sure to plan transitions or bridges from one activity to another.
Anticipate questions and problems and think about how you would handle them.
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EXHIBIT 8.5. Delegation Assignment

You have now learned the skill of delegation. In using this skill, make sure that you:
1. Select an employee who has the capability of handling the responsibility.
2. Provide the employee with adequate training to handle the responsibility.
3. Specify the performance standards for the new responsibility.

In the space below, outline a responsibility that you can delegate to one of your
employees. Discuss it with your manager and be prepared to share it in class on
[date].

Name of Responsibility:

Person to Whom You Are Delegating:

Specific Tasks to Be Done:

Performance Standards:

Your Signature: Date:

Your Manager’s Signature: Date:

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Delivering Training 155

Seating Arrangements
In many cases, you will not have any control over the room in which you are as-
signed to train or even the seating arrangements. You could be in a boardroom with
a huge oval mahogany table and overstuffed chairs, or you might find yourself in
an amphitheater with the seats bolted to the floor. Even in situations in which the
chairs cannot be moved, keep in mind that people can be moved.
Different room set-ups result in different group dynamics. Part of the planning
process is deciding how much interaction you want and how much control you
want as the trainer. Then you choose the seating configuration conducive to creat-
ing the desired outcome. Careful thought and planning of the seating arrangements
will help facilitate participation and minimize problems.
Figures 8.1 through 8.7 illustrate common seating arrangements. Read the fol-
lowing seven lists indicating the trainer’s intent and desired outcome. Then, refer-
ring to the figures, write down which setup will most likely achieve the desired
results. Answers are given in Appendix A.

Figure 8.1. Classroom Style

Trainer
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Figure 8.2. Horseshoe

Trainer

Figure 8.3. Single Square or Round

Trainer

Trainer
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Figure 8.4. Cluster

Trainer

Figure 8.5. Conference

Trainer
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Figure 8.6. Semicircle and Full Circle

Trainer

Trainer

Figure 8.7. Chevron

Trainer
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Trainer’s Intent/Desired Interaction 1

• Formal atmosphere
• Low group involvement
• High degree of trainer control
• Primarily one-way communication

Preferred Setup 1
Seating arrangement: ______________

Trainer’s Intent/Desired Interaction 2

• Trainer serves as facilitator
• Emphasis on small-group work
• High participant involvement
• Freedom of movement for both trainer and participants
• Room for flip chart and work table

Preferred Setup 2
Seating arrangement: ______________

Trainer’s Intent/Desired Interaction 3

• Moderate group involvement
• Trainer in control; focal point
• Allows for some participant movement
• Some two-way communication

Preferred Setup 3
Seating arrangement: ______________

Trainer’s Intent/Desired Interaction 4

• Trainer becomes part of the group
• High participant involvement and interaction
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• Informal, relaxed atmosphere

• Facilitates problem solving and promotes open discussion

Preferred Setup 4
Seating arrangement: ______________

Trainer’s Intent/Desired Interaction 5

• High participant involvement
• Very informal
• Allows for changing configurations
• Conducive to a variety of activities and interactions

Preferred Setup 5
Seating arrangement: ______________

Trainer’s Intent/Desired Interaction 6

• Formal environment
• Low to moderate group involvement
• Some two-way communication
• High degree of control on part of trainer

Preferred Setup 6
Seating arrangement: ______________

Trainer’s Intent/Desired Interaction 7

• Formal atmosphere
• Moderate participant involvement
• Trainer clearly in control

Preferred Setup 7
Seating arrangement: ______________
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It’s Show Time

The importance of getting off to a good start cannot be overstated. What you say and
what you do in the first few minutes can make the difference between a fabulous
learning experience and a dismal failure. It is your job to (1) create a safe environ-
ment in which learning can take place; (2) stimulate participants’ thinking; (3) in-
volve the participants in the learning process; (4) manage the learning process; and
(5) ensure individual participant accountability.
At the beginning and throughout the training session, you may be challenged,
perplexed, and even stymied by participants’ lack of motivation and sometimes
outright resistance. You have, of course, taken participant motivation into account,
using it as a driving force behind the design and development of your program.
However, continue to be diligent and vigilant about motivational strategies
throughout the delivery.
To guide you in those strategies, consider the ARCS model introduced by J.M.
Keller (1983). The ARCS (attention, relevance, confidence, satisfaction) model offers
an approach that ensures participant “buy-in” and participation. Use Keller’s four-
part model as a quality check on your design. An effective training program will re-
flect the following:

• Attention. From the very beginning, grab and hold the participants’ atten-
tion, using a variety of techniques.
• Relevance. Design the program to meet the real-world needs and experi-
ences of the participants, and clearly point out the tangible benefits.
Throughout the program, provide a framework, helping participants link
content with what they already know.
• Confidence. Design the training and facilitate the learning process in such a
way that the participants gain confidence to apply new knowledge, behav-
ior, and skills back on the job.
• Satisfaction. The artful design of the training program, coupled with skillful
facilitation of the process, results in a high degree of participant satisfaction
with the learning experience. Additionally, the participants’ ability and mo-
tivation to apply the learning results in personal satisfaction.
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Grab Their Attention

The technique of grabbing participants’ attention and creating a readiness for learn-
ing is called “set induction.”

EXAMPLE OF SET INDUCTION

I learned (quite by accident) about set induction and the powerful attention-getting
impact of a simple visual aid many years ago when I was a high-school English teacher.
I was part of a three-person team teaching American literature to high-school juniors.
We used a large-group, small-group approach to teaching.Two days a week one of us
lectured to all our combined classes. Imagine 150 sixteen-year-olds in a lecture hall.
This was my first experience lecturing a large group of teenagers, and my topic
was Nathaniel Hawthorne and The Scarlet Letter. I knew this was not exactly a hot
topic for a group of sixteen-year-olds. Furthermore, having observed the behavior
of the group when the other two teachers lectured, I knew I needed to come up
with some way to get their attention fast.
I decided to trace a stencil of an Old English style letter “A” on a transparency
and hand-color it in red. I arrived at the lecture hall twenty minutes early and put
the transparency on the overhead projector, and dimmed the lights.
When the bell rang and the students came rushing and screaming into the lec-
ture room, they stepped through the door and immediately became very quiet be-
cause all they could see was a huge red letter “A” on the screen.They began taking
their seats with hushed exchanges such as “cool,” “heavy, man,” “far out,” and so
forth. I had their attention immediately, and as a result I was able to conduct my lec-
ture without the usual antics and disruptions the other teachers had experienced.

Using Icebreakers and Openers

Techniques that immediately involve participants are very effective in piquing their
interest and curiosity and preparing them for the learning experience. Many train-
ers start with an icebreaker, an activity designed to put people at ease and help
them become acquainted. Typically, icebreakers are not necessarily related to the
content. Their purpose is to help reduce tension and anxieties, energize the group,
set a tone for the program, and involve everyone. Openers, on the other hand, are
subject-matter-oriented activities that accomplish all the above and also introduce
the participants to the session content. It is far better if the opening activity serves
several purposes, including setting a tone or mindset, and does not seem frivolous
and a waste of time.
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Many trainers use the tried-and-true (albeit boring) method of having people in-
troduce themselves and say what they want to get from the training. A variation of
this method, and just as boring, is to have people pair up, interview each other, then
introduce each other to the rest of the group. These two openers are not only
unimaginative, but create an outcome quite the opposite from what the trainer in-
tends. Rather than being at ease, participants are uncomfortable at having to speak
up in a room full of strangers. Furthermore, with the partner introductions, many
people are embarrassed because they forget the other person’s name or fumble
with the information.
Although it is true that people should be active from the very beginning, it is
also true that the activity must have a purpose beyond introducing people to each
other. To find ideas for icebreakers, browse through the dozens of books on the
market that offer icebreakers, openers, and warm-up activities for every purpose.
(Check those listed in Appendix A for specific titles.) Write down the ones that ap-
peal to you and how they could be used, that is, with what topic and audience. File
them for use in another session or to spruce up an existing design.
A few basic openers are included on the next few pages that can be adapted to
any topic.

Human Scavenger Hunt. In programs of three hours or more, you may want par-
ticipants to get to know each other quickly so you can establish a safe environment
in which people will feel comfortable participating. One of the most popular get-
acquainted activities that also guarantees instant involvement is the Get-Acquainted
Scavenger Hunt made popular by Ed Scannell and John Newstrom (1983).
Instructions: Prepare a sheet on which you ask participants to “find someone in
the room who. . .” and then list a number of descriptive statements. Ask partici-
pants to circulate around the room and find people who fit those criteria. When a
person fits a particular criterion, ask that person to sign his or her name. Any indi-
vidual can sign another person’s sheet only once.
The following scavenger hunt, adapted from Scannell and Newstrom’s (1983)
activity, could be used for a session on time management.
Find someone in this group who. . .
• Has been told he/she is a good cook
• Uses a daily planner or “to-do” list
• Schedules his/her day the night before
• Was born in the same month as you
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• Maintains a neat desk or work area

• Listens to educational tapes
• Has more than two pets

Notice that the statements are both content-related and personal. Content ques-
tions include those that address having a daily “to-do” list, maintaining a neat
work area, listening to educational tapes, and scheduling the night before. Personal
items include cooking, pets, and birthdays. The two types of questions give partic-
ipants an opportunity to relate on a personal level, while preparing them mentally
for the session content.

The Party. This activity is great for networking and becoming acquainted. It cre-
ates movement and enables people to meet a number of fellow participants, re-
gardless of the group size. The topics discussed can be adapted to any content.
Instructions: (1) Prior to the activity, hang or display posters on the wall or on
easels around the room related to both the theme of your session and your topic. For
example, use movie posters for a movie theme in a session on conflict, leadership,
communication, or almost any subject. To make the theme more specific, use any type
or category of movies such as Disney films, science fiction, horror, westerns, musicals,
comedies—the possibilities are endless. For a zoo theme in a diversity program, post
large pictures of different zoo animals. Posters representing different sports (football,
tennis, golf, basketball, soccer, hockey, skating, and so forth) or perhaps teams within
a particular sport would be great for a sports theme and team building.
(2) Also prepare instruction sheets for each person (or list on a flip-chart page)
with the following assignments for each round:

Round One
• Introduce yourself to other members of your group by stating your name,
where you live, and your position and responsibilities.
• Explain briefly why you selected this particular [movie, animal, sport, etc.]
as your favorite.

Round Two
• Identify something you have in common with the other members in your
group. Some possible topics might include hobbies, sports activities, family,
pets, or job.
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Round Three
• What are your concerns or expectations for this session?
(3) Tell participants to look around at the posters and select their three favorites.
Explain that there will be three rounds of groupings or gatherings. During round
one, they are to go to the designated area for their first choice; round two, their sec-
ond choice; round three, their third choice. Tell them how long they will have for
each round.
(4) After the subgroups are formed for the first round, ask the participants to
discuss the questions or topics that appear on their instruction sheets or flip-chart
sheets for that round. At the end of the designated time period, stop the discussion
and ask for volunteers to answer the following questions:

Round One
• Who in your group traveled the farthest to attend this session?
• Why did you choose this [movie, sport, team. . .]?
(5) Repeat the process for the next two rounds:

Round Two
• What did you find you have in common?

Round Three
• What were the major concerns or expectations in your group?
• What was the most interesting thing you learned through this activity?

This activity can also be used at any time during the session by making the ques-
tions content specific. For example, in a change-management program, you might
ask the following:

Round One
• What changes are you experiencing in your organization?

Round Two
• What is the impact of change on employees?

Round Three
• What is the impact of change on you as a manager?
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Getting Around. Another popular activity is conducted in the following way:

Instructions: Put four content-related questions (or unfinished statements) on a
flip chart or transparency. Show only one at a time. For example, for a workshop
entitled, “Managing Change and Stress,” post these four items:
• It’s important to manage stress effectively because. . .
• Some reasons people resist change are. . .
• Some of my strengths in managing stress are. . .
• I know I’d be healthier if I. . .

1. Ask participants to stand up, pair with someone they don’t know (or don’t
know very well), and discuss the first statement or question for a few min-
utes. (Be specific about how much time they have.)
2. Call time. Then ask participants to pair up with someone different (again,
someone they don’t know well) and discuss the item.
3. Continue until all four items (four rounds) have been discussed. If time is
short, use only three rounds.
4. Discuss in the total group what the participants learned from this activity.

Instant Assessment. Another activity that gets people involved from the begin-
ning is called an “Instant Assessment” (Silberman, 2005).
Instructions: Prior to the session, prepare sets of different colored 3-by-5 cards.
Each card set consists of four different colors each with a different letter (A, B, C,
and D) on it. Give each participant a set of cards. Begin by telling the participants
that you would like to find out a little more about them so that you can address
their specific needs. Tell them to indicate their answers to some questions by hold-
ing up the card that corresponds to the chosen response. Display the questions one
at a time on the overhead projector, giving the participants time to respond to each
item. Ask a few people to explain their choices.
For example, for a session on influencing others you might use the following
items:
A. My main motivation for attending this session is. . . .
• To escape from the office
• To learn how increase my personal effectiveness
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• Because my boss made me

• I have no idea why I’m here
B. When giving feedback, I believe you should. . . .
• Be blunt and to the point
• Cushion the negative between positive statements
• Describe specific behavior
• Address the person’s attitude
C. When faced with a conflict situation, I. . . .
• Ignore it and hope it will go away
• Hold firmly to my position
• Give in with little resistance
• Beat the other person into submission verbally
D. Which of the following words do you most closely associate with the word
influence?
• Power
• Authority
• Compel
• Persuade

People really enjoy this activity. It takes little time, yet gets people immediately
involved in the content of the session. Notice that the items have an element of fun
to them, yet also have a serious content-related component. This activity also ap-
peals to those people who are tactile because they have an opportunity to touch and
pick up the cards. From the trainer’s point of view, the responses reveal some in-
teresting information that can be referred to throughout the session.

What Do You Want to Know? Another activity you might like to try follows.
Instructions: Prior to the start of the session, prepare flip-chart pages with the
major subtopics as headings, one subtopic per sheet. Post the pages on the wall. At
the beginning of the session, give each participant a pad of Post-it® Notes. Ask
them to look at the topics and write down any questions they have about any or all
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of the topics. They may write as many questions as time permits (you set time
limit), but may put only one question per Post-it Note.
After they have written their questions, they are to stand up and place the Post-
it Notes on the appropriate flip-chart pages. Rearrange and group similar questions,
followed by comments linking their questions to the session content. Occasionally
participants will post questions unrelated to the session. This is a good opportunity
to clarify expectations by pointing out what will and will not be addressed.

Pretest. Also try the following activity for a quick start.

Instructions: At the beginning of a session, have participants complete a quiz re-
lated to the content. This technique not only raises the participants’ interest level
but also establishes the purpose of the training session. For example, the following
are questions you might ask about writing business letters (correct answers can be
found in Appendix A):

True or False
1. It is acceptable to abbreviate the month when typing the date on a business
letter.
2. In business letters, when the salutation consists of only a first name, it is ac-
ceptable to use a comma, for example, “Dear John,”.
3. When using full block style, the complimentary close should be flush with
the left-hand margin.
4. When writing a letter to a company, if you do not know the names of the
people to whom you are writing, you may use “To Whom It May Concern.”
5. When addressing more than one individual, place names on separate lines
in alphabetical order.

This type of quiz creates awareness among participants that they may not know
as much as they may think they do about the topic, and that recognition motivates
people to “buy” what the trainer is “selling.” You might make it even more inter-
esting by asking participants to estimate how many correct responses they expect
to get on the quiz.
A quiz or self-evaluation can be handled two ways. One approach is to have
people complete it and score the quiz individually. Another is to ask participants to
work on it with partners. Working in pairs is less threatening and serves to gener-
ate interest and enthusiasm as the pairs discuss and debate their answers.
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You can make this activity more complex and fun by turning it into a game
called “Test Match” (Sugar, 1998), which is designed as a team competition.

What’s in It for Them

Participants attend a training session for a variety of reasons. Some really are ex-
cited and cannot wait to get started; others view the experience as something worse
than a trip to the dentist. Some cannot imagine why they are there. After all, they
have “been there, done that.”
Although it is true that people come to sessions with a lot of “baggage” you do
not know anything about and cannot do anything about, you can lessen their re-
sistance and improve their general mindset by pointing out “what’s in it for them.”
Tell them how this session will benefit them by enhancing their skills, providing
them with additional information, or helping them overcome any barriers that
might be preventing them from doing their best—how the training will improve
their lives.

Preview of Coming Attractions

After explaining the benefits to them and providing any background as to why and
how this program came about, review the objectives by comparing intended out-
comes with their needs and expectations. Several of the opening activities men-
tioned earlier, such as “What Do You Want to Know?” are very effective in making
sure both trainer and participants are on the same page from the very beginning.
Be sure to provide an overview of the program, including your expectations,
time frames, break times, and logistics. Let the participants know, for example, how
often and how long the breaks will be, as well as how you are going to monitor and
signal when breaks are over. This is also the perfect opportunity to explain the in-
teractive format, particularly for those who have only experienced teacher-
centered, passive learning.

Experiential and Active-Training Techniques

After the opening activities are over, it is time to move to the meat of the program.
Introduce the first activity. If you follow your carefully crafted design, you should
have no problem. Not necessarily! The design may look great on paper, but how it
plays out is what is important. Many trainers design and develop what appears to
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be a dynamite session, with plenty of participant interaction. If the session fails,

they blame the participants (“What a bunch of losers!”); others denounce the use of
participant-centered, active-learning methods and revert to the comfortable and
less-risky trainer-centered approach.

Using Small Groups

Participants will be in small groups for most of the activities you will be conducting,
such as those described in Chapter 7. The ideal size for a subgroup is five to seven
people. The minimum is three, with eight as the maximum. Sometimes, however,
participants will be working in pairs. Small groups, by definition, include pairs and
trios. Pairs provide intimacy and thus instant interaction. Trios have the advantage
of offering multiple views on the problem being discussed. “Buzz group” is another
term for small group, from the “buzzing” sound of multiple groups engaged in
lively discussion.
If possible, arrange for breakout rooms for small-group activities. Putting sub-
groups in separate rooms saves time, is less noisy, and preserves a collective spirit.
Unfortunately, it is not always possible to have separate rooms. If that is the case,
carve out areas within the main room and form small-group clusters with as much
space between them as possible.
Assignments to small groups typically assume the form of a question or prob-
lem. Or ask small groups to develop a list, share personal incidents, or produce a
definition.

The Power of Two

So far we have addressed methods and activities that involve the entire group or a
number of small groups, but do not overlook the power of pairs to promote active
learning. Asking participants to work with learning partners is an efficient and ef-
fective cooperative-learning technique. It guarantees 100 percent participation; as
Mel Silberman puts it, “People can’t hide or be left out in a pair.” Pairing not only
promotes interaction, but also creates a safe environment in that no individual feels
pressured to come up with the right answer.

Experiential Learning Cycle

For activities to do what they are designed to do, the trainer must make sure each
activity completes the steps in the Experiential Learning Cycle.
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Experiential learning is a process by which participants learn inductively, that

is, discover for themselves the intended learnings through direct experience during
an activity. The Experiential Learning Cycle is a model of the five-step process that
enables the participants to learn or derive meaning from what they experienced.
This model is represented in Figure 8.8.

Figure 8.8. The Experiential Learning Cycle

EXPERIENCING
The Activity
Phase

APPLYING PUBLISHING
Planning Sharing
Effective Use Reactions and
of Learning Observations

Now What?
What?

GENERALIZING PROCESSING
Developing Discussing
Real World Patterns and
Principles Dynamics
So What?

Source: Introduction to Reference Guide to Handbooks and Annuals (1999 ed.). San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
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172 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

• Experiencing. The process starts with participants experiencing or becoming

involved in the activity. The basis for the entire process, the experience
itself requires participants to do, say, hear, observe, etc.
• Publishing or Sharing. Following the actual experience, participants share
their reactions to and observations about the activity.
• Processing or Interpreting. In this part of the cycle, the trainer helps partici-
pants address the dynamics of the group interaction. During this critical
stage, the facilitator helps the group explore and analyze what happened to
them during the experience.
• Generalizing. After processing, participants make a connection between the
activity and their real-world situations. They explore the meaning of the
activity and how it relates to them. This is where most experience an
“AHA!” The light bulb goes on. The participants reach a deeper level of
understanding and insight.
• Applying. The final step requires participants to think about what they are
going to do with this new learning, how they are going to apply it.

If any part of the cycle is omitted or inadequately addressed, there is a high

probability that the structured experience will not produce the desired results. In
fact, the processing and subsequent parts of the cycle are where the real learning
takes place. Therefore, plan carefully and allow sufficient time for the complete pro-
cessing of the activity. As a rule of thumb, spend as much time on processing—that
is, discussing the activity—as you spend on the activity itself.
With that in mind, take a look at a systematic process for managing each expe-
riential learning activity.

Introducing the Activity

All training activities, including role plays, case studies, assessment instruments,
small-group discussion, and other structured experiences, must be introduced or
positioned within the context of the overall session. Here are some guidelines for
introducing any learning activity:
• Give a purpose and objectives for the activity. Be careful not to give out too
much information. If you are focusing on discovery learning, then do not
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tell the participants what they are supposed to learn from doing the activ-
ity. That would defeat the purpose of inductive or discovery learning.
• Rearrange the furniture and regroup the participants as appropriate for
the activity. The goal is to group people as quickly and as efficiently as
possible.
• Provide specific instructions as to what the participants are to do both
during and after the activity. Define terms and distribute materials, care-
fully going over printed material. It’s a good idea to write and display on a
flip chart a brief, step-by-step outline of the activity including times associ-
ated with each step. For example, the time line for a survival simulation
might look like this:
2:00 Individual reading 10 minutes
2:10 Individual ranking 15 minutes
2:25 Group discussion 25 minutes
2:50 Group ranking 15 minutes
3:05 Scoring and posting 10 minutes
3:15 Discussion of activity 40 minutes

Make sure all participants are settled in their small groups before you give
them any instructions or explanations. People have a hard time concentrat-
ing on two things at once.
• Make appropriate role assignments. To help pace the group on longer
assignments, have each small group appoint a timekeeper. If small groups
must write something on flip-chart pages, they will need a scribe or
recorder. If each small group must report back to the large group, tell each
to appoint a spokesperson. Make it clear that you do not want the same
people assuming the same roles each time.
• Solicit questions and make sure everyone understands what they are to do
before you continue.
• If necessary, demonstrate any rules or procedures.
• Begin the activity and circulate around the room to each small group to
determine whether everyone knows what to do. Clarify as needed.
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Conducting the Activity

Even though the participants are engaged in the activity, the trainer still has work
to do. The following are some guidelines for keeping the activity on track:

• In the first few minutes of the activity, expect some confusion and/or frus-
tration. It’s okay. Some of this helps encourage problem solving and learn-
ing. Remember that the participants are learning by doing.
• Continue to move about the room from group to group to make sure the
participants are on track.
• Remain in your role as the facilitator. Resist giving participants the answers
or becoming directly involved in the activity. Give suggestions or ask
guided questions, if you find that participants are way off the mark.
• Constantly observe how individuals and small groups are working on the
task or problem as well as how the members work together. Intervene only
when absolutely necessary!
• Remind the participants of time passing, giving them signals half-way
through a particular stage and also two-minute warnings for each deadline.
• Use your judgment about calling time. In some cases, you may have to allot
extra time; in other situations, the small groups may finish earlier than
anticipated and be ready to move on to the processing stage.

Processing the Activity

What happens after the actual activity is over is critical. For our purposes, “pro-
cessing” the activity refers to the entire discussion of the activity and includes the
four stages of the Experiential Learning Cycle: publishing, processing, generaliz-
ing, and applying.

• Remember that this is where the real learning takes place. Plan to use about
as much time to process an experiential activity as it took to conduct it.
• If you used only some participants to do a demonstration or role play, elicit
feedback from them first before eliciting it from others.
• To make sure you address each part of the Experiential Learning Cycle,
prepare questions using the following format: What? So what? Now
what?
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• Begin by asking participants WHAT they experienced during the activity.

“What” questions are designed to elicit how the participants feel about the
activity.
• What went on during the activity?
• What was your reaction?
• What did you observe?
• How did you feel?
• Next ask questions that address SO WHAT? “So what” questions relate to
what the participants think or have learned from the activity.
• What did you learn about yourself?
• What did you learn from the experience?
• What similar experiences have you had? How does this relate to any-
thing you have experienced on the job?
• How did this experience help you?
• What are the implications of the behaviors you experienced or observed?
• Finally, ask participants to answer questions dealing with NOW WHAT?
“Now what” questions address what the participants are going to do.
• How can you apply what you learned through this activity on the job?
• What might you do differently?
• How can this experience help you in the future?
• Record participants’ feedback and points on the flip chart. Ask one partici-
pant to serve as a scribe so that you can concentrate on facilitating the
discussion.
• Do not be alarmed if people have differences of opinion. That is quite
healthy. Just make sure the discussion does not get out of control.
• Be sure you have completed the learning cycle and helped participants
make the connection between the activity and their own situations.
• Wrap it up by asking a few general processing questions to elicit feedback
and reactions to the activity itself.
• What did you like about the activity?
• What did you dislike about the activity?
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176 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

• What changes would you make?

• What suggestions do you have to make this a more meaningful
experience?
• Don’t worry about getting some negative reactions. Every participant cannot
be expected to like every activity. Negative reactions are prompted by many
factors, including learning style. Do not agonize over one or two negative
comments. However, if your entire group reacts negatively, do some real soul
searching and take a careful look at the design as well as your facilitation.

Creating Your Own Activity

Think about something you would like to communicate to participants. Then de-
cide on an activity or specific method that will actively involve the participants in
learning the material. Using the worksheet in Exhibit 8.6, think through and then
outline the entire process for the activity, including specific processing questions.

Tips for Using Specific Methods

Although the steps and guidelines just mentioned are appropriate for any method,
it is important to address some special considerations and guidelines related to spe-
cific techniques.

Assessment Instruments
Like other activities, assessment instruments need to be properly introduced and
positioned. This is particularly important with self-assessment instruments that
some participants might find threatening. Consider the following guidelines for the
use of assessment instruments:
• Begin by explaining what the assessment is designed to do and why you
have chosen this one in particular.
• Emphasize that this is an assessment, not a test. A test implies that there are
“right” and “wrong” answers. Point out that there is no right or wrong.
• Explain thoroughly how participants are to respond to the assessment
items. It is a good idea to read the instructions aloud and also demonstrate,
using a transparency, how to mark the responses. This, of course, depends
on the complexity of the instrument.
• Give participants adequate time to complete the instrument, but let them
know how long it should take.
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EXHIBIT 8.6. Creating an Activity

Name of Activity:
Participants: Group Size:
Objectives/Purpose for Using This Activity:

Type of Training Method:

Time Needed: Room Set-Up:
Supplies/Equipment:

Materials/Handouts:

Directions for Activity:

Introducing:

Conducting:

Processing (include specific questions):

Variations:

Resources:

Notes:

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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178 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

• After they have completed the instrument, ask them to put it aside until
everyone has finished.
• At this point, you may want to present a lecturette or engage participants
in an activity that introduces them to the theory behind the instrument and
the topic.
• After participants have an understanding of how the instrument relates to
the topic and what the assessment is designed to show, ask them to predict
what their scores might be. For example, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict
Mode Instrument (Thomas & Kilmann, 1974) is designed to give partici-
pants insight into their approaches to dealing with conflict. After they com-
plete the instrument and put it aside, introduce them to the five approaches
using a card sort activity. Then ask them to write down which approach
they tend to use most frequently. (Most people believe they primarily use
collaboration, when, in fact, collaboration is the least-used approach.)
• After the participants have written down their predictions, ask them to
score the instrument and read the interpretive material.
• Then conduct a discussion to clarify the participants’ understanding of
the assessment and what the scores mean. Ask for volunteers to share
their scores and personal insights. Ask people to indicate whether or
not their scores were consistent with what they expected. In other words,
did the data confirm or refute their speculations? If people disagree with
the results of the assessment, point out that they generated the data, and
only they can verify it. Suggest that they revisit particular items that caused
them concern and analyze their responses.
• The last step, of course, is to process the activity using the general sugges-
tions and guidelines discussed earlier.

