POPULAR PUBLICATIONS

components with different magnitude, the time-phase difference must not be 0° or

multiples of 180°
Also considering the directions of rotation of the field vector, polarization may also be
classiticd as clockwise polarization (RIHP) and counter clockwise polarization (LHP).

b) Antenna Temperature: The temperature of far or distant regions of space and near
surroundings which are coupled to the antenna through radiation resistance is known as
antenna temperature.
Referring to fig. (i). the Noise Power per unit bandwidth available at the terminals of
resistor of resistance R at temperature T is expressed as
P=kTWatt/Hertz (i)
where, k = Boltzman's constant = 1.38x10- J/K

T Absolute temperature of resistor in °K

Fig: (i) Resistor (R) at temperature T

Now replacing the resistor R by a lossless antenna of radiation resistance R, in an

anechoic chamber (as shown in fig. (ii)) at temperature T, the noise power per unit
bandwidth available at the terminal remains unchanged. However, the noise power will
not be same unless the antenna is receiving from a region at temperature T. Now if the
antenna is removed from the anechoic chamber and pointed at the sky of temperature T,
the noise power at the terminals is the same as far the two previous cases.

Antenna

Antenna
Pattern
Antenna

Absorber Antenna
temperature Sky at temperature T

(a) (b)
Fig. (ii): (a) Antenna at Anechoic Chamber
(b) Antenna and Sky temperature at
temperature T

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 ANTENNATHEORY& PROPAGATION
If the power per unit bandwidth is
independent of frequency, the total power (P) is
P=kTB watt .. (ii)
where, B = Bandwidth in Hertz

Let A be the effective

aperture of the antenna shown in fig. (ii) and that its beam is
directed at a source of radiation which
flux density (S) at the antenna.
produces a power density per unit bandwidth or
.' Power received from the same is given by
P= SA,B watts
(1i)
From equations (ii) and (ii), we get
P SAB =kTB

or, S=W/m Hz =kT W/m°'Hz WimHz (1v)

A A.
where, T =1, is the antenna
temperature due to the source (in °K).
T, = SA, K (v)
k

.Flux density, S = (vi)

A
T, k
. (vii)

Now most of the electrical radiate

sources
un-polarized wave and any antenna,
irrespective of polarization characteristics, receives only half the incident power of an un-
polarized wave. Hence the actual flux density should be double of that given by equation
(vi).
.S .. (vii)
A
If the angular size of the source is small
compared to 2,and its magnitude is known,
then it is possible to determine the source temperature
T, from the equation
sT
or, T, = .(ix)
s
where, 2, = antenna beam solid angle in S

2 = souree solid angle in S,

T antenna noise temperate in °K

=

T= Source temperature in °K
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If the receiver itself has a certain noise temperature 7, due to thermal noise in the receiver
components, the system noise power at the receiver terminals is given by

P=k(T, + T,)By =klsBy .. (x)

where, 7N = T +7, = effective system noise temperature at receiver terminals.

By Bandwidth.

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 ANTENNA THEORY &PROPAGATION

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNAS

Multiple Choice Type guestions

1. The antenna most commonly used for TV broadcasting in the UHF band is
a) turnstile antenna b) dipole antenna WBUT 2013]
c) yagi antenna d) rhombic antenna
Answer: (C)

2. The current distribution in half-wave dipole is

WBUT 2013, 2014]
a) sinusoidal b) constant c) triangular d) parabolic
Answer: (a)

3. Circularly polarized antenna is

WBUT 2013, 2014]
a) dipole b) parabolic dish c) yagi-uda d) helical
Answer: (d)

4. Antenna commonly used for microwave links is

WBUT 2013]
a) loop antenna b) log periodic antenna
c) parabolical dishes d) rhombic antenna
Answer: (c)

5. A half wave dipole used at a frequency of 300 MHz has a length of WBUT 2013]
a) 10 metres b) 3 metres
c) 1 metres d) 50 centimetres
Answer: (d)

6. A log periodic antenna is a [WBUT 2013, 2018]

a) frequency independent antenna b) frequency dependent antenna
c) directional antenna d) none of these
Answer: (a)

7. The induction field of short current element varies as WBUT 2014]

b)
F
d)r
Answer: (a)

8. Fields are said to be elliptically polarized if their magnitudes are WBUT 2014]
a) Equal & they are in phase b) Equal & they differ in phase by 90°
c) Unequal & they differ by 90 d) Not equal but they are in phase
Answer: (c)
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9. Radar antennas are usually WBUT 201

d) None of these
a) Dipole b) Parabolic dishes c) Helical
Answer: (b)

10. The radiation pattern of loop antenna is wBUT 2014

d) None of these
a) Circle b) Semi-circle c) Cardiold
Answer: (c)