Videos
Participants often regard videos as an opportunity to “take a snooze”—sometimes
literally. How the video is used is critical to the success of this method. Follow these
suggestions to ensure maximum impact:
• Introduce the video by explaining why you are showing it and what the
video is about, including a brief description of the setting and characters.
Also, prepare participants for anything unusual or unique in the video. For
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example, any of the videos produced by Video Arts reflect the British
accent and dry wit of actor John Cleese.
• Tell the participants what to look for as they view the video. In fact, it is a
good idea to prepare a list of specific questions related to the video and
create a handout or post the questions on a flip chart. The entire group can
address each question, or different questions can be assigned to specific
individuals or groups of participants. This technique will make the partici-
pants much more attentive because they know they will have to report
their observations to the entire group.
• Show the video in its entirety; then lead a discussion based on the
questions or points the participants were to look for.
• Another method for making a video more interactive is the stop-action
technique. This involves stopping the video at strategic places to discuss points
or observations. Studies show that this stop-action technique results in signifi-
cantly greater learning. Here are three ways to use film-stopping intervals:
• Ask the group, “What would you do?” to give the participants an
opportunity to speculate on what they believe is the most appropriate
action or behavior.
• Ask the participants to recap or review the key learning points they saw
demonstrated in the segment just viewed.
• Ask them how the video segment relates to their own situations on
the job.
• Whichever viewing method you choose, make sure you devote adequate
time to processing, just as you would with any other activity or technique.

Role Plays
As discussed earlier, role plays are extremely effective if handled properly. Keep in
mind the following guidelines when using any type of role-play activity:
• Be clear about your objectives and communicate them clearly to the
participants. Be sure they understand that the purpose is to practice the
skills they have learned in the session.
• A risk-free environment is critical to the success of a role play. The key is to
introduce role plays incrementally and only after you have presented a
model of desired behavior through a video or demonstration.
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• Review the procedure, steps, or skills that have been presented throughout
the session.
• Prepare an Observer Sheet that helps the observer focus on each role
player’s behavior. This sheet can also serve as a checklist for the partici-
pants to follow even after the session is over.
• Hear feedback first from those who participated as actors and then from
observers before giving your input.
• During the discussion, maintain focus on the process, not the content.

Simulations
Because of its length and complexity, a simulation requires more time and thought
when preparing the participants for this activity.
In addition to following the general guidelines for introducing, conducting, and
processing an activity discussed earlier, be sensitive to the potential risks. Since par-
ticipants are in small groups, they will interact with a smaller number of people for
a lengthy period. These factors coupled with the nature of the activity are likely to
create more stress among individuals as they deal with both task and people skills.
People tend to “show their true colors,” sometimes resulting in intra-group conflict.
Do not be surprised when it happens, and use it as a learning opportunity during
the processing stage.

Storytelling
Do not overlook the power of telling stories to illustrate points throughout your
training session. Stories touch us in ways that no other medium can. Stories reach
in and grab at the core of our existence. They help define who we are and what we
believe. Storytelling is just as powerful, and perhaps even more so, today as it was
a thousand years ago. Throughout the world, every culture has its own oral history.
The ancient Greeks, Romans, and Vikings, as well as the American Indians had rich
folklore. Explore the world of ancient storytelling and you will discover the reasons
the best trainers use stories so extensively and successfully in their sessions. New
trainers, in particular, often ask, “Where do I get my stories?” The answer is sim-
ple: from your own life experiences.

Telling Personal Stories. I discovered the power of storytelling quite by accident.

I never planned on using stories—they just happened. I began using stories in my
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training sessions to illustrate or further explain my learning points. Several years

ago, I began asking participants at the end of a session, “What did you like best
about this program?” The response is always the same. Participants always say they
like two things: the activities and the stories. One day I decided to ask what
they liked about the stories. As one participant put it, “They made the ideas and
points come alive. We could really relate to your experiences.”
Storytelling engages the individual participants, allowing them to relate to or
identify with the trainer’s story. They have either had a similar experience or they
are reminded of a similar situation that evoked the same thoughts, feelings, or re-
action. Storytelling forms a psychological bond with the audience because it de-
scribes a common human experience.
People love to hear real-life accounts of events. Such accounts make the session
come alive and lend credibility to the training. For example, when I tell my “red
suit” story (described later in this chapter) in sessions dealing with perception and
non-verbal communication, participants will often remark at the end of the session
(orally or on the evaluation) that the story really made an impact. In fact, when I
have encountered former participants months and even years after a session in
which I told that story, they tell me they still remember my “red suit” story.
The following special types of stories are very effective for training:

Parables. Parables are short narratives from which a moral can be drawn. One of
the most familiar sources of parables is the Bible. Example: The prodigal son who
squanders all his money but returns home to a forgiving father.

Fables. Fables are brief tales from folklore, sometimes using animals that speak
and act as humans. Aesop’s Fables is probably the best-known collection of fables.
These charming and simple tales teach valuable and timeless life lessons. For ex-
ample, “The Crab and Its Mother” teaches a lesson about the power of example. In
this fable, the mother crab chastises her son for walking one-sided instead of
straight forward. The young crab agrees to do so if his mother can show him how.
The mother tries and tries but cannot model the behavior she expects from her son.
Great online sources of fables include www.fables.org and www.AesopFables.com.
Spend some time reading parables, fables, myths, and even fairy tales. Think
about how you can use existing ones in your training to reinforce your message. In
addition to the classic sources mentioned above, another great resource is Tales for
Trainers by Margaret Parkin (1998). Better still, try your hand at making up your
own tales to drive home a point.
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Improving Platform Presence

How you come across to your participants is just as important as your training de-
sign and content. In fact, because you are the medium through which the message
is communicated, your demeanor, appearance, and behavior can make or break a
program.

Physical Appearance
People form an impression of you within the first few seconds—as soon as you
enter the room. That impression is lasting and often determines how your partici-
pants react to you.
Three words should guide you in your selection of dress for your training ses-
sions: professional, appropriate, comfortable. First and foremost, remember that
you are a professional, and that is the image you want to project at all times.
A good rule of thumb is to dress equal to or above the level of your training
group. If, for example, your participants are dressed in business casual, then you
should dress accordingly, but go one step beyond a skirt or slacks and a sweater.
Add a blazer or sport coat. Make sure your clothing is comfortable and fits well.
Avoid wearing anything distracting. This is a particular concern for women and
their accessories: Do not wear bangle bracelets or dangling earrings; both become a
distraction rather than an enhancement. Shoes are another consideration. Men’s
choices are pretty limited—slip-ons or tied. That choice is determined by the degree of
casualness of the rest of your attire. Women, however, can choose flats or heels of vary-
ing height. This becomes a matter of personal preference and comfort. Particularly
when conducting an all-day seminar or workshop, do not wear very high heels. They
change your center of gravity, cause you to walk and stand differently, and do not pro-
vide you with the stability and balance you need in front of a training group.

EXAMPLE OF CLOTHING’S EFFECT

Never underestimate the effect your clothing and appearance can have on a group. I
experienced this firsthand when, at the end of a one-day session, a participant gave me
extremely low marks on his evaluation sheet, noting that I had worn a red suit. He also
complained to the program director about the red suit. The program director re-
marked that she had advised me to wear bright colors since I was training in a very
large, tiered lecture hall and standing against a black background.The participant would
not be swayed. He had learned somewhere that red is an aggressive color and was put
off by it. In another session, a participant reacted negatively to my eye make-up and
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Delivering Training 183

noted it on his evaluation. These examples also illustrate that sometimes, no matter
how well you plan and think things through, you just can’t anticipate some reactions.

Body Language, Gestures, Movement, and Facial Expression

Your body language, gestures, movement, and facial expression all contribute to
the impression your participants form of you. They can either encourage partici-
pants to listen or discourage them from paying attention to your message.

Posture. Always stand straight with your feet shoulder width apart to give you bal-
ance. If you stand with your feet close together, you will have a tendency to sway. Of
course, in an all-day training session, you may find yourself becoming less formal
and sit on a table or with the participants later in the day. So much depends on the
group, the topic, the organization’s culture, and the mood you are trying to create.

Gestures. Gestures are very effective means of emphasizing your points. They
should be natural, meaningful, and controlled. Do not fling your arms wildly or use
your hands and arms in a robotic manner. When you extend your arm and hand in
a pointing gesture, be sure to keep your fingers together, using your entire hand to
point rather than one finger. Remember that sharp, sudden gestures create negative
emotions.

Movement. Although movement is a matter of style, be aware of the impact it can

have on a group. At one extreme is the statue, the trainer who stays in one place
and never moves. Although certainly not distracting, this posture is uninteresting.
At the other extreme is the trainer who is in constant motion, who never stays in
one place for more than a few seconds. Not only is this behavior distracting but par-
ticipants will probably feel worn out or exhausted by the end of a session just from
watching the trainer.

Facial Expressions. Do not overlook the importance of facial expressions. From the
first moment the participants see you, they should feel your warmth. The most ef-
fective way of achieving this is to smile with both your mouth and your eyes.
Throughout your session, your facial expressions can help or hinder your message.
Make sure they are congruent with your words. Do not frown if you are saying
something meant to be positive and upbeat.
Remember: What people see is more powerful than what they hear. Perception is
reality, and how participants perceive you will impact not only how they react to
you personally but how they react to the learning experience.
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KEY POINTS
• Involve participants in the learning process even before the actual training session.
• Spend a significant amount of time preparing for the program delivery.
• Using a variety of techniques, involve participants from the very beginning of the session.
• Make sure each activity completes the Experiential Learning Cycle.
• Spend as much time processing an activity as you spend on the activity itself.
• Real learning takes place during the discussion (processing) following the activity itself.
• Guide participants through the Experiential Learning Cycle by asking questions using
the following format:What? So what? Now what?
• Use storytelling throughout your training session to illustrate your points and connect
with the group.
• Be aware of your own demeanor, appearance, and behavior and their impact on the
participants and the learning experience.

✦ ✦ ✦
As you can see from this chapter, there is a lot involved in the actual delivery of the
training program. There is, however, even more to consider, such as the use of vi-
sual aids, which we will explore in the next chapter.
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Chapter 9
Using Visual
Aids

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn
• To use visual aids to enhance your training and improve retention
• To achieve maximum impact with visual aids
• To create various visual aids

Retention Rate in Visual Learning

In a landmark paper entitled “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two:
Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information” (still cited by today’s
educators), the author discusses his research and concludes that most people retain
between five and nine bits of information in short-term memory (Miller, 1956).
Because short-term memory decays in a matter of seconds, presenters, educators,
and trainers must find ways to “fix” information presented in long-term memory
and thus increase retention. One way of doing that is through the use of visual
aids. Visual aids play an important role in helping participants retain information;
however, they should never take the place of good training.
Before exploring other reasons for using them and specific examples, let’s take
a look at the classic research supporting the use of visual aids.
185
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186 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

The 3M® Company sponsored the two most often quoted presentation-related re-
search studies, one with the Wharton School’s Applied Research Center (Oppenheim,
1981) and one with the University of Minnesota’s Management Information Systems
Research Center (Vogel, Dickson, & Lehman, 1986), to look at the impact of visuals
(primarily overhead and computer-generated visuals) on business presentations and
meetings. The results of these studies support the widely held belief that visuals do
indeed increase retention and effectiveness.
The Wharton study found that presenters using overhead transparencies were
perceived as more polished and professional. They came across as better prepared,
more persuasive, more highly credible and more interesting (Oppenheim, 1981).
Results from the University of Minnesota 3M® study showed that when visuals were
added to an oral presentation, retention was increased by about 10 percent and the
presentation became more than 43 percent more persuasive. Furthermore, presen-
ters using computer-generated visuals were perceived as being more concise, more
professional, clearer, more persuasive, more interesting, and more effective in the
use of supporting data (Vogel, Dickson, & Lehman, 1986). David Peoples (1992) cites
Harvard and Columbia studies that showed retention increased 38 percent when vi-
suals were added to presentations. You will find more information about the effects
of visual use on presentations in Multimedia Learning by Richard E. Mayer (2001).
Researcher Edgar Dale developed what is now known as “Dale’s Cone of
Experience” (Walters, 1993). His studies conclude that people will remember:
• 20 percent of what they hear
• 30 percent of what they see
• 50 percent of what they see and hear
• 80 percent of what they hear, see, and do

Why Use Visual Aids?

The main purpose of visual aids is to enhance the training and to improve reten-
tion. The key word here is aid. Visuals should not take the place of the spoken word.
After all, if the visual can stand alone, then the trainer is not necessary.

To Capture Attention
Visual aids help capture and keep the participants’ attention. The visual aid can be
extremely simple and even somewhat primitive, or it can be slick and dramatic. It
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Using Visual Aids 187

all depends on personal choice, cost, available resources, type of presentation, room
size and set-up, audience, and purpose.

To Reinforce Points
Visual aids also reinforce the points being made. With key words or graphics, the
message is communicated both visually and verbally. As we noted earlier, the like-
lihood that the message will be retained increases from 20 percent to approximately
50 percent.

To Organize Information
Visual aids help you to organize your material. They help keep you on track and
ensure all the information is covered. Keep in mind, however, that the visual aids
do not drive the training session. The trainer has already developed the program
and the training materials, and the visual aids are placed strategically within that
framework to enhance the program.
As a tool for organizing, visuals are also a way for the trainer to guide the partic-
ipants. If the trainer uses a visual to present a key point, the participants are better
able to follow the organization of the session. As a result, the trainer appears more
professional, looks better prepared, and comes across as more competent.

To Promote Understanding
The use of visual aids promotes understanding. They illustrate the spoken message
with graphs, charts, pictures, or key words. This is particularly valuable if the trainer
is explaining concepts or somewhat complex information. You can simplify the in-
formation by distilling it into understandable segments. For example, the trainer
might be making a presentation involving a lot of figures and statistics. The infor-
mation will be more interesting and meaningful if it is presented in charts and
graphs, rather than in rows and columns of numbers.

To Support the Spoken Message

Visual aids support the message by stimulating the participants’ senses. Easy access
to computer-generated graphics enables trainers to enhance their messages with in-
teresting colors, pictures, motion, and sound.

To Emphasize Key Points

Although various verbal techniques may be used to emphasize key points, many
participants may not be attuned to the trainer’s use of emphasis. For example, the
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trainer may say something like, “The first important point is . . .” or “I can’t stress
enough the importance of . . .” or “Now that we’ve addressed the causes, let’s look
at the effects.” Keeping in mind that most people are not good listeners and that
many people process information through different modes, putting the key points
on a visual helps place the emphasis where the trainer intends it to be. There should
be no doubt about the importance of information that is displayed visually.

Guidelines for Using Visual Aids

The most commonly used visual aid is the PowerPoint® slide presentation.
Computer-generated slides take the place of transparencies and 35 mm slides. The
equipment requirements include a computer and an LCD projector. The flexibility
of the medium enables you to modify information on a moment’s notice to reflect
late-breaking developments or audience input. Unfortunately, trainers with this ca-
pability often rely too heavily on using this medium and deliver passive rather than
active training.
Other visual aids include flip charts and transparencies. A summary of advan-
tages, disadvantages, and usage of various visual aids is shown in Table 9.1.
Regardless of which visual aid you use, the following guidelines will help you
to create visuals that achieve the results you want.

Limit Their Use

First of all, do not use too many visuals. Some so-called training sessions are
nothing but one screen, slide, or transparency after another. Keep in mind that the
visual is an aid, not the entire presentation.

Keep It Simple
Nothing is more annoying than looking at a slide or transparency made directly
from a page of text crammed with uninterrupted lines of information. Put only one
idea on each visual and no more than one illustration. There should be only six or
seven words per line and six or seven lines per slide. If you have a great deal of
data, divide it among several slides. Some trainers who have discovered the myr-
iad of options available through computer software programs tend to go overboard
by doing too much, such as adding animation and sound effects, both of which are
distracting. Remember that less is much more effective.
Table 9.1. Using Visual Aids
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Aid Advantages Disadvantages When to Use

Chalkboards Spontaneous Slow Small, informal meetings
4/3/06

Easy to use Temporary Spontaneous idea development

Inexpensive Poor readability Brainstorming sessions
7:09 PM

Erasable Limited to chalk

Attention-getter Turn back to audience
Breaks lecture monotony Association with school days
Messy
Page 189

Flip Charts Spontaneous Dependable Small groups

Advance preparation Bulky Lectures with spontaneous
Better contrast Limited to writing highlighting
Permanent No flexibility in size or Brainstorming
Easy to use sequence Lists, procedural steps
Portable Expensive if prepared
Allows you to present professionally
ideas in sequence Tendency for trainer
Inexpensive to write small to get
Colorful (depending on all ideas on one page
range of colors in your Paper tears easily
set of markers)
PowerPoint® Slides High quality Dark room Repetitive programs where
Photographic detail Can appear “canned” photographic detail and
Very portable Slides become focal point, professional look are
Easy to operate not speaker important
Can accommodate Long sequences encourage
any size group mental absenteeism
With remote control,
trainer can move around
The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Table 9.1. Using Visual Aids, Cont’d.
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Aid Advantages Disadvantages When to Use

Overhead Projector Fast, simple preparation of Projector can block view Financial and technical
transparencies (any copier) unless positioned carefully presentations
4/3/06

Lights on Less portable than 35 mm Group sales presentations

Speaker faces audience Transparency preparation Seminars, workshops where
Any size group so simple that people tend speaker wants to maintain
7:09 PM

Spontaneous or advance to use items that are rapport

preparation too busy
Very flexible Tendency to overuse
Page 190

Optional quality Focus on overhead

Inexpensive projectors sometimes
Exact illustrations difficult to control
can be portrayed
Easily updated
Videos Professional Dark room Supplement to a training
Good discussion generator Expensive program
Immediate feedback Used as substitute for Visual feedback of trainee
Any size group lesson or presentation performance
Effective for demonstrating Create mood or feeling
how not to do something as prelude to speaker’s
Most effective for presentation
learner-centered training
Both sight and hearing are
utilized in learning
“Expert” on tape can reinforce
what the trainer has been saying
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Using Visual Aids 191

Make It Easy to Read

Each visual should be seen clearly by the entire audience. Use type no smaller than
twenty-four point for text and larger for titles. Use sans serif type such as Arial or
Helvetica. Also use a combination of upper-case and lower-case letters.

Use Color
Color is more effective than black and white for a variety of reasons. First, it has
better cognitive impact. People simply remember color. As a result, a color visual is
more interesting, has more impact, and makes a greater impression. With the avail-
ability of color printers and other pieces of technology, using color is easy.
Another important consideration is that audiences expect color. Even classic
black-and-white films have been “colorized.” Why? Because people are put off
by black and white.
Use a solid background color. Medium blue is good for a background with the
text in white, bright yellow, or pink. Do not use dark red, dark green, or dark blue.
They do not project well.
Keep in mind, however, that many people are colorblind. It has been estimated
that 20 percent of men cannot distinguish colors of the spectrum, causing colored
objects or words to appear as shades of gray, black, and white, varying only in de-
gree of lightness and darkness. The more distinction you can create among colors,
the easier those with colorblindness will be able to see.
If you have lists, design your slides so that items come up one at a time and the
previous items change to a different color. This technique not only helps the audience
see what has led up to the item being discussed but also directs their concentration.

Use It,Then Lose It

Because the visual is an aid, it should be visible only when it is relevant to the point
being made. When you are finished with the slide, hit the “B” key on your com-
puter to go to a blank screen. (If you are using a remote, it will have the capability
to create a blank screen as well.) Otherwise, the participants may continue to focus
on the visual aid and will pay little or no attention to what you are saying. People
are easily distracted as it is, so do not give them anything that might divert them
from your important message.
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Do a Dry Run
Slides that look great on your computer monitor may not look as good projected on
a screen. Test your slide presentation in a semi-dark room with the projector as far
back as you expect it to be in your actual room. What you see on your computer
monitor is not what you will see in a semi-dark room, for example, colors may be
washed out.

Other Commonly Used Visual Aids

Flip-Chart Pad and Easel
The flip chart has two different applications: (1) prepared pages and (2) blank pages
on which to capture information spontaneously throughout the session. Let’s start
with prepared pages.

Guidelines for Using Flip Charts. Prepared pages are used the same way as slides
or transparencies, but they tend to communicate a more casual approach or atmos-
phere. A major advantage of prepared pages is that you can take the time to make
sure the printing is neat and legible. This is particularly important if you have a
problem writing legibly. Another advantage is that valuable session time is not
spent at the easel; you are able to show the information quickly and move on. As
with other forms of visual aids, the pages double as notes for the presenter.
For blank pages used to present or capture information as you move through
the session, consider these important do’s and don’ts. First, if you have asked for
input from participants and you are capturing their responses, write down exactly
what is said. Do not translate the information into your own words.
What if the person responding has a difficult time making his or her point suc-
cinctly? Some people do. Two different approaches can used: (1) After listening in-
tently to the person’s response, ask the individual to summarize his or her point in
a few words so you can capture it on the flip chart or (2) if the person is not able to
condense his or her point, paraphrase what you heard and ask permission to write
down your interpretation of the contribution. As training guru Bob Pike says,
“People don’t argue with their own data.” But they may argue with yours, so make
sure you are respectful of their words and intent.
In full-day or half-day sessions, it is a good idea to tear off the pages and tape
them to the wall. Before doing so, however, put a brief descriptive title at the top of
each sheet. To save time, cut one-inch masking tape into several two- to three-inch
strips before the session begins. That will enable you to post the sheets quickly.
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Using Visual Aids 193

Depending on the wall covering, you might be able to use push pins. If you are
not permitted to use tape or pins, a safe alternative is to use a magnetic dry-erase
easel pad that clings to most wall surfaces and can be positioned and repositioned
on the wall. The sheets are erasable and reusable as long as you use dry-erase mark-
ers. Do not write on a sheet after it is posted on the wall, since many markers have
a tendency to bleed through! Be sure to use washable markers just in case.

Guidelines for Writing on Flip Charts. Whichever method you choose, the fol-
lowing guidelines will help you create a polished, professional image for your
participants:

• Use flip charts with relatively small groups of no more than twenty-five or
thirty participants.
• Print in block letters two to three inches high so that everyone in the room
can see the information.
• Do not put more than about six lines of information on a page.
• Do not fill the page to the bottom. People are sitting; their vertical range of
vision is somewhat limited.
• Do not talk to the easel while you are writing.
• Wait at least twenty to thirty seconds after you finish writing before flip-
ping the page so that people can copy the information if they wish.
• Do not stand in front of the easel after you have finished writing. Once
again, give people an opportunity to capture the information.
• Consider using two or more easels across the front of the room to develop
a continuous, uninterrupted flow of ideas or if you cannot post pages on
the wall.
• If possible, choose easel pads of white paper with perforated sheet tops
for easy tearing. Do not use flip-chart paper with dark lines on it; it looks
unprofessional.
• Use a wide, felt-tipped watercolor marker that will not bleed through the
paper.
• Leave blank pages in between, particularly if you have prepared some
pages ahead of time. Unless paper is quite opaque, the writing on the page
underneath the blank page will show through.
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• Be mindful of the impact of color. Use blue, green, brown, and black to add
variety and interest. Save red for emphasis. Also, do not use red and green
on the same page. Those who are color blind will not be able to distinguish
the two colors.
• Alternate colors by lines to make reading easier.
• Use colors systematically: one for page headings, one for primary points,
another for subpoints.
• When you are not writing, put the marker down.

Overhead Projector and Transparencies

Transparencies are great for medium-sized and small audiences. They are easy to
make and to use, but as with any other visual aid, they can be misused easily.

Preparing Transparencies. There are several ways of creating transparencies—a

method for every pocketbook. At the low end, you can buy a box of clear trans-
parencies and write in colored markers right on the acetate.
As a step up, purchase a box of clear or colored transparencies made especially
for either a laser printer or a photo copier. If using a laser printer, generate text from
your computer, loading the transparency film into your printer. If you have a piece
of printed material and would like to make a transparency, substitute transparency
film for paper in your copier.
Some people prefer colored lettering. If that is the case, you will need to pur-
chase a colored printer for your computer to generate the document.

Guidelines for Using Transparencies. In addition to the basic guidelines for all
visual aids in terms of type size, simplicity, and use of color, the transparency pre-
sents some unique advantages as well as important considerations.
Creativity. The transparency lends itself to creativity with the use of a little imag-
ination. In addition to the different types of film mentioned earlier, you can create
an “active” transparency resulting from a layering effect. For example, you would
create a transparency with your key words and then cut the film apart so you have
several “mini-transparencies.” Then you would create a hinge effect by laying each
word on the projector as you announce or refer to it.
Framing. Professionals’ transparencies are framed. Framing a transparency
blocks unnecessary light, provides rigidity, makes it easier to handle, and creates a
more polished appearance. Once again, there are options, depending on cost and
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personal preference. One way is to purchase a box of cardboard frames on which

you mount the transparency with transparent tape.
Another option is to purchase an Instaframe®, a plastic frame with a glass insert.
Simply place the frame on the overhead projector and put the individual trans-
parencies on and take them off as you use them. This enables you to store your
transparencies any way you choose—in a box, folder, notebook, envelope—without
purchasing more frames.
A third framing option is to purchase the 3M® Company’s FlipFrame®, a trans-
parent sleeve in which you insert the transparency. It has hinged flaps that when
“flipped out” form a frame around the transparency and provide room for notes
that no one else can see. FlipFrames are hole-punched along the left side so you can
put them in a binder for better organization and protection.
Control. We have all been in sessions in which the overhead projector became an
annoyance because the trainer did not control its use properly. For example, the
participants should never have to look at a blank screen with a blinding light. Put
the transparency on the platform, then turn on the projector. Turn off the projector
before you remove the transparency.
Some people believe that the process of turning the screen on and off for many
transparencies is a nuisance to both the presenter and the audience. There are ways
around this annoyance and inconvenience. Cut a square of heavy paper or card-
board the size of the lens aperture; attach it with masking tape in hinge-like fash-
ion to the top of the lens casing. Instead of turning off the projector between
transparencies, you simply bring down the hinged cover, creating a black screen.
Note: Turning the projector off and on in a quick series is often more distracting.
Similarly, you can lay a sheet of paper or cardboard on the platform to block the
light. A remote device can be purchased from an electronics store that enables the
projector to be turned on and off from several feet away. This is particularly effec-
tive when you are going to talk at some length before showing the next trans-
parency or if you have moved into the audience and do not want to break the mood
by returning to the front of the room to turn off the projector.
Another aspect of control involves the way in which you use the overhead pro-
jector. The purpose of the overhead projector is to allow you to show the visual
while interacting with the participants. You can call attention to specific points on
the transparency without ever turning your back on the group.
The group’s attention can be directed in several ways by using the transparency.
One way is to cover the transparency with a sheet of paper; as you make your point,
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uncover each word or line on the transparency. That way, the participants will read
only what you want them to read and when. Another way is to use a pointer or pen
to direct participants’ attention to key words on the transparency. Any standard or
retractable pointer will do, but you might want to make things more interesting by
purchasing specialty pointers, such as the one sold by Creative Training Techniques
or that are available in novelty stores.
Still another method of calling attention to specific information on the trans-
parency is to use a transparency marker to underline or circle key points as you go.
One word of advice: absolutely never point at the screen itself! Your arm will cre-
ate a shadow on the screen, which is not only distracting, but it also obstructs the
full view of the screen. Another reason for not pointing to the screen is that it causes
you to turn away from the group, taking away the advantage of maintaining direct
contact with the group. The final reason for not pointing to the screen is to avoid
damaging the screen with your pointer.
The last small piece of advice about using an overhead projector is to dim the
lights near the screen to create a sharp contrast and make it easier for the audience
to see the visual.

Videos and Video Clips

Video clips can be used in much the same way as demonstrations or scripted role
plays. As with other media and methods, you have several options. Use a small
portion from a movie or television show to illustrate a point. This is very effective,
but be sure to obtain written permission. Copyright laws are not to be taken lightly.
However, there are libraries of copyright-free video clips for use in presentations.
Also, news clips and other events captured on film are often in the public domain.
One way around the cost and inconvenience of dealing with copyrighted mate-
rial is to create your own video clips. The quality largely depends on the amount of
money you are willing or able to spend. Use a video camera or hire a professional
videographer to help produce the video, keeping in mind that the greatest expense
is associated with the editing process.
You could write your own script and use your friends, colleagues, or acting stu-
dents from a local college or university to illustrate the points, skills, or concepts
through short vignettes. It is a great opportunity for aspiring or nonprofessional ac-
tors to gain both experience and exposure.
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KEY POINTS
• Visual aids increase participants’ ability to retain information.
• Since the purpose of visual aids is to enhance the training, not to replace it, use them
sparingly.
• Create high-quality, yet simple, professional slides to capture the group’s attention,
reinforce points, organize information, and promote understanding.
• When writing on flip-chart pages, be sure to use large lettering that everyone can see.
• Although visual aids can be a powerful enhancement to your training program, a good
trainer will not rely on them solely as the basis for the training program. In fact, you
should plan on a worst-case scenario, that is, what you would do if something happened
and you were unable to use your visual aids.Would you still be able to conduct your
session? If you can’t answer with a positive “yes,” you need to rethink the way in which
you are using them.

✦ ✦ ✦
Of course, visuals play a very large role in the delivery of distance learning, which
we will discuss in Chapter 10.
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Chapter 10
Distance
Learning

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn
• To adapt traditional classroom activities to distance-learning methods
• To explore the key elements of distance learning design and delivery
• To define the different types of distance learning
• To distinguish between asynchronous and synchronous methods
• To identify the pro’s and con’s of distance learning methods

Workplace Trends
More and more organizations are supplementing or even converting many of their
classroom-based courses and training sessions to distance learning venues. For our
purposes, distance learning in its purest sense is when the instructor and learners
are separated by time and/or location. According to the American Council on
Education, “All distance learning is characterized by (1) separation of place and/or
time between instructor and learner, among learners, and/or between learners and
learning resources and (2) interaction between the learner and the instructor, among

199
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learners, and/or between learners and learning resources conducted through one or
more media; use of electronic media is not necessarily required” (1996, p. 10).
Several trends are driving this departure to non-traditional methods of con-
ducting training:
1. Today’s workplace offers a variety of employment options, including a
growing number of contract and temporary employees as well as telecom-
muters. These non-traditional employment arrangements require a differ-
ent approach to learning.
2. Sometimes it just is not cost-effective or practical to bring employees to a
central location for a training session. People are often spread out among
remote sites and locations. Bringing them to the corporate headquarters can
be very costly. Some organizations, particularly small to mid-size, have few
new employees and, therefore, it could be a long time before there are
enough new employees to hold a group session. Although situations such
as these may prevent you from conducting the traditional-style group ses-
sion, you can still develop and administer an interesting and interactive
program.
3. Younger workers entering the workforce have grown up using electronic
media and expect to have it available to them for learning purposes.

The discussion of various distance learning venues in this chapter is by no means

an attempt to provide detail on distance learning implementation. The purpose of
this chapter is simply to present an overview of distance learning, including termi-
nology, benefits, drawbacks, and resources, should you choose (or be directed) to
implement distance learning in your organization.

Advantages/Benefits of Distance Learning

The use of distance learning can be very helpful to organizations that seek to bridge
the learning-delivery gaps caused by multiple geographic locations, time con-
straints, and other barriers to learning. The following is an overview of the many
benefits of distance learning:

Easy Access. Learners can access the course material at their convenience, when and
where they need it. This is particularly important for people who work at remote
locations, are “on the road” a great deal, or just have busy, jam-packed schedules,
both at work and at home.
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Cost Savings. Traditional classroom-based courses are expensive. In addition to

the cost involved with the training room and its associated overhead costs, distance
learning saves travel costs. Think about how much it costs to bring people from
various geographic areas to a central location. The organization pays heavily for
hotel accommodations, transportation, and meals, not to mention the cost of lost
productivity as a result of the time it takes to get to the training site. Granted,
today’s technology enables employees to conduct business while “on the road,” but
because of the “hassle factor” created by increased security (particularly when trav-
eling by air), more and more companies as well as their employees are looking for
ways to decrease any type of business travel.

More Efficient. In addition to being economical, distance learning allows you to

deliver training to a large number of people at multiple sites at the same time. This
is particularly important when an organization with multiple sites is rolling out a
new product or process that needs to be introduced to all employees at the same
time. Think about how long it would take (and how costly) to train several hundred
people on a new product.

Timeliness. For training to be effective, it must take place as close as possible to

when the learner is actually going to use the knowledge and/or skills. For exam-
ple, banks are frequently faced with systems conversions resulting from mergers
and acquisitions. Without distance learning options, the schedule for training
tellers might have to start months before the actual conversion takes place. People
might be trained in May but would not have an opportunity to apply what they
learned until the new system went “live” in October. By then, they would have for-
gotten much of what they learned. Distance learning can be delivered “just in
time,” that is, when the person actually needs it.

Learner-Centered. In many cases, distance learning puts learners in control of

their own learning, particularly web-based training. They can access the material or
segments of material they really need and bypass or review those that they already
know. They can spend more time on or revisit content without feeling rushed or
pressured. Learners can also start and stop when they need to in order to accom-
modate their schedules.

Simplified Distribution of Material. Traditional training materials are costly. Think

about a recent traditional classroom-based training session you have conducted or
attended and add up the cost of participant binders, assessment instruments, job
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aids, and other ancillary materials. Electronic distribution of materials not only
saves printing and postage but it also enables efficient and cost-effective updates to
the existing material.

Links Employees. With growing globalization, technology-based distance learning

enables people from different locations throughout the world to connect and learn
from each other.

Consistency. Because the content is being delivered from a central source, there is
consistency in what the learners see and hear.

Better Use of Experts. Subject-matter experts’ time can be used more effectively
and efficiently, particularly when they can choose when and how their expertise will
be made available to learners, rather than be at the mercy of a specific classroom-
based time and location.

Disadvantages/Drawbacks to Distance Learning

No delivery mode is perfect, and distance learning has its drawbacks as well.
The following list describes the most frequently cited disadvantages to distance
learning:

Learner’s Experience with Technology. One of the first obstacles one needs to
overcome in implementing technology-based distance learning is the technophobic
learner. Some people may be unfamiliar with the technology and require extra time
and training to bring them up-to-speed. Still others may be resistant because their
overwhelming workload prevents them from spending the time to complete self-
directed courses or participate in real-time seminars.

Available Technology. Although technology and its capabilities are advancing

rapidly, not all people and organizations are keeping up with it. Some organiza-
tions may be on the cutting edge, while others may be several iterations behind in
software and/or hardware capabilities. Existing technology may be inadequate.
For example, the system may not have enough bandwidth to run some graphics
programs or the new software needed to deliver a program may not be compatible
with the hardware. Not all employees may have access to the Internet.

Reduced Social and Cultural Interaction. What is often missing in the technology-
based sessions is the peer-to-peer interaction and learning opportunities that
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contribute to team building and relationship building. However, as communication

technologies continue to advance, this perceived barrier will diminish somewhat.

Does Not Appeal to All Learning Styles. If designed properly, a technology-based

course will incorporate most of the perceptual modalities discussed in Chapter 2. We
know, however, that learning styles are also important to consider, and technology-
based learning does not fit the needs of those whose learning preferences lean heav-
ily on group interaction.

Up-Front Investment. While distance learning may be cost-effective in the long

run, it requires a substantial up-front investment in development costs, hardware,
and software.

Not All Subjects Are Appropriate. Technology-based courses that are heavily
focused on cognitive learning are the best candidates for the various modes of
e-learning. Skills (behavioral learning domain) can be taught through simulations
and other interactive designs. Affective learning is much more difficult to address
in technology-based learning because of the need for human interaction.

More Cumbersome. More collaboration and teamwork are needed for distance
learning because more people are involved. Traditional classroom training primar-
ily involves an instructional designer, course developer, and facilitator/trainer. In
many cases, these roles may be assigned to one person. In developing distance
learning, you need to include technology experts, distance site facilitators, and fa-
cilities support.
Only one thing is certain: All delivery methods (including traditional classroom)
will change and evolve with the growing development of technology.

Types of Distance Learning

As one researches the topic of distance learning, one discovers a plethora of termi-
nology that adds to the confusion and, for some, the mystery, of distance learning.
Not only are various words and terms used interchangeably but often they are in
conflict, depending on the author.
The following glossary of terms is an attempt to establish a common vocabulary
for the discussion of distance learning in this book.
For starters, distance learning delivery methods fall into one of two categories:
synchronous and asynchronous.
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Synchronous
Synchronous means that all learners and the instructor access the same information
at the same time. They may or may not see each other, but they can communicate
through various means such as audio or video transmission, e-mail, or chat rooms.

Video Teleconferencing. Learners and instructor can hear, see, and interact with
one another through a conference call via two-way video and speaker phone or
bridge line.

Audio Teletraining. A type of audioconferencing in which learners and the in-

structor can hear and interact with one another through a conference call via
speaker phone or bridge line.

Audiographics. A type of audioconferencing involving audio interactions cou-

pled with the ability for learners and the instructor to share computer-generated
slides with one another.

Web-Based Training (WBT). Often referred to as e-learning or online learning via

the Internet or an intranet. Instruction is delivered via learners’ personal comput-
ers, all connected at the same time. Learners can respond to the instructor using the
keyboard or a mouse click, and they can raise their hands electronically to ask ques-
tions or make comments. WBT can also be asynchronous.

Asynchronous
Asynchronous delivery falls into two categories: facilitated and self-paced.
Facilitated asynchronous delivery involves the instructor and a group of learners,
but not in real time. The instructor posts assignments on a Web page, and the learn-
ers communicate through threaded discussion (also known as bulletin boards or fo-
rums) and submit “homework” via e-mail. This type of delivery is found mostly in
academic environments.
The asynchronous mode used in corporations tends to be self-paced, that is, the
material can be accessed and completed without learner interaction with the in-
structor or other learners.

Computer-Based Training. The term “computer-based” is used widely to include

delivery via CD-ROM (compact disc, read-only memory), intranet, or Internet. CD-
ROM training is primarily self-paced. The advantage of a CD-ROM is that it can
hold large amounts of information, is lightweight, portable, durable, and “speedy.”
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It is an easy and inexpensive way to distribute large files and programs, including
audio, video, and complex information. The increasingly popular DVD-ROM (digi-
tal video disc, read-only memory) is larger and faster than the CD-ROM. The biggest
disadvantage with both is that it is time-consuming and costly to make changes.
Although asynchronous delivery is primarily one-way communication, it can be
interactive through the use of e-mail, voice mail, listservs, chat rooms, computer
conferencing, and audio or video teleconferencing.

E-courses. E-courses or e-seminars are text-based lessons delivered to the partici-

pants via an auto-responder. The instructor uploads the content to a service
provider. Participants sign up for the course and then receive a lesson at regular,
prescribed intervals (for example, every week).

Technology-Based and Computer-Based Programs

Organizations with videoconferencing or teleconferencing capabilities may choose
that venue to deliver their training programs. Before you get excited about these
state-of-the-art approaches, carefully consider the costs involved with the develop-
ment as well as the resources necessary. Make sure that employees have access to a
computer with the appropriate bandwidth.
Another consideration of any computer-based approach is the issue of updates.
You need a program administrator to monitor the program and make sure the in-
formation is up-to-date and accurate. It is also important to select a delivery plat-
form that lends itself to easy and cost-effective updates.

Guidelines for Designing Distance Learning

When designing distance learning programs, follow the same basic principles of in-
structional design discussed throughout this book.

Objectives and Content

No matter what the format or venue, the subject content does not change, nor do
the learning objectives or outcomes. Employees at remote sites still need the same
information as those located at corporate headquarters. So the place to start in de-
signing a distance training program is to determine the objectives and content.
Refer to Chapters 5 and 6 for objectives and content ideas.
Cognitive objectives are the most easily adaptable to asynchronous learning.
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Basic Considerations
When you design web-based training and other distance learning programs, follow
the same principles of good instructional design that you would for classroom
learning, including perceptual modalities, learning styles, participant ages, and
other issues discussed in Chapter 2.
One of the important elements of learning lost in many of the distance learning
delivery modes, web-based training in particular, is the loss of non-verbal commu-
nication and interaction. Because many people have a need to exchange ideas, opin-
ions, and viewpoints, the designer needs to build in opportunities for learners to
interact with the instructor and with each other. There are many ways to add the
human touch: bulletin boards, threaded discussions, chat rooms, e-mail, and audio
or videoconferencing.
Even with synchronous learning methods, it is difficult to gauge participants’
reactions when you cannot see them. Digital cameras at each work station help only
somewhat. It also takes participants longer to form questions and for replies to be
digested. Thus, facilitators must pause more often. Sessions should be around sixty
minutes, but certainly not more than ninety.
To compensate for the lack of “the human touch,” designers need to create situ-
ations in which people can work together online.

Discussion Groups
Asynchronous discussion groups can be created through the use of e-mail, whereby
participants broadcast messages to all other members of the list. These are known
as e-mail lists, list servers, listservs, or mailing lists. Participants can also visit sites
where people post messages relevant to the subject of the group. With this ap-
proach, referred to as bulletin boards or newsgroups, participants can thread mes-
sages, that is, replies are indented under the original message so that everyone can
follow the conversation.
Synchronous online methods of discussion include the following:
• Chat Rooms. Participants engage in real-time conversations conducted over
a low-speed Internet connection. This is also called text-conferencing.
• Response Pads. Participants can use this tool to make real-time choices or vote.
• Audioconferencing. Participants use the network as a telephone.
• Videoconferencing. This method lets participants see a small image of the
presenter in real time.
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Types of Interaction
As noted in Chapter 7, the more interaction, the more effective the learning experi-
ence. This is true for both classroom and distance learning. Basically, participants
can interact in three ways:
1. They can interact with the materials through simulations, tests, multiple-
choice activities, or case studies.
2. They can interact with the instructor and subject-matter experts through
audio or videoconferencing, e-mail, or threaded discussions.
3. They can interact with other participants through class projects and other out-
of-class assignments and activities, including bulletin boards and chat rooms.

Delivery Methods
After deciding on content, the next step in design is to determine how to deliver the
content, that is, what distance learning technology you want to use. Keep in mind,
however, that the technology should not be the driving force. Choose the appro-
priate delivery method based on a number of factors, including cost, the number of
people to be trained, course content, type of learning (cognitive, affective, behav-
ioral), and available resources, just to name a few.

Designing and Developing Activities

Follow the basic rule in designing activities: make it easy. Be sure to write simple,
easy-to-follow instructions. Then make it easy to download materials, find re-
sources, and respond to questions, activities, assignments, and so forth. Break con-
tent into chunks of information. Keep in mind that text and images will vary
depending on the quality of the user’s screen, browser, and the access speed of the
computer. Because of these potential limitations, limit your use of charts, graphs,
and pictures. If you use video, keep it to less than one minute. You also need to re-
member that web-based asynchronous content is non-linear, allowing participants
to jump in where they need to depending on what they already know. They can
move ahead or they can go back to fill in knowledge gaps.
Classroom activities can be adapted, but just as in the classroom, they must be
carefully thought out and developed.
The following is a sampling of the types of classroom activities that can be adapted
for distance learning:
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Activities Involving Others

Case Problems. In a module on Managing Conflict, post the following case problem:
Joan is a member of a twelve-person department. Because of the overwhelming vol-
ume of work and her strong work ethic and sense of responsibility, she often stays
late to do her work. Several others stay late also. For some time Joan has been quite
annoyed because others in the department apparently do not share her dedication
to the job. One person in particular, Betty, never stays late but frequently wants
Joan’s help. So far Joan has made excuses or passively resisted helping Betty in any
way.This situation has been going on over a period of several months, and Joan’s ir-
ritation has steadily increased. During the most recent incident, Betty approached
Joan and asked her for some information she desperately needed in order to com-
plete an assignment. This time Joan decided not to hide her irritation. When Betty
asked for her help, Joan snapped, “I don’t have time to help you because I’m busy
doing your work already.” Betty replied,“I don’t know what you mean. I didn’t know
you needed any help.”

Ask participants to respond to the following questions:

• What do you think is the cause of the conflict?
• What advice or coaching would you give to Joan to help her resolve the
conflict?

Participants could respond by posting their answers on a bulletin board or send-

ing them via e-mail to fellow participants and the instructor. If the session is an au-
dioconference or teleconference, they would share their answers, just as they would
in a classroom discussion.

Point-Counterpoint. The facilitator of a module on customer service presents the

following statement: “Customer service is everybody’s responsibility—even those
who are not in a direct customer contact position.” The facilitator requests that half
of the participants prepare arguments in support of the statement and the other
half prepare arguments disagreeing with the statement. Then the participants are
asked to present their positions in a chat room interaction.

Group Assignments. In a new employee orientation program, the facilitator wants

participants to identify the organization’s core values and to reflect the organiza-
tion’s values in their own workplace behavior. The facilitator creates subgroups
and assigns each subgroup one or two values and asks them to submit examples of
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specific behaviors that illustrate the value(s) assigned. These examples should
focus on specific employee behaviors. For example:
Honesty Admitting when you make a mistake
Respect Talking to people in a polite, civilized manner
Teamwork Pitching in to help even when it’s not in your job description
Professionalism Answering the telephone in a business-like manner

The subgroups work on the assignment outside the online session. At the next
session, the subgroups could share their examples by posting them on a bulletin
board. They could also e-mail their answers to their fellow participants prior to the
actual session.

Peer Teaching. The facilitator gives each participant sections or parts of a larger
topic to research and then report back to the group during the next online session.
For example, in a session on business development, participants would be assigned
various legal structures for a business: S Corporation, C Corporation, Partnership,
Sole Proprietorship, or Limited Partnership. Each participant submits his or her as-
signed topic to the group as a whole.

Group Critique. Participants in a business writing class would be asked to write

a particular piece of business communication, such as a letter or memo, and submit
their piece to the entire group. The facilitator would then assign each participant to
critique another participant’s letter or memo using a set of guidelines or a checklist
the group had already discussed or studied.

Action Learning Projects. In action learning, the problem or project becomes the
central learning experience. Participants are encouraged to learn from their at-
tempts to solve a problem and then reflect on their decisions and behaviors during
the process. The facilitator would create subgroups and assign each group a differ-
ent real-life project that would span several weeks or months. The following is a list
of potential action learning projects:
• Develop a mentoring program
• Develop performance benchmarks for various positions
• Improve a particular process
• Create an employee recognition system
• Develop a new employee orientation program
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The subgroups would meet via e-mail or chat rooms and then would pull their
various pieces together and present their projects at the end of the class.

Individual Activities
For individual activities, the participants could complete the assignments in much
the same way they would respond to an online test. Although the facilitator would
indicate a particular timeframe for completion, the participants could work on the
activities on their own time.

Matching. To help new employees identify who to contact or where to go when

they have questions or need information, the facilitator could create a matching
activity. The facilitator would provide a list of types of information new em-
ployees would want or need to know during their first few weeks and months
on the job. The participant would be instructed to match the information
needed with the appropriate resource from a list provided. The following is a
specific example:
If you wanted to find out about. . . , you would go to. . . . (Match the numbered items
[1 through 12] with the information sources [A through E] below.)

1. Tuition reimbursement A. Immediate supervisor

2. Time off without pay B. Benefits administrator
3. Medical coverage C. Human resources
4. Problem with a co-worker D. Payroll
5. Leaving early E. Employee handbook
6. Vacation schedule
7. Getting a raise
8. Payroll problems
9. Sick days
10. Overtime
11. Dress code
12. Taking breaks

Guided Analysis. The facilitator presents a graphic, chart, report, or other item and
participants are asked to analyze or explain the item. The facilitator can also present
data that the participants must plot or engage in a compare-and-contrast assignment.
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Making Lists. This type of activity has many applications. Instead of the facilitator
presenting lists such as characteristics of effective coaches, benefits of delivering
quality service, or product features and benefits, the facilitator solicits such lists
from the participants and then presents the facilitator’s list for comparison.

Information Search. The facilitator would refer participants to the employee

handbook and/or other sources on the intranet where they would find the re-
quested information regarding the organization’s policies and procedures. The fa-
cilitator would provide a list of questions for which the participants would have to
search online. Examples of questions are as follows:

1. When are you eligible for sick days? How many sick days do you have?
2. What constitutes sexual harassment?
3. What is the policy regarding family and medical leave?
4. When and where are employees permitted to smoke?
5. What are the differences between exempt and non-exempt employees?
6. When can you apply for another job in the organization?
7. What is the standard work week?
8. How is overtime handled?
9. When do you get paid?
10. What is considered excessive absenteeism?

Mini Cases. To help participants distinguish between ethical and unethical behav-
ior in the workplace, the facilitator would present a list of scenarios such as those
listed below. Referring to the organization’s ethics policy, the participant would in-
dicate to which section each scenario relates.
1. Making personal long-distance calls
2. Taking pens, paper, or paper clips home to your teenager
3. Sending an e-mail to your friend to confirm your weekend party plans
4. Working at night and on weekends for one of the company’s competitors
5. Sharing personal information about one of your customers with friends
6. Coming in thirty minutes late and not noting it on your time card
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7. Submitting all expenses for an evening out with a client in which you in-
cluded other members of your family
8. Accepting a set of golf clubs from a vendor
9. Telling friends and family members about a potential merger between your
company and a competitor you overheard two managers discussing
10. Promising to deliver a product to a customer by a certain date, even though
you know the deadline cannot be met

You will find other outstanding specific examples of instructional interactivity

in Michael Allen’s Guide to e-Learning: Building Interactive, Fun, and Effective Learning
Programs for Any Company (2003). Another excellent source for designing interactive
web-based training is Designing Web-Based Training by William Horton (2000).

Delivering Content and Activities

As a facilitator of synchronous training, you will need to modify the way in which
you have been accustomed to delivering your programs. First and foremost, be sure
to receive proper training on how to use the technology. It is important that you be
comfortable in this new environment. Also keep in mind that, because of delayed
responses, you may not be able to include as much interaction and/or content as in
a traditional setting. To compensate, build in several question-and-answer periods
and ask very specific and directed questions. Also create ways to give timely feed-
back, and include plenty of projects, tests, discussion opportunities, and other out-
of-class assignments.

Blended Learning
Non-traditional methods such as computer-based training and other distance
learning should be part of an overall training strategy and one of several delivery
strategies.
Even non-interactive methods such as tapes, CDs, CD-ROMs, videos, and cable
TV can all be made interactive with the addition of a site facilitator or combined
with other approaches.
The key to meeting the training needs of an increasingly diverse audience is to
offer a variety of delivery options and methods.
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KEY POINTS
• Distance learning is not appropriate for all situations.
• Many traditional classroom activities can be adapted to distance learning.
• Learners can access material at their own convenience and when they actually need it.
• Distance learning is often more efficient and cost-effective.
• Technology-based sessions often overlook the “human touch.”
• Synchronous learning means that learners and the instructor access the same informa-
tion at the same time.
• Facilitated asynchronous learning involves the instructor and learners, but not at the
same time.
• With self-paced asynchronous learning, the learner can access the information without
interaction with the instructor or fellow learners.
• Designers of technology-based learning need to create situations in which people can
interact and work together online.

✦ ✦ ✦
As we have learned in this chapter, distance learning is both exciting and challeng-
ing. Because participant interaction is somewhat limited, it is easier to manage the
“human element.” For this reason, many trainers (and learners, too) prefer distance
learning venues. As we shall discover in the next chapter, face-to-face contact be-
tween trainer and participants, as well as group interactions, require knowledge of
and skill in dealing with group dynamics.
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Chapter 11
Working with
Groups

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn
• To stimulate discussion among participants
• To master the art of asking and answering questions
• To deal with difficult people and situations

The Trainer as Facilitator

Standing up in front of a group and presenting information is one thing; facilitat-
ing discussion and interaction is another. Each requires a different set of skills. If
you accept the changing role of the trainer—from “teacher” to “facilitator”—then
you will have to understand and develop facilitation skills.
Any time you work with a group in a participant-centered environment instead
of talking at that group, you are facilitating the learning process. Facilitation skills
are particularly critical for processing activities, as discussed in Chapter 8.
The most important thing to remember about your responsibilities as a trainer
is that you are a role model. How you conduct yourself verbally and nonverbally de-
termines how participants conduct themselves.

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Ways to Encourage Participation

Your behavior throughout the session sends a message that either encourages or
discourages participation. Sometimes these messages are pretty straightforward;
sometimes they are much more subtle. Not only are these subtle messages com-
municated without our awareness, but their impact can be quite powerful.

Nonverbal Communication
What you do often speaks more loudly than what you say. Use the power of these
nonverbal communication techniques to encourage participation:
• Eye contact. Be attentive by making eye contact with all participants.
• Head nodding. Nod your head to show understanding and encourage the
participants to continue.
• Posture. Avoid defensive posture such as folded arms.
• Body movement. Avoid distracting movements such as too much walking
and pacing. Move toward people to draw them into the discussion.
• Smile. Concentrate on smiling with both mouth and eyes to encourage and
relax the group.

Verbal Communication
What you say and how you say it can either shut down or encourage participation.
Be mindful of the difference between intent and perception. Frequently conduct
your own reality check by asking yourself this question: “What is my intent, and
how am I being perceived?” Practice using the following techniques to create an ex-
citing and positive learning environment.

Praise or Encourage. Use simple, but powerful, words of encouragement to prod

the participant to continue:
• “I’m glad you brought that up.”
• “Tell me more.”
• “Okay, let’s build on that.”
• “Good point. Who else has an idea?”
• “I would like to hear your thoughts about. . . .”
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Accept or Use Ideas. Clarify, build on, and further develop ideas suggested by
another participant:
• “To piggyback on your point, Juan, . . .”
• “As Salina mentioned earlier, . . .”

Accept Feelings. Use statements that communicate acceptance and clarification of

feelings:
• “I sense that you are upset by what I just said.”
• “You seem to feel very strongly about this issue.”
• “I know it’s hard to maintain a positive outlook when you are at risk of
being a downsizing casualty.”
• “I can imagine that you feel. . . .”

The Art of Questioning

The art of asking questions is central to your success as a facilitator of adult learn-
ing. The key is to ask questions that stimulate discussion and interaction, rather
than questions that elicit simple factual responses reminiscent of grade school. To
stimulate discussion, be sure your questions are open-ended.
People often think they are asking open-ended questions when they are not. An
open-ended question is one that begins with who, what, where, when, why, or how.
Questions that begin with these words will elicit a more detailed and meaningful
response from participants. Closed-ended questions, on the other hand, are ques-
tions that someone could answer with a simple “yes” or “no” and certainly do not
encourage participation. To make it easy, try to ask questions that begin with how
or what. If you can get into the habit of asking these kinds of questions, your group
discussions and processing segments will be very effective.
Avoid using questions that begin with why. Why questions tend to put people on
the defensive. They feel that they have to explain and justify their responses.
Different types of questions obtain different results. Practice using questions
that match your desired outcome. For example, if you want to start the discussion,
ask a general question of the entire group. In a customer service program, you
might ask, “How do you think your organization is doing in terms of delivering
quality service?” This type of question prompts people to express an opinion.
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Because there are likely to be a variety of opinions offered, interest is generated in

the topic and the discussion is underway. You may next want to uncover the rea-
sons behind the opinions just expressed, so ask a specific question such as, “What
are some examples of situations that lead you to believe that your organization’s
level of customer service is [outstanding, needs improvement]?”
After you have asked the question, be quiet. Trainers have a tendency to ask a
question, and then when no one responds immediately, they answer the question
themselves. Silence, of course, is uncomfortable, and you may feel that you have to
speak up and fill the void. Let silence happen. Learn to ask the question and then
be silent for ten to twelve seconds to give people time to think of their responses. If
you keep answering your own questions, there is no reason for participants to offer
their ideas.

Responding to Questions
In a lively, risk-free, and dynamic environment, participants will be stimulated to ask
questions as well as answer them. Although this is certainly what we want to hap-
pen, this type of participant interaction can be quite challenging.

Reasons People Ask Questions

Before addressing some of the do’s and don’ts of fielding questions from the group,
let’s look at the reasons people want the opportunity to ask questions.
Understanding their motivation will help you better prepare for both the expected
and unexpected.

To Obtain Information or to Clarify. No matter how clear you were in delivering

a message, the participants will not all process and understand the information in
the same way or at the same time. Some will want and need additional information
to help them understand points more clearly or to satisfy their desire for more de-
tail. They may want further assurance that you know what you are talking about.
Something you said earlier may have ignited a spark of curiosity or may pro-
voke an interest in finding out more about a topic. In the latter case, they will ask
questions about other resources and will expect you to point them in the right
direction. Even if you have provided a bibliography or recommended reading
list, some will want you to recommend or identify sources for specific interests and
pursuits.
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To Impress Others. Every group has one or more people who like to ask questions
as an opportunity to be noticed either by peers or someone at a higher level. Being
in the spotlight may satisfy some people’s ego needs. For others, it affords them the
chance to demonstrate qualities such as assertiveness and risk taking or to show-
case their knowledge of the subject as a means to career advancement.

To “Get” the Trainer. For various reasons, some participants will not like the
trainer or what he or she has to say. They take every opportunity to make the trainer
look bad or see him or her squirm for their own amusement. They may see this as a
chance to “get even” or undermine a trainer’s credibility.

To Help the Trainer. At the other end of the scale are participants who really like
the trainer and want to help him or her look good. If they agree with the trainer’s
position on a particular topic, they will want to help increase the persuasive impact
even more.

To Keep from Going Back to Work. Some people may ask questions as a way to
prolong the session, thus avoid returning to work, particularly if the session is due
to be over near the end of the day. They may reason that the more questions they
ask and the more time they can take up, there will not be enough time to get any-
thing accomplished back on the job and so they will be dismissed early.

Guidelines for Handling Questions

To master the art of responding to questions, consider the following guidelines:

Set the Ground Rules in the Beginning. At the beginning of the session, tell the
participants how questions will be handled: throughout the session; at intervals; or
at the end. If you encourage people to ask questions as they think of them, you may
need to limit the number of questions or the time spent addressing them in order
to stay on schedule. The important thing is to communicate clearly when you will
and will not take questions. If you plan to wait until the end of a section to take
questions, suggest that they write their questions down so they do not forget them.

Repeat the Question. Sometimes a trainer’s answer to a question will be totally

off the mark, probably as a result of not taking the time to clarify and confirm what
he or she thought the participant actually asked. Sometimes, the person asking the
question is not very articulate and may have a difficult time stating the question
concisely and succinctly.
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Repeat or paraphrase the question before answering it. Repeating the question
accomplishes three things:
1. It ensures that the rest of the group has heard the question.
2. It ensures that you have heard the question correctly.
3. It buys a little time to organize your thoughts before answering.

To ensure that the question is the same as intended, paraphrase the question by
saying, “If I heard you correctly, your question is. . . . Is that right?” If the question
is long, ask if you may reword it; then restate it concisely and check to see that you
indeed captured the essence of the question. Do not, however, paraphrase by using
any of these phrases:
• “What you mean is. . . .”
• “What you’re saying is. . . .”
• “What you’re trying to say is. . . .”

These phrases are insulting and condescending. The subtle message is: “You’re
obviously not articulate in expressing yourself, so let me help you out.”

Use Eye Contact. Look at the person who asked the question while you are para-
phrasing to make sure you understood the question. When you deliver your re-
sponse, direct it to the entire group, not just to the person who asked the question.

Choose Words Carefully. Choose your words carefully and think about the im-
pact they may have on individual participants. Avoid using words like “obviously.”
This implies that the person asking the question should already know the answer.
Along the same line, phrases such as “You have to understand. . .” come across as
ordering and directing. “You should. . .” sounds like preaching or moralizing.

Respect the Group. Never belittle or embarrass a participant. This means that
sometimes you have to exercise a little patience, particularly when someone asks a
question that you have already addressed in the session. Absolutely never say, “As
I already mentioned. . . .” Instead, answer the question by carefully rewording your
point so that you are not repeating the remark exactly as you said it earlier.

Responding to Individual Concerns. Sometimes a participant will ask a question

that is extremely narrowly focused and pertains only to himself or herself. If that
happens, give a brief response and then suggest that the two of you talk about it
after the session. Use this same strategy with those who ask questions unrelated to
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the topic. Always indicate your openness and willingness to talk further one-on-
one. Above all else, project compassion and concern.

Cover All Parts of the Room. Trainers sometimes have a tendency to look only to
the right or to their left, and as a result, entertain questions from only one side of
the room. Although unintentional, people on the side being ignored will become
anxious and annoyed. Similarly, some trainers will acknowledge participants who
are in the front because it’s easy to both see and hear them. Make a concerted effort
to take questions from all parts of the audience.

Do Not Bluff. Sometimes people may ask questions that you cannot answer. Be
honest. Do not be afraid to say, “I don’t know.” However, do not leave it at that.
Offer to check further and get back to them by phone or e-mail or at a later session
or tell them where they can find the additional information themselves.

Things Not to Say. In an effort to be supportive and encouraging, trainers will often
respond to a participant by saying, “That’s a good question.” The danger here is that
you may come across as patronizing or insincere. Also, others who do not receive the
same feedback or reinforcement may feel their questions were not as “good.” Instead,
comment by saying, “That’s an interesting question” or “That’s an intriguing ques-
tion.” Similarly, a response such as “I’m glad you asked that question” may be un-
derstood by others to mean that you are not glad that they asked a question.
After you have responded, do not say, “Does that answer your question?” What
happens if the participant responds that you did not answer the question? Worse
still, the participant may not have had his or her question answered but does not
want to embarrass you or himself/herself and just lets it go. By asking whether you
answered the question, you give up some control and you suggest a lack of confi-
dence in your answer. A better response would be, “What other questions do you
have?” or “Would you like me to go into more detail?”
This is a much more gracious and face-saving approach for both the trainer and
the participant. It also gives the participant an opportunity to clarify his or her
question or probe a little further, if necessary, so that he or she is satisfied.

Scaling the Wall of Resistance

It’s quite probable that you will experience some resistance from individuals, or
even entire groups. Unless you can overcome that resistance, you will have a very
difficult time achieving your learning objectives. The first step in scaling the wall of
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resistance is to recognize it so you can deal with it before it undermines the learn-
ing process.

Recognizing Resistance
Resistance among participants takes many forms. Some people bring work to the
session and busy themselves with that rather than pay attention. Others might
bring in a newspaper and start reading it. Some ask antagonistic questions, while
others won’t open their mouths or even crack a smile. Because symptoms of resis-
tance are so varied, you must be observant and look for various behaviors that may
indicate a potential problem. Pay particular attention to facial expressions and
other nonverbal communication. If participants look angry, confused, or bored, be
ready to acknowledge it and deal with it.

Causes of Resistance
In order to deal with resistance and prevent dysfunctional behavior, you must first
understand it. In many cases, you will have to address the underlying psychologi-
cal climate. Some possible reasons for resistance are covered below.

Do Not Want to Be There. Sometimes participants just do not want to be there.

Often people resent attending a session. Perhaps they feel they are being punished,
or they may feel overwhelmed by their workload and do not believe they can af-
ford to take time away from the job.

CASE OF RESISTANCE TO TRAINING

I was asked to conduct a session on performance appraisal for first-line supervisors
in a manufacturing setting. During my assessment meeting with the vice president of
operations, I sensed that there might be some resistance to the training, so I dis-
cussed the importance of explaining to the supervisors why the company was in-
vesting time and money in this program and how they could benefit from attending.
The vice president agreed to communicate that message. The morning of the ses-
sion, I met briefly with the vice president, who assured me that he had prepared the
participants as I had suggested. Breathing a sigh of relief, I walked into the room only
to be confronted by nineteen frowning men with their arms folded seated in a
horseshoe configuration. Although the situation did not look good, I was confident
that I could bring them around. I started with an appropriate icebreaker and open-
ing activities. The supervisors absolutely refused to participate. After several failed
attempts to break through the stone wall of resistance, I stopped and said, “Guys,
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it’s clear to me that something’s going on here, and I think we need to talk about it.
Let me ask you a question.Why do you think the company is offering this session?”
With that, the flood gates opened, and I was bombarded with comments such as
“Beats the [expletive] out of me” and “I guess we must be doing a pretty [expletive]
job and now we’re being punished.” I spent the next forty-five minutes just talking
with the group and helping them see how this session could help them do their jobs
better. Clearly, the vice president had not done his job.

Do Not Know Why They Are There. Believe it or not, some people walk into a
session and have no idea why they were asked to attend. Sometimes, they do not
even know what the topic is.

CASE OF NOT KNOWING WHY

I had been engaged to do a two-hour session on communication for line employees
at a packaging plant.As I frequently do, I asked the participants why they were there
and what they hoped to learn. I was surprised to learn that they thought they were
attending a safety-training session. I used the situation as an opportunity to stress
the importance of communication in the workplace. I even managed to tie commu-
nication to safety issues and how good communication could prevent accidents and
safety violations. Because I was able to adjust my design on the spot to meet the
needs of my participants, the session was a success.

Personal Issues. Session participants are human beings, and human beings
have personal lives and problems that sometimes get in the way of learning new
things. Some may simply not feel well. Others may be preoccupied with a personal
problem.

CASE OF PERSONAL ISSUES

I was delivering a three-day management development program, and a woman in her
late forties or early fifties told me during a break that her husband of twenty-five years
had just left her for a much younger woman. It was obvious from her demeanor and
tone of voice that she was miserable, which was reflected in her behavior during the
session. She was argumentative and confrontational, challenging and contradicting
everything I said and being downright difficult and unpleasant. Every time I said some-
thing, she attacked. I tried every technique I knew, but nothing worked. I decided to
take our mid-morning break early and went into a private office to calm down and
regain my composure. When we reconvened, she had toned down. One of the
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participants later told me that several of her fellow participants had talked to her dur-
ing break and told her that her behavior was inappropriate. In situations like this one,
quite often others in the group will deal directly with the difficult person.

Attitude Toward Boss or Organization. If a participant has negative feelings about

the organization or his or her manager, the individual will bring that negativity into
the session. The resentment is transferred to the trainer. Whether you are internal or
external, the “boss” or the organization hired you. You are guilty by association and
automatically you are viewed as “one of them.” This is further amplified when the
participants do not see a real commitment to training on the part of the organization.
Participants will often remark, “My boss should be attending this training, too.”
Sessions dealing with change present a particular problem. For many, the ses-
sion only serves to magnify the change or changes they are experiencing, and in
many cases, the participants are not happy about these changes.

CASE OF PROBLEMS WITH A BOSS

At the beginning of a program on managing change and stress, I asked participants
to share the most difficult or troublesome change they were currently experienc-
ing. One man was quite emotional when he related that he was moving his office
from the suburbs to the city. As the day progressed, we learned that he had been
with the company thirty years, enjoyed six weeks’ vacation and a very comfortable
salary. In our discussion about values, he was quite clear that money, material pos-
sessions, and vacation time were very important to him.
At one point in the program, I emphasized that, in dealing with change, we all
have choices and that those choices are based on many things, including our values,
personality type, family situations, and so forth.As I finished my statement about hav-
ing a choice, this man started yelling at me, “You don’t understand! I don’t have a
choice in moving my office! I’m sick of you high-priced consultants coming in here
and telling us what we should do.You have no idea what you’re talking about. . . .”
He continued his tirade, and I sat down and allowed him to run out of steam.After
he was finished, I told him that I could see his point and that I was sorry this change
was causing him such distress.
Very likely his feeling of powerlessness and the resulting anger and frustration
had been smoldering for some time.The discussion triggered an intense emotional re-
sponse that was really directed toward the company. Although he may have seen me
as a representative of the “enemy,” I was not in a position of power and therefore was
a safe target on which to unleash his pent-up hostility.
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Attitude Toward Topic. Not every participant will be happy with the topic, partic-
ularly if his or her attendance has been mandated. This is particularly true when
presenting controversial topics such as diversity or sexual harassment. Some par-
ticipants have been quite open and candid about their perception that the topic is
“being shoved down their throats.”

CASE OF DISLIKE OF TOPIC

In a session I conducted on sexual harassment for a group of bank managers, one
man expressed his disapproval of the entire subject by saying, “If women don’t like
the way they’re treated, let them go work elsewhere.” I pointed out to him that,
although he was certainly entitled to his personal feelings, in his role as a manager, he
had a responsibility to support his organization’s policy as well as the law of the land.

Pushed Out of Their Comfort Zones. Particularly in human relations training,

participants are challenged to look at themselves, situations, and beliefs in a differ-
ent way. Managers who have been used to a very traditional and autocratic style of
managing may be required to learn new approaches and philosophies that are more
democratic and participatory. People who have been used to working on their own
as individual contributors may be expected to learn how to work in a team envi-
ronment. New organizational expectations require employees to learn new skills
and assume new roles. For example, a bank customer service representative may be
expected to sell banking services. Many people are uncomfortable and unsure of
themselves in these new roles, and that insecurity creates a barrier to learning. As
a trainer, you not only must help them develop new skills but also to see how they
might personally benefit from these new roles and responsibilities.

Literacy Problems. If people have a difficult time reading, they will be resistant to
attending a session that requires them to do anything that involves reading, such as
case studies, written exercises, and assessment instruments. Trainers must be ob-
servant of behavior that suggests a literacy problem and make every effort to work
with people so that they succeed.

Language Problems. For those who are not fluent in the language in which the ses-
sion is being delivered, the experience can be frustrating and unpleasant. Because of
their frustration and difficulty in understanding what the trainer is saying, they may
act out their frustration by being difficult and uncooperative, either intentionally or
unintentionally. As the workplace becomes more diverse, this issue will become an
even greater challenge for trainers.
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Past Experiences. Some participants may have had unpleasant learning experi-
ences either in school or as adults attending other work-sponsored programs. Often
they come to the session expecting it to be much of the same, and they are braced
to expect the worst. Sometimes this comes out at the end of a session.

CASE OF COMPARING PAST EXPERIENCES

Depending on the group, and particularly if I sense some resistance early on, I ask
the group during the feedback portion of the session: “Was this program different
from what you expected?” The answer is always “yes.” When I probe further, par-
ticipants usually tell me that they expected it to be dull and boring. Some will say
that they thought I would just lecture or talk “at” them.They will often add that my
approach was a pleasant surprise and made the experience both meaningful and
enjoyable.

Effects of Resistance
Now that we have looked at the causes of participant resistance, let’s take a look at
the effects. Left unchecked, this resistance can divide the group into various factions,
polarizing them against you or one another. These negative behaviors interfere with
learning. No one can learn in an environment dominated by disruptive behavior.
Additionally, undesirable behaviors cause emotional stress and anxiety for the
trainer as well as for those who are witnessing the shenanigans.

Problem Situations
No matter how well you have planned and prepared for your workshop or seminar,
more often than not, something unexpected will happen. Sometimes what started
out as a terrific session turns into your worst nightmare. Some human behavior,
attitudes, or reactions are predictable. It is your job as a trainer to anticipate these be-
haviors, prevent them if you can, and if not, deal with them effectively.

Prevention Strategies
Often problems in a training session can be avoided through proper planning,
preparation, anticipation, and communication.
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Planning. When designing your training session, consider the various learning
styles and perceptual modalities discussed in Chapter 2. Be sure to use interactive
techniques and do not be afraid to be creative, even outrageous. Also use a variety
of methods and media to appeal to various styles.
Planning also involves having a back-up plan for equipment problems, materi-
als that do not arrive, schedule changes, and activities that might not work with
your group of participants.

Preparation. The importance of finding out as much as possible about participants

through the use of questionnaires and surveys, interviews, and discussions with
their managers has already been covered in Chapter 8. It is also a good idea to send
something to the participants ahead of time: an interesting, attention-getting flyer,
a short article to read, or anything that will pique their interest and prepare them
for the session. You might assign readings or other pre-work.

Anticipation. For full-day or half-day sessions, make sure you request (or bring)
the accoutrements that help create a professional environment. These include tent
cards, pads and pencils, water, quality participant materials, and dishes with
wrapped candies. This communicates an important message to the participants:
this session is important. A professional touch will help set the tone and make it
more difficult for people to act up. For sessions of three hours or more, make sure
there are refreshments available during breaks. Not only is this reflective of a pro-
fessional touch, it shows consideration for the participants.

CASE OF MEETING NEEDS

During an all-day session for a trade association, the meeting planner and I learned
a valuable lesson about the importance of meeting participants’ basic needs. The
meeting planner had arranged for coffee and tea to be available when participants
arrived for the workshop. The participants, however, noted on their evaluation
sheets the conspicuous absence of donuts, muffins, or bagels; their disappointment
impacted the overall rating of the session.
Also keep in mind that many people today forego the traditional coffee and tea
in favor of soft drinks, juices, and bottled water. Health-conscious and calorie-
conscious participants also prefer fresh fruit to pastries.
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Communication
It is helpful to set the tone for the session at the beginning by clearly communicating
your expectations or “ground rules.” For example, remind participants to turn off (or
set on mute) their cell phones and pagers. Tell them when you have scheduled breaks
and tell them they will be able to make calls at that time. You need to consider your
policy regarding participants’ use of PDAs and other electronic devices as well as
other behaviors such as reading the newspaper, doing other work during the session,
and coming back late from breaks.
Sometimes no matter how well you plan, prepare, anticipate, and even commu-
nicate up-front, you may find yourself faced with a particularly difficult group.
Sometimes groups as a whole behave as a single entity. The key to dealing with
these situations is to be able to size up your audience and quickly adapt your style
accordingly.
If you sense you have a difficult or even hostile group, consider addressing the
issue up-front. Ask questions such as, “What concerns do you have about today’s
session?” or “Why do you think the company is offering this program?” This brings
issues out on the table so that you can address them. As participants are expressing
their issues and feelings, capture the information on flip-chart pages. Remain ob-
jective, non-judgmental, and empathetic. Facilitate a discussion or an activity that
forces the group to come up with solutions or recommendations. Do not take re-
sponsibility for solving the problem yourself.
If a group is particularly disruptive or, at the other extreme, shuts down com-
pletely and will not participate, use the “divide-and-conquer” technique. Break the
group into pairs or subgroups and give each a specific assignment. Pose questions
similar to the ones in the previous paragraph or have them come up with a list of
suggestions related to the topic.
Another effective tool is the “parking lot.” Post a flip-chart page with the words
“Parking Lot” at the top. Give participants Post-it® Notes and explain that if issues
come up throughout the session unrelated to the topic, to jot them on the Post-its
Notes and put them in the “parking lot.” This technique allows the participants to
acknowledge their issues and concerns and get them out of the way. Say, “Your
point is well taken, although it’s not relevant to what we’re talking about now.
Write it down and put it in the ‘parking lot,’ and we’ll be sure to address it before
the end of the session.”
Remember: An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Refer to Exhibit 11.1
for tips on preventing dysfunctional behavior.
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EXHIBIT 11.1. Preventing Dysfunctional Behavior

• Send pre-session questionnaires/interviews

• Send pre-session letters and outlines
• Make pre-session assignments
• Encourage pre-session manager-participant discussion
• Involve participant/manager in session design
• Use a variety of training methods/activities
• Select appropriate seating configurations
• Create comfortable, non-threatening environment
• Get them active from the start
• Make learning relevant
• Use participants’ knowledge and experience
• Give assignments between sessions
The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Personal Attacks
Personal attacks may be triggered by something you say that strikes a nerve with a
participant, or the attacks could come from a “professional heckler” who just enjoys
the challenge of putting you on the spot and making you squirm.
Far less annoying but offering a different challenge is the person who begins at-
tacking you because he or she disagrees with something you said.

CASE OF PERSONAL ATTACK

For example, I was conducting an all-day workshop for a group of managers, talking
about the importance of managers communicating clearly their standards of perfor-
mance and expectations to their employees. I also emphasized the need to include
guidelines or parameters as part of those expectations.
I decided to use a personal parenting example to illustrate my point. I had
learned through earlier questioning that 95 percent of the audience members
were parents. I related an incident involving my fourteen-year-old stepson many
years earlier. I created the appropriate backdrop for the story by explaining that
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fourteen-year-olds go through a “black period” during which everything they wear

is black. So when my stepson wanted to redecorate his room, I thought it would
be prudent to tell him that he could decorate his room any way he wanted ex-
cept for two things: he could not paint his walls black, and he could not put up
posters of nude women. The audience laughed as always when I tell that story.
Before I could go on to draw a parallel between parents setting parameters and
managers doing the same, I was interrupted by a man yelling at me from the back of
the room:“How could you do such a thing? That was your son’s room, and you have
no right telling him what he can and cannot do with his own space!” As he contin-
ued his ranting, I interrupted by saying,“I can certainly understand your point of view.
However, we’re not here to debate parenting philosophy. I was making a point that,
just as parents have the right to set standards and expectations for their children,
managers have the right to set standards and expectations for their employees. And
in both cases, one person’s standards may be quite different from another’s.The im-
portant thing is that you clearly communicate them and hold people accountable.”

Keep Your Cool. When faced with the unexpected, the most important thing to re-
member is to maintain your composure. You must remain calm and in control.
Several techniques will help in these situations:
• Lower the pitch of your voice. When we get nervous or upset, the pitch of our
voices tends to get higher, particularly with women.
• Breathe deeply. Shallow breathing is a sign of nervousness and will affect the
quality of the voice.
• Control your speed. Many people have a tendency to speak faster when
they are under stress, so concentrate on maintaining a moderate rate
when responding.
• Control your volume. Although you want to project your voice, do not shout.
Maintain a reasonable volume level, loud enough to make sure you are
heard but not so loud that you sound angry or out of control.
• Attend to nonverbals. Avoid nervous gestures such as fiddling with clothes,
jewelry, paper clips, or pointer. Those are a dead giveaway that you are los-
ing control. Also, be careful not to appear in a counterattack mode. If you
gesture, keep your palms open and do not point.

Handle Challenges with Grace and Professionalism. Accept the fact that you are
not always correct. If someone points out an error, thank the individual. Do not be
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defensive. Sometimes an individual may challenge you by offering a different opin-

ion or point of view. When that happens, acknowledge the difference of opinion
and thank the person for offering a different point of view. Do not, however, get
into an argument or a debate.
People automatically ask questions that start with “why.” Quite naturally, you
may have a tendency to react defensively. To avoid delivering a defensive-sounding
response, reframe the “why” into a “how” or “what” question when you restate it.
For example, if someone poses the following question, “Why did you. . .?, reframe
it by saying, “If I understand you correctly, you’re asking me how I . . . ” or “As I
understand it, you want to know what I. . . .” When responding to these challenging
questions, begin with “In my experience . . .” or present facts or quote experts as
appropriate.
More specifically, sometimes a participant (especially one who doesn’t want to
be there) complains about having to participate in activities and may challenge you
by asking, “Why did you waste our time with this activity instead of just telling us
the information?” You would reframe the question by saying, “If I understand you
correctly, you’re asking me how this activity relates to the topic” or “As I under-
stand it, you want to know what my reason is for spending time on this activity.”
You would then follow this clarification with an explanation such as, “Based on my
experience as well as hundreds of studies on retention of learning, people learn best
by doing, not by being told.”

Participant Behavior
More often than not, the group as a whole is not a problem, but there may be a few
difficult people in the session. Here are some coping strategies on dealing with spe-
cific character types.

Talkative. The talkative participant has something to say about everything. This
person always volunteers to be a group leader, answer questions, or offer sugges-
tions. He or she seems to want to be the center of attention. To deal with the talka-
tive type, you might say something like, “I appreciate your contribution, but let’s
hear from some other people.” Suggest further discussion at break or lunch by say-
ing, “In order to stay on schedule and on track, let’s discuss this further during the
break or after the session.”

Clueless. This person seems to have no idea what’s going on. He or she totally
misunderstands the question or the topic being discussed. As a result, this person’s
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answers or remarks do not even remotely relate to the subject under discussion. For
this person, say, “Something I said must have led you off track. What I was trying
to say was. . . .”

Rambling. This person goes on and on about nothing. He or she digresses fre-
quently and uses examples and analogies that do not relate to the topic being dis-
cussed. This person is different from the “clueless” individual in that the rambler
knows what is going on but prefers to follow his or her own agenda. To get this per-
son back on track, try asking, “I don’t understand. How does this relate to what
we’re talking about?” This is a good opportunity to use the “parking lot.”

Belligerent. The belligerent person is openly hostile, challenging and arguing

every point. This person questions the trainer’s knowledge and credibility and may
even accuse the trainer of being “out of touch” with the real world. Do not engage
in any verbal sparring. Say to this person, “I understand and appreciate your point
of view. What do some of the rest of you think?” By turning to the rest of the group,
you get yourself off the hook and give others an opportunity to exert some peer
pressure to change this person’s behavior. You might also offer to discuss the issue
further during break.

Stubborn. This individual refuses to see anyone else’s point of view and is partic-
ularly difficult to deal with in a group environment. His or her refusal to give in on
a point will thwart group decision-making or consensus-seeking activities.
Sometimes you can take the direct approach and say, “I appreciate your position [or
point of view], but for the sake of the activity [discussion, etc.], I’m going to insist
that we move on. I’ll be happy to discuss this with you later.”

Silent. Every group has one or more silent types who seem attentive and alert but
will not volunteer comments or answer questions. He or she may be naturally shy
or uncomfortable speaking up in a group and seems content just to listen.
You might ask yourself, “So what’s wrong with that?” The problem is that often
these quiet people have some wonderful comments and contributions to make, and
if we don’t make an effort to involve them, their ideas never surface and the group
misses the opportunity to learn from another of its members. The participant him-
self or herself misses an opportunity to be heard and receive validation. Try
prompting the reluctant or shy participant by saying, “[Person’s Name], I know
you have some experience in this area. It would be helpful if you would share your
thoughts with the group.” Another approach is to break the group into pairs or
trios. The shy person is much more likely to participate in these smaller groups.
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Know-It-All. The know-it-all individual often tries to upstage or overshadow the

trainer. Often viewing himself or herself as an authority on every subject, this per-
son assumes a superior role with both the group and the trainer. This person rel-
ishes the opportunity to flaunt his or her knowledge, often using big words,
quoting facts and figures, and dropping names. Although it may be difficult, do not
let your annoyance show. Acknowledge his or her contribution by saying, “That’s
one point of view. However, there are other ways of looking at it.” Depending on
the situation, ask other participants for their opinions or move on.

Class Clown. The class clown is relatively harmless unless you allow him or her
to get out of control. This person makes a joke out of everything and goes out of his
or her way to get attention, often at the expense of others. Do not give in to this per-
son’s attempt to control the situation. Simply say, “We all enjoy a little levity. But
right now, let’s get serious and concentrate on the topic at hand.”

Negative. This individual complains about the organization, his or her boss, co-
workers, you name it. In addition to the negative verbal remarks, he or she displays
negative non-verbal behavior such as frowning or assuming a defensive posture.
Often this person is a chronic complainer who has nothing positive to contribute.
Say something like, “I understand your point. What suggestions do you have to
change the situation?” Or you might say, “For the sake of discussion, what might
be some arguments for the opposite point of view?”

Indifferent. It is pretty clear to everyone that this person does not want to be there.
He or she makes no attempt to participate or contribute. Because he or she has been
forced to attend, not only will this person show no interest, but he or she may even
resort to engaging in activities separate from the group. Use a tactic similar to the
one you might use with the silent type: “I know you have some experience in this
area. Please tell us about it.”

Personality Clashes. Some people in a group may not get along. They may engage
in verbal battles, either directly or indirectly, often with remarks becoming very
personal and hurtful. When a situation like this occurs, it is important to address it
early by invoking ground rules or saying, “I suggest that we keep personalities out
of the discussion. Let’s get back to the topic at hand.”

Side Conversations. Side conversations are a frequent and annoying occurrence.

Far too often, two or more members of the group engage in their own conversation
while a fellow participant or the trainer is talking. More than one strategy may be
needed to bring them back. Sometimes just walking over to the individuals will
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cause them to stop their conversation. If that does not work, try saying, “[Persons’
names], we were just talking about. . . . What are your thoughts?”

General Guidelines
When dealing with any of these situations, keep in mind four important goals:
1. Stop the dysfunctional behavior. Your first objective is to stop the disruptive
behavior.
2. Keep the individual(s) engaged. Your second objective is to prevent the person
from “shutting down” and not participating at all.
3. Keep the rest of the group involved. Your third objective is to prevent others in
the group from “shutting down.” Keep in mind that others will judge you
by the way you handle these difficult situations.
4. Respect the individual. Your fourth objective, and perhaps the most impor-
tant, is to respect the individual and help maintain his or her dignity. Do
not embarrass or belittle the person.

After you have addressed a behavior or responded to a hostile participant, look

toward another person or section of the room. Continued eye contact will only en-
courage the participant and may result in a continued debate or argument.
Remember that you can never win an argument with a participant. Even if the
group is annoyed with their fellow participant’s behavior, if you attack that person,
the others may turn against you. After all, he or she is one of them.
When participants demonstrate intense negative emotions, it is important to ac-
knowledge those feelings and emotions with a statement such as, “I can tell you
feel strongly about this” or “I’m sorry you feel that way.” Be careful not to make
judgmental statements such as, “You’re being negative” or “You’re not listening.”

Learning to Live with It

One of the biggest challenges a trainer faces is to accept the fact that some people
and some situations are beyond his or her control. When, despite all your efforts, the
session still does not go according to plan, assess the situation as objectively as pos-
sible. Ask yourself what you could have done differently. If you conclude that you
did everything you could to prevent or handle the situation, then do not fret about
it. Accept the fact that people bring a lot of “baggage” to your sessions that you have
no way of knowing about or controlling. On the other hand, if you think you could
have handled the situation better, then learn from your mistakes and move on.
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KEY POINTS
• The role of the active trainer is to facilitate discussion and group interaction.
• The art of asking open-ended questions that begin with “what” and “how” is central to
your success as a facilitator of adult learning.
• The use of silence is very effective in eliciting participant responses to your questions.
• Be prepared for the expected as well as the unexpected: proper planning, preparation,
anticipation, and communication are great prevention strategies.
• Answer questions directly and honestly.
• When dealing with difficult people and/or situations, remain calm and in control; handle
challenges with grace and professionalism.
• Setting ground rules at the beginning of a session can be very effective in preventing
dysfunctional behavior.
• Your goal in dealing with dysfunctional behavior is to stop the behavior, yet at the same
time, to respect the individual and to prevent that person from shutting down.

✦ ✦ ✦
Now that you have “mastered” the basics of design, development, and delivery, it’s
time to add some spice to your programs. Chapter 12 presents a number of topics
and techniques for being more creative in your training sessions.
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Chapter 12
Using Creativity

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn
• To develop creative ways to form subgroups
• To use creative approaches to motivate and energize the group
• To incorporate games into the instructional design
• To create and maintain structure for small-group assignments
• To use games to increase learning and improve retention
• To adapt games to specific content and learning objectives
• To design closing activities that reinforce the learning

Creativity with Small Groups

The use of small groups is a very effective learning technique and the cornerstone
of cooperative learning. Sometimes, however, when you announce that you are
going to break into subgroups, you might hear, “Oh, no! Not again!” To maintain
a high level of interest and enthusiasm throughout the session, draw on your cre-
ative muse even when dealing with small groups.

Grouping Techniques
Many learning activities require you to break a large group into subgroups. The
most frequently used method of creating subgroups is to ask participants to count
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off by however many groups you want to create. However, this method is boring
and people often forget their numbers or where they are supposed to relocate.
Instead of the old “ho-hum” approach, let’s look at some other more creative ways
to create small groups.

• Puzzles. Make or buy six-piece jigsaw puzzles and give each person a puz-
zle piece. To form subgroups, the participants have to find those who have
pieces to the same puzzle.
• Candy. Different flavors of wrapped candy can be distributed to partici-
pants just before breaking into groups. (Be sure to tell them not to eat the
candy just yet.) Ask the peppermints to go to one spot; butterscotch pieces,
another; Hershey Kisses®, still another.
• Participant Materials. Give your participants pens or folders of different col-
ors to indicate their groups.
• Grouping Cards. Another way to move people quickly and efficiently into dif-
ferent group configurations throughout the day is to create grouping cards.
Each person receives a 3-by-5-inch card on which is a colored dot, a number,
and a colorful sticker. The numbers, dots, and stickers are placed on the cards
so that they will form random groups of varying sizes, depending on the
purpose of the activity and required subgroup size. For example, say there
are twelve people in a workshop and you will need to create four groups of
three (red, blue, green, yellow dots), three groups of four (zoo animal stick-
ers: lions, giraffes, zebras), and two groups of six (numbers 1 and 2). When
you are ready to put people into subgroups, tell them how to group and
where.
• Finding Famous Fictional Friends and Families. Another excellent way to group
people is called “Finding Famous Fictional Friends and Families.” First, de-
pending on the number of groups you need, create groups of four or five
fictional characters in the same “family” such as Robin Hood, Maid Marian,
Friar Tuck, Little John, Sheriff of Nottingham; Tin Man, Cowardly Lion,
Dorothy, Scarecrow, Toto; Peter Pan, Captain Hook, Wendy, Tinkerbell,
Crocodile; Hawkeye, Hot Lips, Trapper John, Radar, Klinger. Put the names
of characters on separate index cards (one card per person in the workshop),
shuffle the cards, and give each participant a card. Next ask the participants
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Using Creativity 239

to find the other members of their “families.” Suggest to participants that if

they do not recognize the name of a character they drew, to ask their fellow
participants for help.

When the subgroups have been formed, ask them to discuss a particular topic
or come up with a list related to the topic. For example, for a customer service pro-
gram, ask the groups to share the best or the worst experience they ever had as a
customer. In a program on managing change, ask subgroups to list the changes they
are experiencing in their organizations and the industry.

Assigning Roles
Roles can also be assigned in creative ways, rather than leaving the decision to the
groups themselves. Suggest that the spokesperson, scribe, or discussion leader be
the person whose birthday is closest to the day’s date or who lives the closest to the
training location.
Bob Pike of Creative Training Techniques in Minneapolis uses a fun finger-
pointing technique. He asks people in their small groups to point their index
fingers in the air, and when he gives the signal, they are to point to someone in their
group. The person who has the most fingers pointing at him or her is the spokesper-
son. To add a little more fun, variety, and surprise, the trainer can then tell the person
who was just chosen to choose someone else.
Come up with your own creative ideas. Let your imagination run wild!

Regaining Control
Sometimes trainers are afraid to have participants interacting with one another or
moving into small groups because they are afraid of losing control and not being
able to get the group’s attention again. This is no problem with a little planning and
communicating up-front. First, be very clear and specific when telling participants
what you want them to do; give them a timeframe and tell them what signal you
are going to use to let them know when time is up. There are many ways of re-
gaining the audience’s attention—both auditory and visual.

Auditory Signals. Try Bob Pike’s multiple clapping method. When he wants to call
the group back to order, he asks them to clap once if they can hear his voice, and then
he claps once. Then he asks them to clap twice if they can hear his voice, and he claps
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twice. Finally, he asks them to clap three times if they can hear him, and he claps
three times. By that time, people have quieted down and refocused their attention
on the trainer.
Use a variety of other sounds (a train whistle, cow bell, siren, police whistle,
sleigh bells, horn, wind chimes, or kazoo) to regain the group’s attention. When
participants do not know what sound to expect, they love the surprise.

Visual Signals. Some trainers use visual signals such as turning the lights on and
off or holding up a sign or object. Use any other idea you choose.

Props and Other Theatrical Techniques

The use of props is becoming increasingly more popular. Although props are visual
aids and are used for a purpose similar to those discussed in Chapter 9, they are in-
cluded in this chapter because of their unique relationship to the theater and show
business. Props can include hats, objects, magic tricks—any object that enhances
the message.
Using props is an easy and economical theatrical technique that will capture the
audience’s attention and help you communicate your message. Props appeal espe-
cially to the visual modality. They help reinforce a message by relating the visual
image to the spoken word. The image will last long after the words are forgotten.

EXAMPLE OF USING PROPS

When I do a session on professional image, I begin by holding up two boxes of the
same shape and size. One box is professionally wrapped with attractive paper and
coordinating ribbon and bow; the other is wrapped in haphazard fashion in alu-
minum foil and tied with white curling ribbon. I ask the audience to indicate with a
show of hands which package they would like to receive.Almost everyone chooses
the attractive package. (Of course, there are always a few who choose the other.) I
then ask one or two people to explain their preference for the professionally
wrapped box to the others.They mention, of course, that it is more aesthetically ap-
pealing.This provides the segue into my points about professional image:
• Image is a matter of perception.
• Successful people first decide how they want to be perceived.
• Then they determine what to do to create that perception.
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Props and Points

Coming up with ideas for props is not difficult. The key is to sit down and think
about your learning points and brainstorm what objects might relate to or represent
that particular message.

SAMPLE PROPS
For my session on coaching to improve workplace performance, I use a teddy bear
dressed as an athletic coach in baseball cap and polo shirt with a whistle around his
neck. I use my “coach” bear to introduce the concept of coaching and how coaches
in the work environment are similar to coaches in the world of sports.
During management development programs, I speak about employee motiva-
tion. To make my point about the different approaches to motivating employees, I
bring in three props: a whip, a carrot dangling at the end of a stick, and a flowering
plant. I show the whip to illustrate threats managers often make; the carrot repre-
sents incentive programs or promises of rewards as a motivational tool; the flow-
ering plant is a metaphor for an environment in which people are motivated.A plant
needs the right amount of water, light, heat, and fertilizer, and each plant requires
different kind of care.The same is true for people. Successful managers will under-
stand the different “care” required by each of employee and create an appropriate
environment accordingly. My “motivation” props are always a big hit.The participants
frequently refer to the props throughout the session.
I also use a Slinky® magic spring to illustrate the importance of remaining flex-
ible and adapting to change and a kaleidoscope to represent the changing environ-
ment. I use puzzle pieces for team building, giving each team member a puzzle piece
that they hold until the end of the session, when I ask all of the team members to
get up and put their pieces together to complete the puzzle. I remind them that they
are individuals, but they must all come together to form the whole.
I often use a magic wand,“magic dust” [glitter], or a crystal ball. In a management
development session, I might mention that people are promoted to management po-
sitions and someone sprinkles “magic dust” or waves a magic wand and “abra-
cadabra!,” they now know how to manage.
The crystal ball can be used in a career development program to make the
point that many people expect to look into a crystal ball and see their future rather
than taking control of their careers by developing plans and managing those plans.
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Posters
Display posters of quotations related to the topic around the room to create a mood
and generate interest in the topic. Quotations work well at the beginning of a ses-
sion. Ask participants to choose one of the quotations and explain how it relates to
them. The following quotes are appropriate for a time-management session:
• “Money lost can be replaced, but time lost is gone forever.”
• “People who have half an hour to spend usually spend it with someone
who hasn’t.”
• “Everybody has the problem of time; of all resources, it is the scarcest, the
most perishable, and the most elusive.”

Giveaways
A prop becomes even more effective and memorable if you use “giveaways” that co-
ordinate with your theme. For example, you might give participants whistles in a
coaching session; miniature Slinkies to remind people to be flexible, or kaleidoscopes
to help them look at things differently.
Use cube puzzles to represent problem solving. Give out small compasses in a
session on goal setting to emphasize the importance of staying on course.
Give away buttons and stickers with words or slogans as a reminder of your
theme or key learning points. Steve Sugar distributes 2-inch by 2-inch “Koala T Idea”
cartoon stickers to recognize unique ideas contributed by individuals or groups.

EXAMPLES OF RECOGNITION AND REWARDS

For a session for managers on motivating employees, I had buttons made that read,
“I’m the greatest. My boss told me so!” as an example of inexpensive ways to rec-
ognize and reward your employees. The managers were so excited about the but-
ton idea that they not only ordered those particular buttons to give to their
employees, but came up with other button ideas and used them periodically to let
their employees know how important they were to the success of the organization.

Using Themes
Another way to add creativity to a workshop is to use a theme as a metaphor for
the topic. Decorate the room and choose props and giveaways to support the
theme. For example, the metaphor of a sailboat cruise to represent team building,
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Using Creativity 243

with the meeting room decorated in a nautical theme. When participants arrive,
place leis around their necks and give out compasses to help them “stay on course.”
Give each person an eraser shaped like a sea creature and a roll of LifeSavers®.
Use an outer space theme and have the room darkened and decorated with
glow-in-the-dark stars and other celestial objects. If your session is about group
problem solving or decision making, you might choose the NASA task simulation
from Teleometrics.

Using Imagination
Do not be afraid to take risks. Do something different. For example, use music.
Have it playing as people come in the room and during breaks. Trainers often use
recordings of currently popular songs used to set the mood for a training session
and/or activity. Although the use of recordings for this type of usage requires no
special agreements with the copyright owners for its use, you must pay a perfor-
mance royalty to the publisher for these uses. For permission to play recorded music,
contact the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) or
Broadcast Music Incorporated (BMI). Even better, use royalty-free music produced
especially for training venues. An excellent source is “Powerful Presentation
Music” from the Bob Pike group.
Use balloons to show how managers can “celebrate” their employees’ achieve-
ments. One word of caution: do not get carried away. Your creativity must not get
in the way of your main purpose: a meaningful learning experience. Whatever you
do should be an enhancement, not a distraction.

Games
Unfortunately, in many instances, games have received a bad reputation because
they have not been used properly. Games, like other activities, must have an in-
structional purpose. They are tools for learning.
It is important for the trainer to evaluate a game well and link to the “real world”
through the skillful conduct of the game and the facilitation process that follows the
actual play. Game master Steve Sugar, principal of the Game Group in Ellicott City,
Maryland, refers to instructional games as HOT (High-Outcome Techniques) train-
ing. He believes success depends on the facilitator’s ability to know what to do, how
to do it, and when to do it.
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Instructional Games
To put it simply, an instructional game is an activity that involves rules and a repeat-
ing pattern of play. Reflecting a balance between knowledge and chance, an effective
instructional game contains the following four C’s:
• Challenge. By its very nature, a game is competitive and, therefore, has chal-
lenge, either built in or assumed.
• Chance. Unlike a simulation or other experiential activities, a game includes
an element of chance created by the roll of the dice or the luck of the draw.
• Complication. Complication is a factor involving both rules of play and
questions that “test” the players’ knowledge or skills.
• Closure. A game has a clear ending determined by time or point factors, re-
sulting in winners and losers.

A popular and versatile type of instructional game is known as a “frame game.”

A frame game involves selecting a well-known game structure and placing your in-
structional material within that structure. Think of a frame game as a template, de-
signed generically so that you can “load” or plug in your own content into the
game. The two most popular classroom frame games are paper-and-pencil (Bingo,
Tic-Tac-Toe, Scavenger Hunt) and board and TV game shows (for example,
Monopoly®, Trivial Pursuit®, “Jeopardy®”). The TV game show has spawned a se-
ries of templates from Learning Ware and other vendors. You do not have to limit
your use to popular and well-known games. There are a number of sources avail-
able to you for frame games that are easy to use. Game guru Sivasailam “Thiagi”
Thiagarajan has a number of frame games as well as simulation games available on
the market, as noted in Appendix B.

Advantages of Games
Like other experiential activities, instructional games can serve a number of
purposes. Games serve two main purposes simultaneously: instruction and group
development.

Instruction. As an instructional technique, games can be used:

• To assess the participants’ knowledge or skill prior to the training
• To teach new content: new information, concepts, and skills
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Using Creativity 245

• To review or reinforce your learning points for a particular segment or as a

summary and review of the entire program
• To assess how much the participants have learned

Group Development. The instructional purpose of the game should be of primary

concern. At the same time, games can be used:
• To break the ice and help people become acquainted with one another
• To build rapport and create a comfortable learning climate
• To build group cohesiveness by having people work in teams, resulting in
collaboration as well as competition
• To motivate participants and generate interest and enthusiasm for the topic

Using Games
Results of a study conducted by James Kirk (1995) indicate that certain groups
like games more than others. Kirk found that people under forty are more likely to
enjoy the instructional use of games. Furthermore, supervisors or managers, those
in sales and marketing positions, and professionals tend to respond favorably to
games. Technicians, support staff, and operation workers are less likely to like games.
The following factors must be taken into consideration when deciding whether
or not to use an instructional game.

Factors to Consider
• Time. Steve Sugar estimates that it takes between seven and twelve minutes
in development for every minute of playing time to create a game.
• Cost. Cost depends on a number of variables, including the complexity of
the game, the number of game sets you have to produce, production costs,
purchasing costs, and, of course, how much time you have to devote.
• Audience. You must consider the makeup of the group. Some games are
more complex than others and will require some higher-order thinking and
application.
• Enjoyment. Although a game is a vehicle for learning, it should also be fun.
• Adaptability. The best instructional games are those that can be adapted eas-
ily to audience, subject, and time constraints.
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246 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

• User-Friendliness. An instructional game needs to be easy to use and under-

stand for both the participants and the facilitator.
• Safety. The name must be non-threatening. In other words, participants
need to feel that it’s okay to make a mistake.
• Learning Objectives. The instructional purpose needs to be clearly under-
stood. Like all other activities, the game must lead to a learning outcome.

Adapting Games to Training Programs

After deciding to incorporate a game into the training design, you must then actu-
ally build the game. The “master of instructional games,” Steve Sugar, suggests the
following approach:

Determine Your Objectives. Decide why you are using a game. Are you using it
to involve the participants? Add variety to your design? Energize the group? Make
the learning interactive?

Select and Adapt a Frame. Choose a frame that is user-friendly, adaptable, flexi-
ble, and challenging. Particularly if this is your first experience with a game, choose
a frame that is familiar to both you and the participants such as “Jeopardy,” Bingo,
or Trivial Pursuit. Participants from cultures outside the United States may not be
familiar with these games, so be sure to learn about your audience before you
choose a particular frame.

Develop Your Rules. Be clear about what people can and cannot do, how you will
keep track of who is winning and losing, and when the game is over. Write the rules
so they are easy to understand and are non-threatening.

Load the Frame. At this point, you will develop the questions specific to your con-
tent. This is time-consuming, so plan and manage your time accordingly.

Produce or Construct the Game. This step involves creating the physical pieces
of the game, including game board, sets of cards, game pieces, dice, and so forth.
You can save yourself some time by purchasing frame games that have been cre-
ated for instructional purposes. (See Appendix B for some sources of games.)
For example, Steve Sugar has developed a great frame game called QUIZO! avail-
able on www.thegamegroup.com. Participants use a Bingo-type game sheet that is
“covered” (marked with an “X”) for each correct response to a content question. The
trainer decides on the content questions and controls the game flow by presenting
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Using Creativity 247

each question and then informing participants which game space is awarded for a
correct response.

Pilot the Game. Sometimes a game that looks good on paper fails miserably in the
actual execution. Before going to great expense to produce slick materials, test it out
on a small group of people representative of those who will actually play the game.
As you observe and later debrief the game, ask yourself (and others) the following
questions:
• Were the participants involved? Was there a high level of participation
among all the players?
• Were they learning? How do you know they were learning?
• Did they have fun? Were they animated and smiling? Were they energized?
• Were the questions and situations realistic? Whether the content was cogni-
tive, behavioral, or affective, did it reflect what they needed to know or do
on the job?
• Was the environment non-threatening? Was there an atmosphere of trust?
Could people make mistakes without feeling embarrassed?

Revise the Game. Based on the feedback you received from the pilot, you will
probably need to make some revisions. Let the games begin!

Writing Game Questions and Items

In writing game questions, keep in mind that you want variety. Consider the fol-
lowing types of questions and items:
• Short Answer. These questions include many types: direct question (elicits a
simple factual response), partial listing (elicits a list of characteristics), mul-
tiple choice, identification, definitions, and fill-in-the-blank.
• Case Study. These questions present hypothetical situations requiring the
participant to explain briefly what he or she would do.
• Role Play. A role play requires the participant to actually do something that
relates to the topic. For example, in a class on interpersonal skills, a role-
play question might direct the participant to give feedback to one of his or
her colleagues.
• Discussion. A discussion question requires the group to discuss the question
among themselves. In a session on business etiquette, the participants
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248 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

might discuss a female taking a male client to lunch and how to handle
the check.
• Activity or Process. Tasks are written on cards, such as “Complete [task] in thirty
seconds,” or “Without words, demonstrate how to greet a new customer.”

Facilitating a Game
The biggest contributing factor to a game’s failure is what the trainer does (or does
not do) after the game is played. In a survey conducted by James Kirk (1995), 80
percent of training providers responded that they have received no structured
training in game facilitation.
Games require the same care in processing as do other activities. If you follow
the What? So What? Now What? formula along with the other processing tips intro-
duced in Chapter 8, your game will be successful. Be prepared, however, for mixed
reactions. Because of the differences in learning styles, it’s understandable and pre-
dictable that people will react differently. Some people may hate the game, while
others think it is one of the best learning experiences they ever had.
So don’t be concerned unless you receive a lot of negative reactions.

Caveats
Trainers who have had little or no experience using an instructional game in train-
ing sessions are often very uncomfortable the first time. They are unnerved by the
perceived loss of control, particularly if they have been delivering trainer-centered
training. If the participants are really involved in the game, then the trainer is really
not even needed, except to answer the few questions that may arise, to observe the
process, and to monitor the flow of the activity.

Creative Closings
The way in which you bring a session or program to a close is very important.
Think of it as a package tied with a neat little bow. Make sure you allocate adequate
time in your design to process the entire session or program. In a full-day session,
I allot thirty to forty minutes for closing activities.

Summarizing Techniques
Throughout the session, participants have been bombarded with information and
activities. Before you send them on their way, help them pull it all together so that
they leave the session with a clear understanding of your key learning points. Rather
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Using Creativity 249

than taking on the responsibility of summarizing the session yourself, put the onus
on the participants to think about what they have learned, synthesizing the content
and experiences into key learning points. Remember that they will learn (and re-
member) better by doing rather than by being told.

Small-Group Summaries. Divide the participants into subgroups. Give each subgroup
a flip-chart page and markers and ask them to come up with a list of the key learning
points from the session. Make it as specific as you want. For example, for a customer ser-
vice program, ask the small groups to pretend that they are going to be responsible for
training new employees on the “do’s and don’ts” of serving the customer. Ask them to
develop a list of guidelines they would give new employees as a job aid and reminder
of how to deliver quality service. After each group has developed its list, compare the
lists, noting the similarities. They now have a summary checklist to take with them.

Full Circle. A technique mentioned in Chapter 7, “What Do You Want to Know?,”

uses Post-it Notes to keep track of questions participants have about subtopics that
will be addressed in the session. They place their questions on flip-chart sheets on
the walls around the room. Ask participants to retrieve questions that were an-
swered or addressed during the training program. Ideally, the wall will be empty.
However, a few remain, generally questions that had absolutely nothing to do
with the topic of the session. Occasionally, questions may remain that were touched
on, but the participant who wrote the question does not recall the discussion. Either
ask whether anyone in the group remembers that question being addressed in some
fashion or point it out for the participant yourself.

Self-Assessment
Also give participants an opportunity to reflect on how much they have personally
grown or learned during the session. A great technique is to create a human con-
tinuum. This activity is adapted from a design called “Physical Self-Assessment” in
101 Ways to Make Training Active (Silberman, 2005).
For this activity, create two signs that represent the two extreme ends of a con-
tinuum and post them on opposite ends of a wall. For example, use “competent”
and “clueless.” Then ask participants to think about where they were at the begin-
ning of the session or program relative to their knowledge, understanding, or skill
level as it relates to the topic. Ask them to imagine the wall as a continuum and to
get up and place themselves where they think they were.
After the participants are in position, ask two or three to explain why they
placed themselves where they did. Next ask them to think about where they see
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250 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

themselves now, at the end of the program, and to place themselves accordingly.
Once again, ask a few to explain their positions. In most cases, you will find par-
ticipants moving in varying degrees from “clueless” to “competent.” This activity
is a graphic way for both you and the participants to see how they have benefited
from the training session.

Making Commitments
Mel Silberman tells trainers, “It’s not what you give them, but what they take away that
counts.” Unless participants take what they learned and apply it to their own situa-
tions, the training will not be effective. To help ensure that the training is transferred to
the work environment, ask participants to develop their own action plans. Ask them to
write down two or three action items as a result of the training. Ask them to write down
not only what they are going to do but how and when. Also ask them to consider what
barriers they might anticipate and how they can overcome them. Exhibit 12.1 is an ex-
ample of an action plan used at the end of a management-development program.

Follow-Up Activities
Do not overlook the importance of building into your design follow-up activities to
reinforce the training. Send various learning resources such as articles, tapes, and
CDs to the participants at regular intervals for them to use individually or with oth-
ers. You can also give them specific assignments to complete and submit to you.
Remember that training is a process, not an event.

Reflections
At the end of many training sessions, you can use a simple activity that combines
self-assessment, action plan, and personal reaction all in one activity. I put the fol-
lowing statements on a transparency or flip chart:
• The most important thing I learned in this session is. . . .
• As a result of this training, one thing I am going to do is. . . .
• What I liked best about this training session was. . . .

Then ask a few volunteers to share their responses to the items. It is a great way
to obtain feedback and to help participants focus on or clarify in their own minds
what was the most meaningful learning for them. Aside from being great feedback
for the trainer, this technique helps participants leave with a sense of enjoyment
and satisfaction with the learning experience.
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Using Creativity 251

EXHIBIT 12.1. Sample Action Plan

1. What new thoughts, ideas, or insights have I gained from this program?

2. As a result of these new ideas, what specific thing(s) do I want to do

differently on the job?

3. What within myself could keep me from doing these things?

4. What outside barriers or obstacles could keep me from doing these things?

5. What can I do to overcome these internal and external barriers?

6. What help do I need from others in order to overcome these obstacles?

7. How will I know that I have succeeded (what results do I anticipate from
my new behavior)?

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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252 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

KEY POINTS
• Use a variety of creative techniques to form subgroups.
• Use both auditory and visual signals to regain control of the group.
• Use props and other theatrical techniques to increase participants’ interest, keep their
attention, and illustrate a point.
• Use instructional games to add fun and excitement (while having an instructional pur-
pose) to your training sessions.
• Use a variety of creative techniques to bring your session to a close.

✦ ✦ ✦
Although your training session is over, your work is far from done. Now it’s time
to focus on the program’s success in meeting the business needs of the organization
and the developmental needs of the participants. The next chapter addresses the
various ways to evaluate training.
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Chapter 13
Evaluating
Training

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn
• To use the four levels of evaluation
• To create evaluation tools
• To use the evaluation process to improve training effectiveness

Why Evaluate?
How many times have you heard someone say, “It was a great training program
but. . .”? Unfortunately, that statement (or a variation) is spoken far too often and
reflects a growing concern by both line managers and senior management that
training is costly and not always worth the investment of time and money. This at-
titude is also reflected in the actions of senior managers who cut training budgets
first when times are tough.

Purposes of Evaluation
Following are some of the main reasons to evaluate:
• To determine whether the training achieves its objectives
• To assess the value of training programs
253
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254 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

• To identify areas of the program that need improvement

• To identify the appropriate audience for future programs
• To review and reinforce key program parts for participants
• To sell a program to management and participants

Linking Evaluation to the Needs Assessment

Clearly, needs assessment is critical to the success of any training initiative. It pro-
vides the basis for program development and establishes the criteria for measuring
the success of the program after its completion. For evaluation to have any mean-
ing, it must be tied to the needs assessment process. Always remember that the
evaluation process should reflect specific business-related or performance-related
outcomes.

When to Evaluate
Evaluation is an ongoing process, not just something that happens at the end of a
session or program. Consider evaluation during the session, at the end, and after
the participants return to the job.

During the Session. As people participate in skill practice, case studies, exercises,
simulations, and other activities, observe the degree to which they have mastered
the content.

At the End of the Session. Participants’ evaluation questionnaires will indicate

their personal reactions to the training session.

After the Training. A few weeks to several months after the session, observe the
participants’ job performance to determine whether they are applying what they
learned to their work situations.

Whom to Involve
Any category or number of people can be involved in the evaluation process, de-
pending on what you want to know and what level of evaluation you conduct. The
participants are directly involved because they are the customers whose level of
satisfaction you are trying to determine. The participants are the major source of in-
formation on how much they have actually learned in the training. In addition to
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Evaluating Training 255

the participants, involve others in the evaluation process. Survey or interview the
participants’ managers, their co-workers, peers, subordinates, or even customers or
vendors. At some point, you may need to involve senior management.

How to Evaluate
The methods used for evaluation are pretty much the same as those used to gather
data during the needs assessment. Trainers will often ask, “Which method(s)
should I use?” Unfortunately, there is no clear-cut answer. As Jane Holcomb (1994)
says in her book, Make Training Worth Every Penny, “Use any method that works for
you—any method at all that gives you the information you need.”

What to Evaluate
Before developing an evaluation process, be clear about what you want to evaluate.
This is not as easy as it might seem. Do you want to evaluate how much the par-
ticipants have learned? Or do you want to know what the participants thought
about the program and you? Do you want to find out whether the participants
are applying what they learned on the job? If they are using the learned skills and
information on the job, is their enhanced performance making a difference to the
organization?

Four-Level Model for Evaluation

The most widely known model for evaluating training programs was introduced
by Donald Kirkpatrick in 1959. It is regarded as a classic by training practitioners.
Although all four levels of the model (reaction, learning, behavior, results) are im-
portant, you may choose not to evaluate at all four levels. Studies show that a vast
majority of organizations evaluate reaction. A significantly high percentage mea-
sure learning as well. The evaluation or measurement of behavior lags behind the
first two levels; evaluation of results finishes last.
Today’s organizations are much more cost-conscious, and the need to measure
the effectiveness of training will continue to grow. Should you need to undertake a
comprehensive approach to evaluation, you will be able to make appropriate rec-
ommendations or respond confidently when someone asks you to prove that train-
ing gets results.
Table 13.1 provides an overview of the four levels of evaluation.
Table 13.1. Measuring Training Results
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What Who When How Why

Level 1 Reaction: Did they Participants End of program “Smile sheet” Determine level
like it? of customer satis-
4/3/06

faction; may indicate

need for revision
7:10 PM

Level 2 Learning:What Participants; During, before/after Pre-test/post-test; Identify whether

knowledge or skills trainer program skills application trainer has been
did they retain? through role plays, successful in
case studies, delivery of course
Page 256

exercises content and

achieving program
objectives
Level 3 Behavior: How are Participants; 3 to 6 months Surveys; interviews; Determine extent
they performing bosses; after program observation; to which participants
differently? subordinates; completion performance have transferred
peers appraisal what they learned in
the session to the
actual work situation
Level 4 Results:What is Participants; After completion Cost/benefit Determine whether
the impact on the control group of Level 3 follow-up analysis; tracking; benefits outweigh
bottom line? operational data costs; ascertain
degree of contribu-
tion of program to
organizational goals
The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Evaluating Training 257

Level 1: Reaction
Level 1 deals with participants reactions, that is, “customer” satisfaction. Level 1 eval-
uations are often referred to as “smile sheets,” implying that participants’ reactions
are based on how much “fun” they had in the training session. For that reason, train-
ers frequently dismiss Level 1 evaluations as a waste of time.
On the contrary, Level 1 is an important first step in determining the success of
a training program. Participants’ reactions can help you determine the effectiveness
of a program and how it can be improved. Kirkpatrick believes that you cannot by-
pass this first level because, as he puts it, “If they [participants] do not react favor-
ably, they will not be motivated to learn” (Kirkpatrick, 1994).
What Level 1 Cannot Measure. One of the problems with and the main cause of
criticism of Level 1 evaluation is that it is too subjective and often becomes nothing
more than a popularity contest. Before constructing a participant end-of-session
evaluation form, understand what it cannot and is not intended to do: (1) it does
not measure learning or the ability to apply learning on the job; (2) it also cannot
measure changes in attitudes or beliefs; (3) because it deals only with participants’
perceptions and reactions, a Level 1 instrument can in no way measure organiza-
tional impact; (4) also, although frequently asked, participants cannot measure the
trainer’s knowledge. Think about it. How could the participants have any way of
knowing what the trainer does and does not know about the subject? Your ability
to communicate or demonstrate your knowledge is an entirely different story.
Deciding What to Measure. Before you design a Level 1 instrument, you need to
be clear about what you want to know, why you want to know it, and what you
are going to do with the information. Do not ask for information about something
you cannot change or have no intention of analyzing or reporting.
Designing an End-of-Session Evaluation Form. Categories. First decide what you
want to measure and create questions or response items that address or fall into cer-
tain categories, including many, if not all, of the following:
• Content
• Materials
• Instructional methods
• Trainer
• Environment
• Logistics
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258 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

It is also a good idea to provide an opportunity for respondents to make recom-

mendations as to how the program can be improved and also to express their over-
all reactions to the session.
Format. To counteract people’s tendency to respond the same way to every item
on a questionnaire or survey, use a variety of response formats. Choose at least four
from the following options:

• Two-choice questions with room for explanation or comments. These would in-
clude responses such as “yes” or “no” and “agree” or “disagree.” Example:
Did the course meet the stated objectives? Yes No Why or why not?
• Short answers. These items are written as open-ended questions and require
the respondent to write down a brief response instead of just checking a
box. Example: What parts of the workshop were most valuable/beneficial
to you? Why?
• Complete the sentence. With this item, the respondent is asked to complete a
sentence. Example: What I want/need to know more about is. . . .
• Ratings. Participants respond to a question or statement using some type of
scale or rating such as a Likert scale. The Likert scale measures both the di-
rection (positive to negative) and intensity (strongly positive to strongly
negative) of an individual’s opinion or attitude. Example: Today’s session
was an enjoyable and satisfying learning experience for me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree
• Rankings. This item asks respondents to indicate priorities or preferences.
Example: Please rank each topic in order of its importance or relevance to
your job: 1 = most important to 5 = least important.
• Checklist. A checklist provides a “laundry list” from which participants can
choose words that express their reactions. Example: Check the words that
describe your reaction to today’s session:
Exceeded my expectations
Met my expectations
Fell short of my expectations

A question could also be added focusing on the impact of the session on the par-
ticipant, designed to obtain a deeper and more personal response, for example:
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Evaluating Training 259

“Imagine that a co-worker(or friend) of yours is thinking about attending this pro-
gram. He or she asks you: ‘What was this program like for you?’ How would you
respond?”

Evaluation Form Guidelines. Evaluation forms are more difficult to construct than
you might imagine. Use the following guidelines:
• Keep the form brief. Participants should be able to complete it quickly.
• Create a balance among the various types of information you are collecting.
For example, do not ask five questions about the instructor and only two
about content.
• Obtain participants’ immediate reactions. Have participants complete the
evaluation before they leave the room. This will ensure that you receive a
100 percent response rate. It will also prevent “mob mentality” response,
the possibility of several people getting together to discuss the class either
before or while they are completing the evaluation.

Interviews. In addition to the end-of-session questionnaires, you can use inter-

views to increase the reliability of the data collected from the questionnaires. This
method of data collection is quite flexible, allowing the interviewer to probe for
more specific answers and to clarify questions as needed. The method also allows
the interviewer to record spontaneous answers and, therefore, get a more complete
picture of the participants’ reactions. The interviewer can explore in more detail the
reactions gleaned from the questionnaires.
Plan on spending about thirty minutes per interview. You will not be able to in-
terview every participant, so select a random sample. It is important to hold the
interviews within one week of the session so that the experience is fresh in their
minds. Through one-on-one interviews, you can further explore the reasons for
participants’ reactions and solicit suggestions for improvement. Either tape the in-
terviews and have them transcribed, allowing you to analyze or interpret the re-
sponses more thoroughly, or simply take notes during the interviews.
When developing the interview questions, do not duplicate the questions on the
written form. Instead, ask specific questions about the methods used or the content
covered. For example, below are several questions about the methods used in a
training session on leadership:
• What feelings did you have about the methods used in the program?
• What did you like about the jigsaw design?
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260 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

• What did you like about the learning tournament?

• What didn’t you like about the jigsaw design?
• What didn’t you like about the learning tournament?

Level 2: Learning
Level 2 evaluation deals with what the participants actually learned during the
training session. Kirkpatrick defines learning as the “extent to which participants
change attitudes, improve knowledge, and/or increase skill as a result of attending
the program” (Kirkpatrick, 1994). It is far easier to determine what new knowledge
or skills the participants acquired than to find the ways in which the training
changed their opinions, values, and beliefs.
The three most appropriate methods used to evaluate learning are tests, obser-
vation, and interviews, with tests being the most frequent. See Table 13.2 for a sum-
mary of the advantages and disadvantages of each method.

Tests. Testing should be kept fairly simple. Many trainers give both a pre-test and a
post-test to get an even more accurate picture of what the participants have learned.
Types of tests. First determine whether you want to construct subjective (short-
answer or essay) or objective (multiple-choice or true-false) items or even a combi-
nation of the two types. When constructing test items, consider the time needed to
grade the test as well as the validity and reliability of each item. Make sure the test
assesses the learning as specified in the learning objectives. When an item measures
what it is supposed to measure, it has validity. Each test item must also be reliable,
that is, give consistent results from one application to another. For a broader dis-
cussion of test construction, refer to “Testing for Learning Outcomes” by Deborah
Grafinger Hacker, one of the INFO-LINE booklets published by the American
Society for Training and Development (revised in 1998). Hacker describes various
types of tests, provides directions on writing test items, discusses measuring the va-
lidity and reliability of tests, and includes a helpful and extensive resource list.
Make sure the test is meaningful. Instead of asking for simple information or
factual recall, ask questions that require the participants to apply or interpret what
they learned in the session.
Question Formats. All multiple-choice questions consist of a stem and a response.
The stem presents a problem, asks a question, or takes the form of an incomplete
statement. Responses include possible answers, all of which must be plausible. The
Table 13.2. Level 2 Evaluation Methods
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Method Advantages Disadvantages

Tests:
4/3/06

Objectives tests Easy to score Difficult to write

Multiple choice Inexpensive to use Time-consuming to write
7:10 PM

Matching
True-False
Fill-in
Subjective tests Easy to write Grading is time-consuming
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Essay Inexpensive to create Expensive to grade

Short answers
Observation:
Observe behavior in class Immediate application Subjective, open to interpretation
Skills demonstrated in skills Lends itself to on-the-spot Unable to spend adequate time
practices and learning activity coaching and feedback observing behavior of all participants
Interviews:
Individual interviews conducted Can gather more detailed Time-consuming; expensive
shortly after the training information Must be tightly structured to obtain
Random sampling of participants Instant feedback quantifiable responses

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greater the number of items, the better the test’s reliability. Following are some for-
mats to consider:

• Correct Answer. The correct-answer format asks a simple question to which

there is only one correct answer. It is used primarily to test the recall of facts.
This type of question is appropriate to test product knowledge, for example.
• Best Answer. With this type of question, there is more than one correct choice.
Some or all of the choices may be correct to some degree. Because the best-
answer question requires a higher level of thinking, the respondent must
evaluate the choices and draw conclusions. This type of question can create
many problems. Because the answer is open to interpretation, the test item
can be challenged quite easily, and you might find yourself either arguing
with the individual or group and most probably having to give credit for
other answers.
• Combined Response. This question is the most complicated and time-
consuming for both the test writer and the test taker. The choices, one
or more that may be correct, are numbered. A second set of choices
lists combinations of possible correct responses. This type of question
assesses complex cognitive skills and the ability to analyze and evaluate.
Exercise a great deal of thought when writing the item. Because of its com-
plexity, the respondent will probably have to spend more time thinking
about the item.
Test-Writing Guidelines. In most cases, you will probably choose to develop multi-
ple-choice questions. They are easy to grade, but not necessarily easy to write. To help
you construct a multiple-choice test that will provide valuable information about the
participants’ content mastery, consider the following guidelines:
• Avoid “all of the above” and “none of the above” options.
• Make sure the stem (the main part of the question) contains most of
the information and defines the problem; place blanks for fill-ins near
the end.
• Maintain grammatical consistency or parallel structure for both the stem
and the answer choices.
• Try to create choices of equal length.
• Avoid ambiguity and reading difficulty by stating questions in the
positive rather than in the negative.
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Evaluating Training 263

• Keep the sentence stem simple and limit it to one idea.

• Use conversational language when phrasing the item and its choices.
• Arrange the questions in logical order.
• Do not give clues to the correct answer in the question.

To gauge retention of the information learned in the program, administer an-

other test several months following the training.

Observation. Trainers can watch participants practicing and applying skills, tools,
and techniques during the session. As the trainers observe participant behavior in
skill practices, role plays, simulations, case studies, and other activities, they can get
a good idea of what the trainees have really learned.

Interviews. Shortly after the training, interview the participants and ask them
what they learned in the session. Conduct the interviews within the week follow-
ing the session.

Level 3: Behavior
The critical question answered by Level 3 is, “How has the training affected the
way participants perform on the job?”
Although both managers and training professionals agree that the success of a
training program is determined by what the participants do with the information
or skills back on the job, these results are often ignored. Level 3 evaluation is both
time-consuming and costly. It also requires good organizational and follow-up
skills and processes.

Purpose of Level 3 Evaluation. Use follow-up evaluation to do the following:

• Measure lasting results of the training
• Identify areas in which trainees show greatest and least improvement
• Compare follow-up and end-of-program responses

Follow-Up Guidelines. Use these guidelines for follow-up evaluation:

• Prepare participants. At the end of the training session, tell participants that
you will be conducting a follow-up evaluation and what type of evaluation
it will be.
• If the training wasn’t effective, find out why. Encourage participants to
identify reasons why they haven’t improved and what factors obstruct their
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progress. Sometimes there are factors that inhibit or prevent the application
of the new knowledge and skills on the job. These barriers might include
poor environmental conditions, lack of proper equipment, the supervisor,
existing policies and procedures, or even the organizational climate.
• Share follow-up evaluations with participants’ managers or supervisors.
These individuals should know about program results and follow-up
information and should be involved with the participants’ practice and
application of training.

Observations. The trainer or another designated observer can actually observe

employees back on the job. Carefully watch employees as they perform their rou-
tine job tasks and responsibilities. To facilitate the process and ensure consistency
in the data gathering, create a checklist of desired behaviors and then observe
whether or not the employee is demonstrating these behaviors.
For example, if you are observing someone who has recently attended a cus-
tomer service program, your list of customer service behaviors might look like this:
Smiles.
Greets customer with “Good morning” or “Good afternoon.”
Uses the customer’s name.
Asks “How may I help you?”
Offers additional assistance.
Gives the customer choices.
States what we can do, rather than what we can’t.

Interviews. Not only should you interview those who went through the training,
but you should interview those who are affected by or closely associated with the
program participants. Possible interviewees include the participants’ managers, co-
workers, customers, or subordinates. The interview questions would have to be
carefully constructed and designed to focus on specific applications and behavior
changes.

Surveys. Surveys are more efficient and less expensive than interviews to find out
whether the participants are actually applying what they learned. Once again, do
not limit your sources of information. Others who interact with those who partici-
pated in the training are often a more reliable source of feedback. You will want to
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Evaluating Training 265

know not only if trainees are using the training on the job but also how they are
using it to perform better.
A control group is also helpful for a Level 3 evaluation. To validate your results,
choose a control group of employees from the same function as the participants who
received the training. Ask the members of the control group to complete the same
surveys, questionnaires, and tests as those completed by the participants. Monitor
their job performance and compare it with that of employees who received training.
Regardless of which evaluation method(s) you use, make sure you allow
enough time for the behavior change to take place. The length of time depends on
the program, but three to six months should give the participants ample opportu-
nity to apply what they learned and develop new behaviors.

Level 4: Results
Level 4 evaluation determines the impact of the training on the organization.
Ideally, it shows how the training has contributed to accomplishing organizational
goals and objectives—business results. If an organization chooses to conduct a
Level 4 evaluation, the area of measurement must be the same as those identified
in the needs assessment.
To measure training’s impact on the bottom line, return to the data gathered dur-
ing the needs assessment. Determine your critical success factors up-front. Results
measured could include any of the following or any measurable item:
• Production output
• Sales
• Operating costs
• Customer satisfaction
• Quality standards
• Safety record
• Turnover rate
• Absenteeism
• Employee grievances
• Employee satisfaction
• Budget variances
• Promotions
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Level 4 evaluation is both difficult and time-consuming. It can also be quite

costly. It is difficult to measure because of the many variables that can come into
play once the participants leave the session. For these reasons, a Level 4 evaluation
is not appropriate for all training. From a practical standpoint, consider Level 4 for
those programs that are near and dear to senior management and have been iden-
tified as a top priority.
Because of the complexity of Level 4 evaluation and its infrequency of use, it is
addressed here only in very basic terms—just enough to give you an idea of what
it involves and the purpose it serves. To explore Level 4 in more detail, refer to the
listings in Appendix B, including Jack Phillips, Jane Holcomb, Donald Kirkpatrick,
and Dana Gaines Robinson and James Robinson.
As a starting point, test your current knowledge of measurement terms by
matching the terms in the left-hand column below with the correct definitions in
the right-hand column (see Appendix A for the correct answers):

Term Definition
1. ROI a. Survey data of employee attitudes
2. Direct Costs b. Salaries and benefits paid to partici-
pants for the time they are attending
the program
3. Indirect Costs c. Expenses for creating the training
program
4. Overhead d. Involves quantity, quality, cost, time;
easily converted to monetary value
5. Development Costs e. Costs of shared resources such as
heating and building maintenance
6. Hard Data f. Expenses of operating the training
department that are not directly
related to any training program
7. Soft Data g. Mathematical formula for calculat-
ing the difference between cost and
value
8. Compensation h. Costs related to the delivery of the
for Participants for training program, such as materi-
als and trainer’s salary
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Evaluating Training 267

Participant Evaluation and Accountability

for e-Learning
Unlike traditional evaluations, e-learning evaluations are somewhat difficult be-
cause of delivery options and individual learning solutions that often prevent con-
sistency and uniformity in the evaluation process. For example, not all learners will
complete self-study courses from start to finish. Some will choose only the modules
they think they need. Others may have to go back and repeat a module to gain a
greater understanding of its content.
For the most part, however, you can apply the same principles and strategies of
traditional evaluation methods and levels discussed earlier in this chapter to the
e-learning process. The basic difference, of course, is that the various evaluation
methods will be done electronically. The following are types of evaluations that can
be adapted to an e-learning environment.
Level 1 evaluation measures participants’ reactions. Methods that can be used in-
clude questionnaires completed on-screen within the course or as e-mail feedback.
Participant reactions can also be captured via online focus groups or in chat rooms.
Level 2, which measures what participants actually learned, uses various tests.
Almost all types of tests can be adapted to an electronic format: true-false, multiple-
choice, essay, fill-in-blanks, matching. Visit William Horton’s website (www.horton.
com) for great examples of various testing formats. In addition to testing, you can
monitor learners by observing their behavior in learning activities such as simula-
tions and learning games as well as role plays conducted in chat rooms.
To evaluate how well participants apply what they learned (Level 3), you would
turn to traditional methods such as observations of the employee’s on-the-job per-
formance, surveys completed by the participant and others who interact with him
or her, and job performance records. It might also be appropriate to set up control
groups: some employees would experience traditional classroom-based training
while others would engage in e-learning activities. Employees’ individual action
plans could also be monitored.
Level 4 evaluation for distance learning is much the same as it is for traditional
learning and would involve determining return on investment (ROI) as well as de-
termining benefits such as a decrease in the number of accidents, safety violations,
tardiness, absenteeism, turnover, customer complaints, or grievances. Business met-
rics such as profitability (sales, revenues, profit) and financial health (stock price,
market share) might also be targeted for Level 4 evaluation.
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268 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

As with any evaluation process, it is important to collaborate with the organi-

zation’s leaders to determine the success criteria. What specifically do the key peo-
ple want to measure and how will they use the information? In addition to the basic
questions addressed in the section on the four levels of evaluation, you may also be
interested in evaluating the e-learning process by establishing ways to measure the
following:
• How often users log in
• How long they stay
• How long before they receive a response to a question
• How efficient the online system is

Accountability for Training

Throughout the business world, accountability for all functions is increasing. Staff
functions such as training are expected to prove their contribution and value to the
organization. Top executives are demanding that training departments offer proof
of their worth or take budget cuts. Two approaches to measuring the value of train-
ing are covered below: (1) cost/benefit analysis and (2) return on investment.

Cost/Benefit Analysis
The cost/benefit analysis looks at the total cost to produce a training program and
attempts to quantify the benefits. Cost includes everything from the needs assess-
ment, through design, development, delivery, and finally to follow-up. Both direct
and indirect costs are used to determine the total cost of the program. As Table 13.3
shows, determining training costs is complex.
Total benefits of the program may be reduced costs or increased revenues directly
attributable to the training. In many cases, however, benefits can only be estimated.
Subtract the total costs from the total benefits to find the net benefit of the train-
ing program. The program is considered a financial success if the costs are lower
than the benefits.

Return on Investment
The return on investment simply shows what the payback is for the training
program. To determine return on investment, you must wait three to six months
and even longer for operational results. The formula for determining return on
Table 13.3. Determining Training Costs
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Direct Costs
People Facilities Materials
4/3/06

Design and Development Salaries, benefits, travel for: Marketing brochures

course development, clerical Participant materials
7:10 PM

support or consultant fee Instructor manual

and expense or costs of Purchased resource materials
certifying in-house trainer Purchased program
Page 269

for purchased programs

Delivery Salaries, benefits, travel for: Room rental Notebooks
trainer(s), participants Equipment rental Folders
(average salary), clerical Refreshments Tent cards
support, consultant fees Paper
and expenses Pencils/pens
Flip charts
Handouts
Film rental/purchase
Transparencies/slides
Stationery items
Certificates
Books
Articles reprints
The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Table 13.3. Determining Training Costs, Cont’d.
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Direct Costs
People Facilities Materials
4/3/06

Evaluation Salaries, benefits, travel for: Surveys

training personnel, Questionnaires
participants, clerical support,
7:10 PM

bosses, subordinates, peers

Indirect Costs
Training space Computer time
Page 270

Custodial services Equipment depreciation

Utilities Equipment
Postage Maintenance/repair
Telephone Support services
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Evaluating Training 271

investment: ROI = (net program benefits/program costs) × 100. Stated simply, if

training programs fail to show a reasonable return on the company’s investment,
future (or even current) training initiatives are at risk. For more information on de-
termining ROI, refer to Jack Phillips’ books listed in Appendix B.

Significance of the Evaluation Process

Evaluation is a complex issue. For one reason, many variables enter into the equa-
tion. No matter how hard you try to fine-tune the evaluation process, the reality is
that effects can only be estimated, and economic benefits cannot be calculated pre-
cisely. As the role of training continues to change and trainers reposition them-
selves as performance consultants, there will be more pressure to measure the
effectiveness of training. The good news, however, is that the field of training and
development continues to grow at a rapid pace. This trend will continue to provide
many opportunities for training professionals, both internal and external, to make
an impact on the growth and development of individuals and organizations
throughout the world.
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KEY POINTS
• Evaluation must be tied to the needs assessment process.
• Evaluation should reflect specific business-related or performance-related outcomes.
• Evaluation is an ongoing process.
• Level 1 evaluation measures participant reaction.
• Level 2 evaluation uses tests, observations, and interviews to measure participant
learning.
• Level 3 evaluation measures behavior, that is, how the participants apply what they
learned back on the job.
• Level 4 evaluation measures results and training’s impact on the bottom line.
• A cost/benefit analysis looks at the benefits of a training program compared to the cost
to produce a training program.
• Return on investment addresses the degree to which the cost of a program yields a
reasonable return on investment.

✦ ✦ ✦
The training process is a never-ending cycle: analysis, design, development, imple-
mentation, and evaluation. As mentioned several times throughout this book, the
role of the training professional continues to evolve. Often the trainer fills many
roles, including that of a consultant. Whether internal or external, the training con-
sultant must always be mindful of the process and the business of consulting.
Chapter 14 addresses the role of the consultant and the key elements of a success-
ful client-consultant relationship.
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Chapter 14
The Business of
Consulting
Internal and External

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn
• To define the role of the training consultant
• To identify the key elements of a successful client-consultant relationship
• To adapt consulting behaviors and strategies to your own client-consultant
relationships

The Changing Role of the Trainer

Today’s training professionals are expected to do much more than provide good
training programs. They are moving from trainer to consultant, from product-
centered to client-centered. Their roles are much more focused on meeting business
needs and solving business problems. They are seen as change agents and learning
leaders.
The growing number of client-consultant relationships means that we need to
place a greater emphasis on developing these relationships through various skills
and strategies.
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274 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

Although there are many types and aspects of consulting within the field of
human resource development, this chapter will focus on the role and function of the
training consultant, both internal and external, as well as the client-consultant
relationship.

Understanding the Client-Consultant Relationship

The key word here is relationship. Today’s client-consultant relationship, whether
internal or external, tends to be one of partnering.

Defining Terms
Whether internal or external, the definitions are the same, as are the functions. A
consultant is the person who uses his or her professional expertise to influence, ad-
vise, and assist others in solving business-related problems. The client is the person
who “owns” the business-related problem and who has the authority to implement
the solution. While it is true that the participants in your session are also your
clients, they are not the decision makers. Their reaction to you and your training,
however, can have a profound influence and impact on the success or failure of the
project and on the decision maker’s reaction to your work.

Establishing the Relationship

The first step is to identify your client as defined above. Then determine what the
client wants/expects from you. This is where your questioning skills come into play.
It is important that you tell your clients what you can do and what you cannot do,
based on the desired performance outcomes they have clearly articulated. For exam-
ple, if a client tells you his or her desired outcome is to provide customer service
training to front-line employees and the client wants you to do this in two hours, you
need to explain what you can and cannot do given those time constraints.

EXAMPLE
When I was an internal training consultant for a bank, we had developed a three-week
teller training program. Our competency-based program was heavily focused on skill
development.As a result, at the end of the three weeks, we could guarantee that each
graduate of the program could begin immediately working on a teller window with lit-
tle or no need for the supervisor to provide additional training. The supervisor, of
course, would be expected to conduct ongoing coaching and feedback sessions. One
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The Business of Consulting 275

day, a branch manager called me to request that the new teller she hired be sent to
her branch after only one week of training. The manager said she was short-staffed
and needed someone immediately. I tried to explain to her that it would be better to
wait until the new teller had gone through the entire program, but the manager in-
sisted. I then explained (and put in a memo to the manager) what we could do
with the teller in only one week of training. I further explained what they could ex-
pect of the teller’s performance after one week of training and what someone at the
branch would need to do to complete the new employee’s training. The manager
agreed. As it turned out, two weeks after the new teller started at the branch, the
manager called, admitted she was wrong not to allow the teller to complete the teller-
training course, and requested that the teller return to the program to complete her
formal training.

Use a Collaborative Approach

The most successful client-consultant relationships are collaborative and interdepen-
dent. The client and consultant need to view each other as partners, working together
for the main purpose of improving performance and meeting a business need. What
is the reason for a collaborative approach? This approach establishes mutual respon-
sibility and joint accountability that increases the probability of a more accurate di-
agnosis of the problem, an assurance that training will be linked to a business need,
and a greater likelihood that management will reinforce the training.
As the owner of the problem, the client drives the project; the consultant as-
sumes several roles, including a coach, a change agent, and a learning leader.
At the outset, both parties must participate in establishing the goals for the
training project. These goals, however, cannot be established until a needs assess-
ment has been conducted at various levels. In addition to business needs, the con-
sultant should address performance needs, training needs, and environment needs.
Performance needs are on-the-job behaviors performed at defined levels of excel-
lence. Training needs focus on what people must know and be able to do in order
to succeed at business and performance goals. Environment needs deal with sys-
tems and processes within the environment that must be modified for the perfor-
mance to be achieved. Although the training consultant cannot deal directly with
these issues, he or she can make recommendations.
The needs assessment is critical to the success of the project. In some cases, train-
ing is not the answer. There may be processes, policies, systems, or even the orga-
nization’s culture that need to be “fixed,” not the people identified for training.
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When designing a program, be sure the learning objectives are stated in terms of
skills that ultimately will link to the organization’s bottom line. Training needs to be
positioned not as an activity or an event but rather as a vehicle for accomplishing
business results. Successful training consultants will expand their thinking from tra-
ditional classroom to “any time, any place, and any way” learning. As discussed in
Chapter 10, the consultant may need to embrace other ways of delivering training.
Once the needs assessment has been completed and agreed-on goals have been
established, both the client and consultant need to be clear about their level of com-
mitment in allocating the necessary time, money, and people to the project. In
today’s environment, collaboration may also involve others beyond the actual client
such as outside contractors, internal subject-matter experts, and line managers.

Helping Others Understand What You Can and Cannot Do

Sometimes the greatest challenge in establishing a client-consultant relationship is
the way in which the training function is viewed by the decision makers in the or-
ganization. Sometimes key people see training as only a support and, therefore, a
reactive function. If that is the case, then it is the consultant’s job to “enlighten”
them. This is particularly true for those who are internal consultants. One way to
begin to change the way in which internal consultants function and to help others
see the value that an internal consultant brings to the organization is to write a po-
sition paper that puts forth the role of training and how training can play a critical
role in meeting business needs. Below is a sample outline for a position paper on
the role of training and development. All you need to do is to fill in the details.

Sample Outline for Position Paper

The Role of Training and Development in XYZ Company
I. Background
A. Traditional role of training
B. Changing role of training
C. Factors/trends influencing changing role
1. Competition
2. Customer sophistication and expectations
3. Downsizing
4. Diversity and globalization
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The Business of Consulting 277

5. Employee skill level and competence

6. Increased use of technology
D. Definitions
1. Training—specific usable skills; current application
2. Staff development—acquiring of knowledge, skills, attitudes; future
oriented
II. Training
A. Function
1. Internal consultants
2. Help solve business problems
B. Objectives
1. Advise line managers
2. Develop programs based on needs assessments
3. Provide effective and cost-effective training
4. Meet business needs
C. Process
1. Assess needs
2. Determine appropriate programs
3. Design, develop, implement programs
4. Monitor and evaluate selected approach
5. Reinforce training
III. Staff Development
A. Administer Career Development Program
B. Serve as resource center
C. Help managers provide career counseling
IV. Conclusion

Communication
Ongoing and open communication is essential to a successful client-consultant re-
lationship. Both parties need to be proficient in several communication skills such
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278 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

as questioning, listening, giving and receiving feedback, and negotiating. To ensure

that communication is on target with both the client’s and the consultant’s expec-
tations, be sure to clearly address the following questions:
• What do we communicate?
• How do we communicate?
• How much do we communicate?
• How often do we communicate?

To avoid any misunderstanding, put communication in writing. This includes

schedules, meeting agendas, meeting summaries, and feedback reports or
summaries.

Responsiveness
In a client-consultant relationship, responsiveness relates to the degree and will-
ingness to react to change, answer questions, and provide information. Flexibility
is a key characteristic or behavior for both the client and the consultant in re-
sponding to each other’s needs and building a successful relationship.
Indicators of poor responsiveness include the following:

On the Part of the Consultant

• Not returning phone calls or responding to e-mail or faxes
• Not understanding the client’s needs, goals, and objectives
• Not providing information as requested
• Not being accessible or available for meetings

On the Part of the Client

• Changing dates or requirements at the last minute
• Canceling meetings
• Not providing requested information
• Delaying payment (in the case of external consultants)

The proposal phase is the first major opportunity for both to demonstrate their
responsiveness. Does the consultant respond to the client’s request for a pro-
posal within the requested timeframe? Does the client respond to the consultant’s
proposal in a timely manner, letting the consultant know the status of the proposal
submission?
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The Business of Consulting 279

A good proposal should include the following elements:

Background/Purpose. This section reflects the consultant’s understanding of the

client’s reason for requesting a proposal and may include references to organiza-
tional issues, trends in the industry, and specifically stated development needs.

Organizational Benefits. Stated somewhat broadly, this section addresses the ben-
efits to the organization. In other words, what improvements will the organization
experience as a result of the consultant’s proposed intervention, training, and so
on? Examples of benefits include improvements in communication, internal coop-
eration, employee performance; increased sales; decreased turnover, errors, acci-
dents; and so forth.

Approach/Design. In this section, the consultant outlines how he or she will ap-
proach the project. A more detailed and involved training or consulting project
might present project phases such as needs assessment, program design and devel-
opment, delivery, evaluation, and follow-up. A fairly simple and straightforward
training program might only require the consultant to present a program descrip-
tion that would include an outline of the training session, learning objectives, length
of session, number of participants, format, and materials.

Deliverables. The client needs to know what he or she will be getting for the
money invested. These deliverables could include materials, reports, training de-
livery, and so on. Often the client will want the consultant to offer several options.
For example, the consultant might propose that a training program to be delivered
multiple times could be delivered by the consultant (or consultant’s associates), or
the consultant could conduct a train-the-trainer licensing session to enable the
client’s internal staff to deliver the training. These various options, of course, need
to be clearly reflected in the fee structure.

Client Investment. A section should be devoted to consultant fees and other costs,
including meetings, development or preparation, delivery, materials, travel ex-
penses, and so forth. The consultant should also address his or her policy regard-
ing payment. Does the consultant expect a portion of the fee at the beginning of the
project or will the client be billed for everything at the end? Are participant mate-
rials included in the fee or is there a per participant fee?
Although the proposal outline above applies to external consulting, it can be
adapted for use by an internal consultant.
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280 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

Expectations
Both the client and the consultant should be clear about the expectations each has
of the other. Both parties should participate in the contracting stage to set the stage
for how they are going to work together. Once they have come to an agreement as
to what each party will and will not do, then this understanding should be put in
writing in the form of a contract or a letter of agreement. In most cases, the infor-
mation included in the contract is taken from the proposal.
The following elements should be included in the contract or letter of agreement:
• Description of services
• Deliverables
• Nature and scope of project
• Timetable
• Methods
• What each party will provide
• How client and consultant will work together
• Reporting procedures
• Fees
• Payment terms
• Confidentiality agreement

Selecting an External Consultant

As more organizations downsize their human resources and/or training departments,
they look to outside service providers. This “belt tightening” also results in more ser-
vice providers competing for business in the marketplace. With so many resources
available, how does the client choose the right consultant for the right project? The fol-
lowing section offers some guidelines for selecting an external consultant.

Trust
Trust is a nebulous term and difficult to define. It is, however, the core of a suc-
cessful and effective client-consultant relationship. It is actually the result of the
other elements already mentioned and is more closely related to professional ethics.
Trust doesn’t happen overnight. It takes time to build a relationship that
relies on the honesty, integrity, and ability of another person. Think about your
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The Business of Consulting 281

client-consultant relationships. How strong is the trust factor? Use the follow-
ing checklist to evaluate the level of trust that exists in your own client-consultant
relationship, with 1 being low and 4 being high.

What’s Your Trust Quotient?

To what degree do you trust the other person to. . .
Maintain confidentiality 1 2 3 4
Respect your opinions 1 2 3 4
Give open and honest feedback 1 2 3 4
Receive feedback without becoming defensive 1 2 3 4
Deliver what he/she promises 1 2 3 4
Meet deadlines 1 2 3 4
Communicate expectations 1 2 3 4
View/treat you as a partner in the process 1 2 3 4
Share credit for success 1 2 3 4

An interdependent partnership approach to the client-consultant relationship

will produce better results and will often yield benefits that far exceed expectations.

Sources
In many cases, the person assigned to select an external consultant may not know
where to begin the search. The following sources can help save time and money in
identifying potential outside resources:
• Internal sources (managers, other human resources professionals)
• Colleagues in other organizations
• Professional organizations
• Consultants organization has used before
• Industry publications

Selection Criteria
Once you have identified and narrowed the list of potential training consultants,
the next challenge is to choose the one with the best “fit” for your particular orga-
nization and project. Use the following checklist to help make the right choice:
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282 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

• Experience in your industry

• Knowledge and experience with the topic
• Length of time in business
• Knowledge of your industry
• Knowledge of your organization
• Knowledge and experience in the field of HRD
• Track record of results
• Quality of materials
• Image/professionalism
• Involvement in professional organizations
• Representative clients
• Publications
• Geographic locations
• Available resources
• Approach/philosophy
• Fees
• Ability to identify need
• Degree of flexibility
• Level of commitment

Begin to evaluate consultant candidates by carefully reviewing each consul-

tant’s written material, keeping in mind, however, that these materials have been
designed and written as selling tools.
When you interview potential service providers, use behavioral interviewing
skills and open-ended questions to identify whether or not the consultant meets a
particular criterion. For example, if you want to know about the consultant’s track
record, you might ask: “Tell me about your most successful client experience.”
Other probing questions might include:
• “What do you think is the most important aspect of a client-consultant
relationship?”
• “What do you know about our organization?”
• “What sets you apart from other consultants?”
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The Business of Consulting 283

• “How long have you been in business?”

• “What has been the most challenging consulting project you have ever had?”
• “How large is your organization?”

Follow-Up Reports
At the end of a project, the consultant should prepare and submit a follow-up
report to the client. Although the content of the report will vary depending
on the type and scope of the project, every report should have certain common
elements.

Executive Summary
• An abbreviated, concise, accurate representation of a report, document, or
publication
• Spells out the purpose of the report and the approach it will take
• Also called an abstract, overview, or a précis

Purpose
• Brief explanation of why the project or program was implemented in the
first place
• Statement of the problem

Process
• Methods or approach used to solve problem
• Scope, including length of time, and number of people involved

Measurable Results/Outcomes
• Present specific outcomes tied directly to the business need
• Reflect any or all of the four levels of evaluation: reaction, learning, behavior,
results

Conclusions and Recommendations

• Outlines next steps
• Suggests further training, interventions, methods or measurement, organi-
zational changes, modifications to existing systems, new policies and
procedures
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284 The Trainer’s Handbook, Second Edition

KEY POINTS
• The consultant is the person (internal or external) who uses his or her professional
expertise to help solve business-related problems.
• The client is the person who “owns” the business-related problem and who has the
authority to implement the solution.
• Partnership and collaboration are the keys to a successful client-consultant relationship.
• Both the client and the consultant should establish clear expectations for each other.
• Trust is a critical component of the client-consultant relationship.

✦ ✦ ✦
As you have learned (or perhaps already knew), there is more to training than
standing in front of a group and spewing forth information accompanied by a
glitzy slide presentation. Training is not an event—it is a process, one that involves
thoughtful preparation and purposeful delivery.
Training that makes a difference reflects the following principles and approaches:
• Session content provides participants with what they “need to know” to do
their jobs and to succeed.
• There is a balance among affective, behavioral, and cognitive learning.
• The program incorporates a variety of active learning techniques.
• Participants have many opportunities to practice skills and behaviors.
• The program focuses on real-life problem solving and back-on-the-job
application.

When training is active, participants do most of the work. They use their brains—
studying ideas, solving problems, and applying what they learn. Participants learn
to think, not merely absorb. Active training is not only fun, fast-paced, and person-
ally engaging, but it really works!
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Appendix A
Answers to
Exercises

Chapter 3: Exhibit 3.2

1. IC 10. IC
2. IC 11. IC
3. LC 12. LC
4. IC 13. LC
5. IC 14. IC
6. IC 15. LC
7. IC 16. LC
8. LC 17. LC
9. IC 18. IC

Chapter 5: Exhibit 5.1

Suggested Wording for Each Objective
1. Explain the leader’s role in today’s business environment.
2. Distinguish between authority of rank and authority of respect.
3. Explain the three primary theories of motivation.
4. Identify the characteristics of an effective leader.

285
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286 Appendix A

5. Explain the role of the manager in a team environment.

6. List the advantages and disadvantages involved in group decision making.
7. Identify ten ways to motivate employees.

Chapter 8: Seating Arrangements

1. Classroom
2. Cluster
3. Horseshoe
4. Single Square or Round
5. Semi-Circle or Full Circle
6. Conference
7. Chevron

Chapter 8: Active Knowledge Sharing

1. 125–150 words per minute
2. 400–500 words per minute
3. 80 percent; 45 percent
4. 83 percent sight
5. 11 percent sound
6. 6 percent all other sense combined

Chapter 8: Pre Test

1. F 4. F
2. F 5. T
3. T

Chapter 12: Measurement Terms

1. g 5. c
2. h 6. d
3. f 7. a
4. e 8. b
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Appendix B
Recommended
Resources

Books
Allen, M. (2003). Michael Allen’s guide to e-learning. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley
& Sons.
Aldrich, C. (2003). Simulations and the future of learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Bersin, J. (2004). The blended learning book. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Carliner, S. (1999). An overview of on-line learning. Amherst, MA: HRD Press.
Conrad, K., & Training Links. (2000). Instructional design for web-based training.
Amherst, MA: HRD Press.
Cohen, G., Eyseneck, M.W., & Le Voi, M.E. (Eds.) (1986). Memory: A cognitive
approach. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.
Driscoll, M., & Carliner, S. (2002). Advanced web-based training strategies. San
Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Gupta, K. (1998). A practical guide to needs assessment. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Hale, J. (2002). Performance-based evaluation. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Horton, W. (2000). Designing web-based training: How to teach anyone anything any-
where any time. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Horton, W., & Horton, K. (2003). e-Learning tools and technologies: A consumer’s
guide for trainers, teachers, educators, and instructional designers. Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons.
287
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288 Appendix B

Ingham, J., & Dunn, R. (1993). The Dunn and Dunn model of learning styles:
Addressing learner diversity. In J.W. Pfeiffer (Ed.), The 1993 annual: Developing
human resources. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Jacobs, R.T., & Fuhrman, B.S. (1984). Learning-style inventory. In J.W. Pfeiffer &
L.D. Goodstein (Eds.), The 1984 annual for group facilitators. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Kruse, K., & Keil, J. (2000). Technology-based training. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Lee, W.W., & Owens, D.L. (2004). Multimedia-based instructional design (2nd ed.).
San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Mantyla, K. (1999). Interactive distance learning exercises that really work! Alexandria,
VA: American Society for Training & Development.
Murrell, K.L. (1987). The learning-model instrument. In J.W. Pfeiffer (Ed.), The
1987 annual: Developing human resources. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Newstrom, J.W., & Scannell, E.E. (1980). Games trainers play. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Pfeiffer, J.W. (Ed.). (1972–1996). Annuals: Developing human resources. San
Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
Phillips, J.J. (2002). How to measure training results: A practical guide to tracking the
six key indicators. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Phillips, J.J., Phillips, P.P., & Hodges, T.K. (2004). Make training evaluation work.
Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training & Development.
Phillips, P.P. (2002). The bottom line on ROI. Atlanta, GA: CEP Press.
Scannell, E.E., & Newstrom, J.W. (1991). Still more games trainers play. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Shank, P. (2004). Making sense of online learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Shank, R. (2005). Lessons in learning, e-learning, and training. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Scott, B. (2000). Consulting on the inside. Alexandria, VA: American Society for
Training & Development.
Sugar, S. (1998). Games that teach: Experiential activities for reinforcing training. San
Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Sugar, S., & Willett, C. (2004). Games that boost performance. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
20_977497 appb.qxp 4/3/06 7:10 PM Page 289

Appendix B 289

Wacker, M.B., & Silverman, L. (2003). Stories trainers tell. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Watkins, R. (2005). 75 e-learning activities. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Zahn, D. (2004). The quintessential guide to using consultants. Amherst, MA:
HRD Press.
Zemke, R., Raines, C., & Filipczak, B. (1999). Generations at work: Managing the
clash of veterans, boomers, xers, and nexters in your workplace. New York: AMACOM.

Sources for Assessment Instruments and Simulations

HRDQ
2002 Renaissance Boulevard #100
King of Prussia, PA 19406–2756
(800) 633–4533
www.HRDQ.com

Human Synergistics
39819 Plymouth Road
Plymouth, MI 48170
(313) 459–1030
www.humansyn.com

Pfeiffer
(800) 274–4434
www.pfeiffer.com

TACTools
(800) 845–2126
www.tactoolsonline.com

Talico
P.O. Box 3658
Ponte Vedra, FL 32004–3658
(904) 285–7757
www.talico.com
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290 Appendix B

Props,Toys, and Training Tools

Creative Learning Tools
P.O. Box 37
Wausau, WI 54402
(715) 842–2467
www.creativelearningtools.com

The Trainer’s Warehouse

89–I Washington Avenue
Natick, MA 01760
(800) 299–3770
www.trainerswarehouse.com

Video Distributor
Trainer’s Aide, Inc.
163–60 22nd Avenue
Whitestone, NY 11357
(800) 344–6088
www.MonadTrainersAide.com

Video Producers
American Management Association
1601 Broadway
New York, NY 10019
(800) 262–9699
www.amanet.org

American Media Incorporated

4621 121st Street
Urbandale, PA 50323
(888) 776–8268
www.ammedia.com
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Appendix B 291

CRM Learning
2215 Faraday Avenue
Carlsbad, CA 92008
(800) 421–0833
www.crmlearning.com

The Ken Blanchard Companies

125 State Place
Escondido, CA 92029
(800) 728–6000
www.blanchardtraining.com

Mentor Media
115 West California Boulevard, PMB102
Pasadena, CA 91105
(800) 359–1935
www.mentormediaonline.com

VisionPoint Productions, Inc.

1985 NW 94th Street
Des Moines, IA 50325–6919
(800) 300–8880
www.vppi.com
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Appendix C
Criteria for
Selecting Packaged
Programs
Use the following checklist to evaluate packaged programs you are considering.
Choose those criteria that are important to you and your organization. Then apply
each criterion to the program you are evaluating in order to make the best decision
for your particular situation. This is also a valuable tool to use in justifying the cost
of purchasing the program.
• Program is based on solid research.
• Absolute, bottom-line price is reasonably low.
• Cost/value ratio is low.
• Payment flexibility, discounts, etc., are available.
• Vendor company has good reputation in the field.
• You own course materials, versus renting/leasing them.
• Vendor has client referrals available to be contacted.
• You have good relationship with vendor’s rep.

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
293
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294 Appendix C

• Vendor’s representative is knowledgeable.

• Program can be customized.
• Industry-specific version is available.
• Program is time-tested, has been around a while.
• Program is new or updated.
• You previously worked with vendor.
• Quality of the vendor’s formal proposal is high.
• Convenient access to vendor is possible.
• Quality of course materials is high.
• Leader’s guide is easy to follow.
• Course materials are immediately available.
• Specific participant is targeted, that is, new or experienced.
• Program has unique concept—”it’s different.”
• Materials are easy to use—few problems starting up.
• Program’s objectives match yours.
• Vendor provides start-up support.
• There is flexibility with participant group size.
• Line manager could present program.
• Program is entertaining/engaging.
• Program is content-rich.
• Overall quality of program is high.
• Vendor offers other programs/services.
• Vendor offers technical support.
• You can contract access to copyright—you could reprint.
• Program is likely to receive high critiques.
• Variety of media are used.
• Reinforcement modules are available.

The Trainer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed. Copyright © 2006 by Karen Lawson. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer,
and imprint of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
22_977497 references.qxp 4/3/06 7:11 PM Page 295

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Index
A setting for, 124; strategies and tech-
Accepting feelings, 217 niques for, 124–126
Accountability issues: cost/benefit Activities. See Training activities
analysis, 268; ROI (return on invest- Adult learners: andragogical versus
ment), 268, 271 pedagogical model of, 27–28; assump-
Action distance learning projects, tions about, 28–29; changing training
209–210 environment and, 75; key points
Action learning, 145 about, 41; learning styles of, 30–37,
Action plans: needs assessment, 22–23; 203; preventing cognitive overload in,
sample, 251e. See also Instructional 39
plans Adult learning: action, 145; additional
Active design philosophy, 97–98 factors which may affect, 37–38; cog-
Active knowledge sharing, 136–137 nitive overload and, 39; cooperative,
Active training: creating environment 122–123; distance learning delivery
for, 124–126; described, 121–122; for, 199–213; Experiential Learning
designing activities for, 126–128 Cycle, 135, 170–172, 171fig, 174;
Active-learning activities: active knowl- learner-centered versus information-
edge sharing, 136–137; creating, 176, centered training for, 69t–70, 71t–72t,
177e; designing, 126–128; group 201; principles of, 29–30, 39–41; reten-
inquiry, 134–135; “How to Develop a tion rate in visual, 185–186
Winning Team,” 137–138; information Adult learning principles: application
search, 135–136, 211; instruments of, 39–40; listed, 29–30
(paper-and-pencil devices), 130, Aesop’s Fables, 181
132–133; introducing, conducting, Age differences: connecting with
processing, 172–176; jigsaw design, younger participants, 78–80; exam-
138–139; learning tournament, 139; ples of generational differences, 81t;
pairing for, 170; peer lessons, 137–138; meeting training needs of older par-
using small groups, 178; videos, ticipants, 77–78; sample attitudes of
128–130, 131e, 178–179, 190t. See also younger workers, 79; in workplace
Training activities continuum, 77. See also “Generation
Active-learning environment: physical gap”
299
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300 Index

Age factors, 38 Case studies, 114t, 116t, 142–143

Allen, M., 212 CD-ROM (computer-based) training,
American Council on Education, 199 204–205
American Society of Training and Chalkboards, 189t
Development, 98 Chat rooms, 206
ARCS model, 161 Checklist for a Quality Participant
Armstrong, J., 98 Workbook, 118e
ASCAP (American Society of Com- Chevron seating arrangement, 158fig
posers, Authors, and Publishers), 243 Clapping method, 239–240
Assessment: instruments for, 176, 178; Class clown participants, 233
needs, 5–23, 254; on-the-spot, 25–26; Classroom style seating, 155fig
of participants’ knowledge, attitudes, Client-consultant proposal, 278–279
skills, 22–26; participants’ needs, Client-consultant relationship: chal-
5–22. See also Evaluating training lenges of establishing, 276; using col-
Assigning roles, 239 laborative approach to, 275–276;
Asynchronous discussion groups, 206 communication as part of, 277–278;
Asynchronous distance learning, defining terms associated with, 274;
204–205 establishing the, 274–275; expecta-
Attitude development-feel learning tions of, 280; proposal phase of,
objectives, 88 278–279; responsiveness aspects of,
Audio teletraining, 204 278; sample outline for position paper
Audioconferencing, 206 on, 276–277; trust as core of, 280–281
Audiographics, 204 Closed-ended questionnaires, 15t, 19
Auditory signals, 239–240 Clothing/personal appearance, 182–183
Clueless participants, 232
B Cluster seating arrangement, 157fig
Baby Boomers, 81t “The coach,” 59e, 60e
Belligerent participants, 232 Coaching role play, 141
Blended learning method, 212 Coaching Skills Inventory, 130
BMI (Broadcase Music Incorporated), Cognitive overload, 39
243 “Commercial breaks,” 80
Body language, 183 Commitment making, 250, 251e
Byham, W. C., 104 Communication: to avoid problem situ-
ations, 227–228; body language, 183;
C
client-consultant relationship and,
Candy games, 238
277–278; to encourage participation,
Case problem activities, 208
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Index 301

216–217; during interview process, 18. D

See also Discussions Dale, E., 186
Competitor information, 10 “Dale’s Cone of Experience” studies, 186
Conference seating arrangement, 157fig Data analysis (needs assessment), 19–20
Confidentiality/privacy issues, 17, 18 Data collection: advantages and disad-
Content outline, 107 vantages of methods, 14, 15t, 16–19;
Cooperative learning, 122–123 interviews used for, 14; method selec-
Cost considerations: cost/benefit analy- tion criteria, 14e; methods and tools
sis, 268; determining training costs, of, 13; needs assessment, 13–19
269t–270t; distance learning, 201; ROI Delegation Assignment, 154e
(return on investment), 268, 271; for Delivering training. See Training delivery
training program development, 99 Design matrix: approaches to organiz-
“The Crab and Its Mother” (fable), 181 ing training, 104–105; definition of,
Creative closings: follow-up activities 100, 102; determining context, 102;
and reflections, 250, 252; making com- mind mapping, 102–103; research
mitments, 250, 251e; self-assessment, topic, 102; sequencing, 103–104;
249–250; summarizing techniques, worksheet for designing, 101e
248–249 Designing Web-Based Training (Horton),
Creative theatrical techniques: give- 212
aways, 242; using imagination, 243; Dickson, G. W., 186
key points for, 252; posters, 242; props, Direct report information, 9
240–241; using themes, 242–243 Disabilities. See Participants with dis-
Creative Training Techniques (Min- abilities
neapolis), 239 Discussions: asynchronous, 206;
Creativity with small groups: assigning guided, 136, 211; small group, 114t,
roles, 239; grouping techniques, 116t, 126. See also Communication
237–239; key points for, 252; regaining Display posters, 242
control, 239–240 Distance learning: advantages/benefits
Crystal ball prop, 241 of, 200–202; blended learning
Cultural differences: accommodating, approach to, 212; delivering content
80, 82–83; as increasing issue, 80 and activities, 212; designing/devel-
Cultural differences accommodation: oping activities, 207–212; disadvan-
activities and, 83; materials and, 82; tages of, 202–203; guidelines for
sample of importance of using names, designing, 205–207; key points of,
82–83; trainer behavior, 82–83 213; types of, 203–205; workplace
Customer information, 10 trends for, 199–200
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302 Index

Diversity Awareness Inventory, 75e good and worse, 43–44; Experiential

Diversity issues: age differences, 77–80, Learning Cycle and, 171fig, 172; role
81t; cultural differences, 80, 82–83; in adult learning by, 28–29
examples of flexibility for addressing, Experiential factors, 38
85; gender differences, 80; key points of, Experiential learning activities: case
86; participants with disabilities, 83–85 studies, 114t, 116t, 142–143; creating,
“Divide-and-conquer” technique, 228 176, 177e; in-basket activities, 143–144;
Doers (learning style profile), 35e instructional games, 112t, 115t, 145;
Doverspike, D., 38 introducing, conducting, processing,
Dunn and Dunn Model of Learning 172–176; pairing for, 170; role playing,
Styles, 30 112t, 115t, 140–142, 179–180; simula-
Dunn, R., 30 tions, 112t, 115t, 144, 180; using small
Dysfunctional behavior prevention, 229e groups, 178. See also Training activities
Experiential Learning Cycle, 135,
E 170–172, 171fig, 174
E-courses, 205 External consultant selection: criteria
E-learning evaluations, 267–268 for, 282–283; trust as part of, 280–281
“Echo Boomers,” 79
Editing Learning Objectives, 93e F
El-Shamy, S., 79 Fables, 181
Emotional factors, 37 Facial expressions, 183, 216
Ensuring Quality Service and Customer Feedback: needs assessment, 20–22;
Satisfaction (instructional plan), 360-degree, 9
108e–109e Feelers (learning style profile), 35e
“The entertainer,” 58e, 60e Feelings, 217
Environmental factors, 37 Film Preview Form, 131e
Evaluating training: e-learning, 267–268; Financial considerations: cost/benefit
how and what, 255; key points on, analysis, 268; determining training
271; linking to needs assessment, 254; costs, 269t–270t; distance learning,
purposes of, 253–254; significance of, 201; ROI (return on investment), 268,
271–272; timing of, 254; whom to 271; for training program develop-
involve in, 254–255. See also Assess- ment, 99
ment; Four-level evaluation model “Finding Famous Fictional Friends and
Executive overview (needs assessment), Families,” 238–240
21 Flip charts, 189t, 192–194
Experience: “Dale’s Cone of Experi- Follow-up activities, 250
ence” studies on, 186; description of Follow-up reports, 283
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Index 303

Four-level evaluation model: described, H

255; key points on, 271; Level 1: Reac- Hacker, D. G., 260
tion, 256t, 257–260; Level 2: Learning, Holcomb, J., 266
256t, 260–261t, 262–263; Level 3: Behav- Horseshoe seating arrangement, 156fig
ior, 256t, 263–265; Level 4: Results, 256t, Horton, W., 212, 267
265–266; summary of four levels, 256t. HOT (High-Outcome Techniques), 243
See also Evaluating training How to Deliver Training for the New and
Fuhrmann, B. S., 30 Emerging Generation (El-Shamy), 79
Full circle seating arrangement, 158fig “How to Develop a Winning Team”
Full circle summaries, 249 activity, 137–138
HR (human resources), 10
G Human Scavenger Hunt, 163–164
Game Group (Ellicott City), 243
Games activities: adapting to training I
programs, 246–247; advantages and Icebreakers: benefits of using, 162–163;
disadvantages of, 112t, 244–245; how Getting Around, 166; Human Scav-
to use, 115t, 245–246; instructional, enger Hunt, 163–164; Instant Assess-
112t, 115t, 145, 244; key points for ment, 166–167; The Party, 164–165;
using, 252; successfully using, 243; Pretest, 168–169; What Do You Want
trainer facilitation of, 248 to Know?, 167–168, 249
“Gen Yers,” 79, 81t Imagination/imaginative activities, 243
Gender differences, 80 In-basket activities, 143–144
“Generation gap,” 77. See also Age In-depth needs assessment, 8t
differences Indifferent participants, 233
Generation X, 78, 81t Individual distance learning activities, 210
Gestures, 183 Industry experts (or observers), 10
Getting Around (icebreaker), 166 INFO-LINE booklets, 260
Giveaways, 242 Information search activity: described,
Group assignments, 208–209 135–136; distance learning, 211
Group critique, 209 Information-centered training, 69t–70,
Group inquiry, 134–135 71t–72t
Grouping cards activity, 85, 238 Ingham, J., 30
Grouping techniques, 237–239 Instant Assessment (icebreaker), 166–167
Guide to e-Learning: Building Interactive, Instruction: writing learning objectives
Fun, and Effective Learning Programs for for, 88–96; writing plan for, 97–120
any Company (Allen), 212 Instructional games, 112t, 115t, 145,
Guided discussion/analysis, 136, 211 244
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304 Index

Instructional guide: content outline, Instruments (paper-and-pencil devices):

107; described, 107; time frames, 107; active-training activities, 130,
trainer’s notes, 110; training aids and 132–133; assessment, 176, 178; data
materials, 110 collection using, 15t; as instructional
Instructional methods: advantages and method, 113t, 115t, 130, 132–133
disadvantages of, 111, 112t–116t; alter- Intellectual factors, 38
natives to lecture, 134–139; blended Interviews: advantages and disadvan-
learning, 212; case for active training, tages of, 15t; as evaluation method,
121–122; considerations of selecting, 259–260, 261t, 263, 264; needs assess-
111; cooperative learning, 122–123; cre- ment data through, 14, 16–19
ating active-learning environment,
123–126; designing active-learning J
activities, 126–128, 169–176; instru- Jacobs, R. T., 30
mentation, 15t, 113t, 115t, 130, 132–133; Jigsaw design, 138–139
lecturette, 113t, 116t, 133–134; match- Job order training design, 105
ing desired outcomes to, 117t; peer Johnson, D. W., 122
teaching/lessons, 126, 137–138; small Johnson, R. T., 122
group discussions, 114t, 116t, 126 Jones, T. B., 124, 125
Instructional plan components: instruc-
K
tional guide, 107, 110; program
Keller, J. M., 161
overview, 106–107
Kilmann, R., 178
Instructional plans: active design phi-
Kirk, J., 245, 248
losophy used for, 97–98; components
Kirkpatrick, D., 255, 257, 260, 266
of, 106–107, 110; cost considerations
Know-it-all participants, 233
of, 99; creating design matrix for,
Knowledge development-think learn-
100–101e, 102–105; example of,
ing objectives, 89
108e–109e; major design components,
Knowles, M., 28
100; purpose of, 105; time needed to
Kolb, D., 30
develop, 98–99. See also Action plans
Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inven- L
tory: descriptions of styles, 55–59; Lawson, K., 136
interpreting your scores, 55e–56e; Learner-centered training: distance
questions listed, 47e–52e; Quick Refer- learning and, 201; overview of,
ence Sheet, 66e; sources of answers 69t–70, 71t–72t
for, 61e–68e Learning activities. See Training activities
Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inven- Learning Model Instrument, 30
tory Scoring Sheet, 53e–54e
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Index 305

Learning objectives: benefits of setting, Matching activities, 210

88; components of, 89–92; definition Materials. See Training aids/materials
of, 87; essential characteristics of, 89; Mayer, R. E., 186
key points on, 96; reference chart for, Mental imager, 113t, 115t
90t; types of, 88–89; writing, 92–95e Meyers, C., 124, 125
Learning objectives components: condi- Miller, G. A., 185
tion, 91; criteria, 91–92; performance, Mind mapping, 102–103
89–91 Mini cases activity, 211–212
Learning principles: application of, 39–40; Mini needs assessment, 8t
listed, 29–30. See also Adult learning Motivation: adult learners and, 29;
Learning Style Inventory (Jacobs and learning process affected by, 37;
Fuhrmann), 30 “motivation” props, 241; recognition
Learning Style Inventory (Kolb), 30 and rewards used for, 242
Learning styles: additional factors Movement (body), 183, 216
which may affect, 37–38; described, MTV generation, 78, 128
30; determining your own, 30, 36; dis- Multimedia Learning (Mayer), 186
tance learning and, 203; perceptual Multiple clapping method, 239–240
modality and, 36–37; profiling your, Murrell, K. L., 30
31e–35e. See also Adult learners
Learning tournament activity, 139 N
Lecturettes: alternatives to, 134–139; as Names (participant), 82–83
instructional method, 113t, 116t, Needs-assessment design, 11, 13
133–134; limiting amount of, 125 Needs-assessment process: developing
Lehman, 186 action plan for, 22–23; in-depth versus
mini, 8t; linking evaluation to, 254;
M understanding the, 5–7; whom to
“The Magical Number Seven, Plus or assess, 8–10
Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Needs-assessment steps: 1: identify
Capacity for Processing Information” problem or need, 11; 2: determining
(Miller), 185 needs-assessment design, 11, 13; 3:
Making commitments, 250, 251e collect data, 13, 14, 16–19; 4: analyze
Making lists activity, 211 data, 19–20; 5: provide feedback,
Managers: interview questions for, 20–22; summary of, 12e
16–17; needs assessment of, 9; pre- Needs-assessments: benefits of conduct-
session involvement and support, ing, 6–7; description of, 6; examples
148; pre-session memo sent to, 149e. of, 20; key points on, 26; oral presenta-
See also Senior management tion on, 22; written report on, 21
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306 Index

Negative participants, 233 given to, 154e; experience with

Newstrom, J., 163 technology and distance learning,
“Nexters,” 79 202; Experiential Learning Cycle and,
Nonverbal communication: body lan- 135, 170–172, 171fig; letters sent to
guage as, 183; to encourage participa- manager’s of, 149e, 151e; motivation
tion, 216. See also Verbal of, 29, 37, 241, 242; pointing out
communication what’s in it for them, 169; pre-session
ways to involve, 148–149e; preparing
O for training, 152e–153e; privacy/confi-
Objective Worksheet, 94e–95e dentiality issues for, 17, 18; problems
Observation: advantages and disadvan- associated with behavior of, 231–235;
tages of, 15t; as evaluation method, questioning, 217–218; reflections by,
261t, 263, 264; as instructional 250, 252; responding to questions of,
method, 112t, 115t; tips on conduct- 218–221; scaling wall of resistance of,
ing, 18 221–226; self-preparation by, 153; tips
Observers (learning style profile), 35e for getting the most out of training,
On-the-spot assessment, 25–26 150e–151e; ways to encourage engage-
101 Ways to Make Training Active (Silber- ment by, 216–217. See also Target pop-
man), 134, 249 ulation; Training
Open-ended questionnaires, 15t, 16 Participants with disabilities: accommo-
Oppenheim, L., 186 dating, 83–84; activities and materials
Overhead projector, 190t, 194–196 adaptation for, 85
The Party (icebreaker), 164–165
P
Pedagogical model, 27–28
Pairing, 170
Peers: distance learning and limited
Paper-and-pencil devices. See Instru-
interaction with, 202–203; distance
ments (paper-and-pencil devices)
learning teaching activities, 209;
Parables, 181
needs assessment role of, 9; teach-
Parkin, M., 181
ing/lesson activities with, 126,
“Parking lot” tool, 228
137–138
Participant Cover Letter, 149e
Peoples, D., 186
Participant materials. See Training
Perceptual modality, 36–37
aids/materials
Performance royalty, 243
Participants: accepting/using ideas and
Personal appearance/clothing, 182–183
feelings by, 217; commitment making
Personal attacks, 229–230
by, 250, 251e; Delegation Assignment
Personal stories, 180–181
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Index 307

Personality clashes, 233 Q

Pescuric, A., 104 Quantitative data, 19
Phillips, J., 266 Questionnaires: as evaluation method,
Phillips, K. R., 130 258–259, 261t; needs assessment, 15t;
Physical factors, 38 pre-session, 23–24e, 25, 148; tips on
“Physical Self-Assessment” design, conducting, 18–19
249–250 Questions: art of asking, 217–218; on
Pike, B., 134, 192, 239 evaluation tests, 258–259, 260, 262;
Point-counterpoint activity, 208 responding to participant, 218–221;
Position paper, 276–277 writing game, 247–248
Positive learning environment: impor- QUIZO! (game activity), 246–247
tance of creating, 147; pre-session
ways to involve participation, R
148–149e; running the training ses- Rambling participants, 232
sion, 161–169; seating arrangements, Real-world applications, 29, 126
155fig–160 Recognition/rewards, 242
Posters, 242 Reflections, 250, 252
PowerPoint slides, 188, 189t Regaining control of groups, 239–240
Praising/encouraging, 216 Resistance: causes and case studies on,
Pre-session assignments, 148 222–226; handling participant, 221–222
Pre-session questionnaire, 148 Response pads, 206
Pretest (icebreaker), 168–169 Robinson, D. G., 266
Priority training design, 105 Robinson, J., 104, 266
Privacy/confidentiality issues, 17, 18 ROI (return on investment), 268, 271
Problem identification, 19–20 Role playing activities, 112t, 115t,
Problem situations: communication to 140–142, 179–180
avoid, 227–228; key points on, 235; Rotating trio role play, 142
participant behavior, 231–235; per- Round seating arrangement, 156fig
sonal attacks, 229–230; preventing
S
dysfunctional behavior, 229e; preven-
Scannell, E., 163
tion strategies for, 226–227; tips on
Scripted role play, 141
handling, 230–231, 234–235
Seating arrangements: chevron, 158fig;
“The professor,” 57e–58e, 60e
classroom style, 155fig; cluster, 157fig;
Propos, 240–241
conference, 157fig; group dynamics
Psychological factors, 37
determined by, 155; horseshoe, 156fig;
Puzzles, 238
semicircle or full circle, 158fig; single
23_977497 bindex.qxp 4/3/06 7:11 PM Page 308

308 Index

square or round, 156fig; trainer’s T

intent/desired interaction and, 159–160 Tales for Trainers (Parkin), 181
Self-assessment, 249–250 Talkative participants, 231
Self-awareness, 76e–77 Target population: identifying, 9; ques-
Self-directedness, 28 tions for, 16. See also Participants
“The seller,” 56e–57e, 60e Task exercise/activity, 114t, 116t
Semicircle seating arrangement, 158fig Technology: asynchronous distance
Senior management, 8–9. See also Managers learning, 204–205; distance learning,
Sequential training design, 104–105 199–213; synchronous distance learn-
Set induction, 162 ing, 204
Side conversations, 234 Teleconferencing, 205
Silberman, M., 124, 134, 136, 166, 170, Testing evaluation method, 258–263,
249, 250 261t
Silent participants, 232–233 “Testing for Learning Outcomes”
Simulations, 112t, 115t, 144, 180 (Hacker), 260
Single square seating arrangement, 156fig Theatrical techniques, 240–243
Skill development-do learning objec- Themes, 242–243
tives, 88 Thiagarajan, S. “Thiagi,” 134
Slinky magic spring, 241 Thinkers (learning style profile), 35e
Small groups activities: creativity with, Thomas, K., 178
237–240; discussions, 114t, 116t, 126; Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instru-
experiential and active-training tech- ment, 178
niques using, 170; grouping tech- 3M Company, 124, 186
niques, 237–239; using power of two 360-degree feedback, 9
as part of, 170; regaining control, Timing issues: distance learning, 201;
239–240; summaries for, 249 for evaluating training, 254; instruc-
Smith, K. A., 122 tional guide on, 107
Sociology factors, 38 Topical training design, 105
Spontaneous role play, 141 Trainers: assessing your own potential
Sterns, H., 38 as, 44–45; body language of, 183; char-
Storytelling, 180–181 acteristics and competencies of, 43–45e;
Stubborn participants, 232 facilitating a game, 248; as facilitators,
Subject-matter experts, 202 215; follow-up report by, 283; handling
Sugar, S., 243, 245, 246 problem situations, 226–235; improv-
Summarizing techniques, 248–249 ing platform performance, 182–183;
Survey evaluations, 264–265 Instructional Styles Diagnosis Inven-
Synchronous distance learning, 204 tory for, 47e–59, 61e–68e; matching
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Index 309

seating with intent/desired interaction accommodating participants with

by, 159–160; physical appearance/ disabilities, 85; using creative, 238;
clothing worn by, 182–183; questioning distance learning, 201–202; used by
and answering questions by, 217–221; trainers, 110; videos, 128–131e, 131e,
rehearsal by, 153; scaling wall of resis- 178–179, 190t; visual, 186–197. See also
tance, 221–226; self-awareness by, Visual aids
76e–77; storytelling by, 180–181; ways Training consultants: changing role of,
to encourage participation, 216–217. 273–274; follow-up reports by, 283;
See also Training consultants key points on, 284; selecting external,
Trainer’s notes, 110 280–283; understanding relationship
Training: approaches to organizing, between client and, 274–280. See also
104–105; evaluating, 253–272; follow- Trainers
up report on, 283; identifying target Training delivery: ARCS model used for,
population for, 9; learner-centered 161; creating positive learning envi-
versus information-centered, 69t–70; ronment, 147–169; distance learning,
providing “commercial breaks” dur- 199–213; Experiential Learning Cycle
ing, 80; resistance to, 221–226. See also and, 135, 170–172, 171fig, 174; using
Participants icebreakers and openers, 162–169;
Training & Development (journal), 98 improving platform performance to
Training activities: closings, 248–252; cre- facilitate, 182–183; key points on, 184;
ating, 176, 177e; cultural differences and, pre-session preparation for, 148,
83; distance learning, 207–212; follow- 152e–153e; tips for getting the most
up, 250; games, 112t, 115t, 145, 243–248, out of, 150e–151e. See also Active-
252; Getting Around, 166; Human Scav- learning activities; Experiential learn-
enger Hunt, 163–164; icebreakers and ing activities; Training activities
openers, 162–169; Instant Assessment, Training environment: creating active-
166–167; key points on, 145; participants learning, 123–126; creating positive,
with disabilities and, 85; The Party, 147–169; seating arrangements, 155–160;
164–165; potential projects expanding today’s learners and changing, 75
on, 146; Pretest, 168–169; small group, Training magazine, 98
114t, 116t, 126, 170, 237–240, 249; What Training programs: active design philos-
Do You Want to Know?, 167–168. See ophy for, 97–98; cost considerations
also Active-learning activities; Experien- for developing, 99; creating design
tial learning activities; Training delivery; matrix for, 100–101e, 102–105; evaluat-
Training sessions ing, 253–272; major design compo-
Training aids/materials: accommo- nents of, 100; target population for, 9,
dating cultural differences, 82; 16; time needed to develop, 98–99
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310 Index

Training sessions: ARCS model used Videos, 128–130, 131e, 178–179, 190t,
for, 161; creative closings for, 248–252; 196
using icebreakers and openers, Visual aids: benefits of using, 186–188;
162–169; pointing out what’s in it for flip charts, 189t, 192–194; guidelines
them, 169; pre-session preparation for using, 188, 189t–190t, 191–192; key
for, 148, 152e–153e; preview of coming points on, 197; overhead
attractions, 169; set induction to projector/transparencies, 190t,
begin, 162; tips for getting the most 194–196; props and other theatrical
out of, 150e–151e; trainer rehearsal for, techniques, 240–243; purpose of
153. See also Training activities using, 186; videos, 128–130, 131e,
Training style descriptions: “the coach,” 178–179, 190t, 196
59e, 60e; “the entertainer,” 58e, 60e; Visual learning retention rate, 185–186
“the professor,” 57e–58e, 60e; “the Visual signals, 240
seller,” 56e–57e, 60e Vogel, D. R., 186
Training styles: components of, 55;
descriptions of, 56e–68e; flexibility of, W
46; identifying your, 46, 47e–56e; key Web-based training (WBT), 204
elements of, 70, 73–74 Wharton School’s Applied Research
Transparencies, 190t, 194–196 Center, 186
Trust, 280–281 What Do You Want to Know? (ice-
breaker), 167–168, 249
U What? So What? Now What? formula,
University of Minnesota’s Management 248
Information Systems Research Center, White, K., 98
186 Workplace learning field, 1–2
U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 98 Writing learning objectives: editing
learning objectives, 93e; using Objec-
V tive Worksheet, 92, 94e; writing your
Vendors, 10 own objectives, 92, 95e
Verbal communication: to encourage Writing tasks: as instructional method,
participation, 216–217; guided discus- 113t, 115t; learning objectives, 92–95e;
sions, 136, 211; small group discus- test-writing guidelines, 262–263; writ-
sions, 114t, 116t, 126. See also ing case studies, 143; writing game
Nonverbal communication questions and items, 247–248
Veterans (also call mature), 81t
Video clips, 196 Z
Video teleconferencing, 204, 205, 206 Zemke, R., 98
24_977497 author.qxp 4/3/06 7:11 PM Page 311

About the Author

Karen Lawson, Ph.D., is an international consultant, speaker, and author. As
founder and president of Lawson Consulting Group Inc., she has built a successful
consulting firm specializing in organization and management development. She
has extensive consulting and workshop experience in the areas of management,
team development, communication, and quality service across a wide range of in-
dustries, including financial services, pharmaceutical, health care, telecommunica-
tions, government, and non-profit organizations.
In her consulting work with Fortune 500 companies as well as small businesses,
she uses her experience and knowledge of human relations to help leaders at all
levels make a difference in their organizations. She has held many key leadership
positions in professional organizations, including the American Society for
Training and Development (ASTD) and the National Speakers Association (NSA).
She has also received numerous professional awards for her contribution to the
training profession.
Dr. Lawson holds a doctorate in adult and organizational development from
Temple University. She earned her MA from the University of Akron and BA from
Mount Union College. She is also a graduate of the National School of Banking in
Fairfield, Connecticut.
She is the author of The Art of Influencing, Improving Workplace Performance
Through Coaching, Improving On-the-Job Training and Coaching, Skill Builders: 50
Communications Skills Activities, New Employee Orientation Training, and Involving
Your Audience—Make It Active. She is the co-author of 101 Ways to Make Training
Active (1st ed.) and has published dozens of articles in professional journals. She
has presented at many regional and national professional conferences and is on the
adjunct faculty of several colleges and universities.

311
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25_977497 howtocd.qxp 4/3/06 7:12 PM Page 313

How to Use the CD-ROM

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313
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314 How to Use the CD-ROM

In Case of Trouble
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• Type of computer and operating system
• Any error messages displayed
• Complete description of the problem.

It is best if you are sitting at your computer when making the call.
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Pfeiffer Publications Guide

This guide is designed to familiarize you with the various types of Pfeiffer publications. The
formats section describes the various types of products that we publish; the methodologies
section describes the many different ways that content might be provided within a product.
We also provide a list of the topic areas in which we publish.

FORMATS
In addition to its extensive book-publishing program, Pfeiffer offers content in an array of
formats, from fieldbooks for the practitioner to complete, ready-to-use training packages that
support group learning.

FIELDBOOK Designed to provide information and guidance to practitioners in the midst of

action. Most fieldbooks are companions to another, sometimes earlier, work, from which its ideas
are derived; the fieldbook makes practical what was theoretical in the original text. Fieldbooks can
certainly be read from cover to cover. More likely, though, you’ll find yourself bouncing around
following a particular theme, or dipping in as the mood, and the situation, dictate.

HANDBOOK A contributed volume of work on a single topic, comprising an eclectic mix of

ideas, case studies, and best practices sourced by practitioners and experts in the field.
An editor or team of editors usually is appointed to seek out contributors and to evaluate
content for relevance to the topic. Think of a handbook not as a ready-to-eat meal, but as a
cookbook of ingredients that enables you to create the most fitting experience for the occasion.

RESOURCE M aterials designed to support group learning. They come in many forms: a com-
plete, ready-to-use exercise (such as a game); a comprehensive resource on one topic (such as
conflict management) containing a variety of methods and approaches; or a collection of like-
minded activities (such as icebreakers) on multiple subjects and situations.

TRAINING PACKAGE An entire, ready-to-use learning program that focuses on a par-

ticular topic or skill. All packages comprise a guide for the facilitator/trainer and a workbook
for the participants. Some packages are supported with additional media—such as video—or
learning aids, instruments, or other devices to help participants understand concepts or practice
and develop skills.
• Facilitator/trainer’s guide Contains an introduction to the program, advice on how to
organize and facilitate the learning event, and step-by-step instructor notes. The guide also
contains copies of presentation materials—handouts, presentations, and overhead designs,
for example—used in the program.
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• Participant’s workbook Contains exercises and reading materials that support the learn-
ing goal and serves as a valuable reference and support guide for participants in the weeks
and months that follow the learning event. Typically, each participant will require his or
her own workbook.

ELECTRONIC CD-ROMs and web-based products transform static Pfeiffer content into
dynamic, interactive experiences. Designed to take advantage of the searchability, automation,
and ease-of-use that technology provides, our e-products bring convenience and immediate
accessibility to your workspace.

METHODOLOGIES
CASE STUDY A presentation, in narrative form, of an actual event that has occurred inside
an organization. Case studies are not prescriptive, nor are they used to prove a point; they are
designed to develop critical analysis and decision-making skills. A case study has a specific time
frame, specifies a sequence of events, is narrative in structure, and contains a plot structure—
an issue (what should be/have been done?). Use case studies when the goal is to enable partic-
ipants to apply previously learned theories to the circumstances in the case, decide what is
pertinent, identify the real issues, decide what should have been done, and develop a plan of
action.

ENERGIZER A short activity that develops readiness for the next session or learning event.
Energizers are most commonly used after a break or lunch to stimulate or refocus the group.
Many involve some form of physical activity, so they are a useful way to counter post-lunch
lethargy. Other uses include transitioning from one topic to another, where “mental” distancing
is important.

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING ACTIVITY (ELA) A facilitator-led intervention that moves

participants through the learning cycle from experience to application (also known as a Structured
Experience). ELAs are carefully thought-out designs in which there is a definite learning pur-
pose and intended outcome. Each step—everything that participants do during the activity—
facilitates the accomplishment of the stated goal. Each ELA includes complete instructions for
facilitating the intervention and a clear statement of goals, suggested group size and timing,
materials required, an explanation of the process, and, where appropriate, possible variations to
the activity. (For more detail on Experiential Learning Activities, see the Introduction to the
Reference Guide to Handbooks and Annuals, 1999 edition, Pfeiffer, San Francisco.)
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GAME A group activity that has the purpose of fostering team spirit and togetherness in addi-
tion to the achievement of a pre-stated goal. Usually contrived—undertaking a desert expedition,
for example—this type of learning method offers an engaging means for participants to demon-
strate and practice business and interpersonal skills. Games are effective for team building and
personal development mainly because the goal is subordinate to the process—the means through
which participants reach decisions, collaborate, communicate, and generate trust and under-
standing. Games often engage teams in “friendly” competition.

ICEBREAKER A (usually) short activity designed to help participants overcome initial anx-
iety in a training session and/or to acquaint the participants with one another. An icebreaker
can be a fun activity or can be tied to specific topics or training goals. While a useful tool in
itself, the icebreaker comes into its own in situations where tension or resistance exists within
a group.

INSTRUMENT A device used to assess, appraise, evaluate, describe, classify, and summarize
various aspects of human behavior. The term used to describe an instrument depends primarily
on its format and purpose. These terms include survey, questionnaire, inventory, diagnostic,
survey, and poll. Some uses of instruments include providing instrumental feedback to group
members, studying here-and-now processes or functioning within a group, manipulating group
composition, and evaluating outcomes of training and other interventions.
Instruments are popular in the training and HR field because, in general, more growth can
occur if an individual is provided with a method for focusing specifically on his or her own behav-
ior. Instruments also are used to obtain information that will serve as a basis for change and to
assist in workforce planning efforts.
Paper-and-pencil tests still dominate the instrument landscape with a typical package com-
prising a facilitator’s guide, which offers advice on administering the instrument and interpreting
the collected data, and an initial set of instruments. Additional instruments are available
separately. Pfeiffer, though, is investing heavily in e-instruments. Electronic instrumentation
provides effortless distribution and, for larger groups particularly, offers advantages over paper-
and-pencil tests in the time it takes to analyze data and provide feedback.

LECTURETTE A short talk that provides an explanation of a principle, model, or process

that is pertinent to the participants’ current learning needs. A lecturette is intended to estab-
lish a common language bond between the trainer and the participants by providing a mutual
frame of reference. Use a lecturette as an introduction to a group activity or event, as an
interjection during an event, or as a handout.
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MODEL A graphic depiction of a system or process and the relationship among its elements.
Models provide a frame of reference and something more tangible, and more easily remembered,
than a verbal explanation. They also give participants something to “go on,” enabling them to
track their own progress as they experience the dynamics, processes, and relationships being
depicted in the model.

ROLE PLAY A technique in which people assume a role in a situation/scenario: a customer

service rep in an angry-customer exchange, for example. The way in which the role is approached
is then discussed and feedback is offered. The role play is often repeated using a different
approach and/or incorporating changes made based on feedback received. In other words, role
playing is a spontaneous interaction involving realistic behavior under artificial (and safe)
conditions.

SIMULATION A methodology for understanding the interrelationships among components

of a system or process. Simulations differ from games in that they test or use a model that
depicts or mirrors some aspect of reality in form, if not necessarily in content. Learning occurs
by studying the effects of change on one or more factors of the model. Simulations are com-
monly used to test hypotheses about what happens in a system—often referred to as “what if?”
analysis—or to examine best-case/worst-case scenarios.

THEORY A presentation of an idea from a conjectural perspective. Theories are useful because
they encourage us to examine behavior and phenomena through a different lens.

TOPICS
The twin goals of providing effective and practical solutions for workforce training and orga-
nization development and meeting the educational needs of training and human resource
professionals shape Pfeiffer’s publishing program. Core topics include the following:
Leadership & Management
Communication & Presentation
Coaching & Mentoring
Training & Development
e-Learning
Teams & Collaboration
OD & Strategic Planning
Human Resources
Consulting
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What will you find on pfeiffer.com?

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