11. Television receiver antennas are usually wBUT 2014

a) Loop antenna b) Yagi antenna

c) Parabolic dishes d) Rhombic antenna

Answer: (b)

12. The fringing fields make the patch WBUT 201

b) electrically narrower
a) electrically wider
c) no change d) none of these
Answer: (a)

13. Radiation resistance of half wave dipole is WBUT 2015

a) 36.50 b) 732 c) 377Q d) none of thesa
Answer: (b)

14. The radiation pattern of folded dipole antenna WBUT 2015

a) bi directional b) omni directional
c) isotropic d) all of these
Answer: (a)

15. The radiation pattern of Yagi-Uda antenna is

WBUT 201
a) unidirectional b) multidirectional c) bidirectional d) all of these
Answer: (a)

16. A small loop antenna is equivalent to a

WBUT 201E
a) magnetic dipole b) short dipole
c) short ring d) short coil
Answer: (a)

17. The example of parasitic array is

a) helix antenna WBUT 201
b) dipole antenna
c) horn antenna
d) Yagi-Uda antenna
Answer: (d)

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 ANTENNA THEORY&PROPAGATION

18. The induction and radiation fields of current element are equal at distance of
WBUT 2017]
a) A/2 b) A/4 c) A/6 d) A/10
Answer: (c)

19. In a Uniform Linear array all elements are fed with a current of . .
amplitude. WBUT 2017]
a) equal b) unequal
c) both (a) and (b) d) none of these
Answer:(a)
20. Yagi-Uda antenna consists of WBUT 2017]
a) Folded Dipole b) Reflector c) Director d) all of these
Answer: (d)

21.The radiation resistance of folded dipole of equal radii is WBUT 2017]

a) 657 ohm b) 292 ohm c ) 300 ohm d) 277 ohm
Answer: (b)

22. Radiation resistance of a hypothetical current element of length dl is

WBUT 20171
a)800(dl/2) b) 400(dl12 c) 800(dl/ 2) d) 400(dll 2)
Answer:(a)
23. Which of the following terms do not apply to the Yagi-Uda antenna?
a) Good bandwidth b) Parasitic elements WBUT 20171
c) Folded dipole d) Fixed frequency
Answer: (d)

24. The radiation resistance of a current element is WBUT 2018]

a)80. a b)80 ) 80r d) SO7

Answer: (a)

25. Standing waves are produced when [WBUT 2018]

a) there are no reflections
b) there are full reflections
c) there is only transmission
dielectrics
thewaves are incident on good
Answer: (a)
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26. The most common
popular prevalent TV antenna is WBUT 2018]
a) Dipole b) Monopole c) Yagi -Uda d) Horn
Answer: (c))

27. The spacing between folded dipole and reflector is WBUT 2018]
a) b) c)
Answer: (b)

Short Answer Type guestions

1. DefineYagi-uda antenna and explain its operation. WBUT 2013, 2015]
Answer:
Yagi-Uda Antenna
Yagi-Uda antenna was developed in 1926 by Prof. Hidetsugu Yagi and Prof. Shintaro
Uda, both of Tohoku Imperial University, Japan. In the HF, VHF and UHF band, this
antenna is regarded to be an excellent practical radiator. It is widely used as home TV
antenna. This array antenna comprises of an active element energized directly by feed
transmission line and few parasitic elements whose currents are induced by mutual
coupling. The gain produced by the antenna is 10 dBi (maximum) with HPBW of 10%.
However proper adjustments of lengths and spacing result in increase of gain. This
inherenty naTow bandwidth of the antenna can be broadened by increasing the reflectors
length, thereby improving LF operation and shortening the director's length in improving
HF operation. The only disadvantage of achieving this is at the cost of reduction in gain.
A typical 6-element Yagi-Uda antenna with its radiation pattern is shown in Figure 1 and
its typical design parameters are as follows:

Spacing between Reflector and Driven element: S 0.25

Spacing between Director and Driven element: Sa 0.31
Length of Yagi-array: L 1.5
Diameter of element: d 0.01
Length of Reflector L= 0.4757
Length of Driven / Active element: L=0.462
Length of Directors:
Las 0.44., Lar=0.44, Las= 0.43., Ls=0.402

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 ANTENNA THEORY&PROPAGATION

Metal boon)

(b)
Reflector Driven Active Director elements
clement clement
(a)

Fig: 1 Yagi-Uda antenna and its radiations pattern

Principle of operation of Yagi-Uda antenna

The elemental spacing and parasitic element length determines the phases of the currents.
The impedance of the parasitic ([ > A/2) and director element ( <1/2) are inductive
and capacitive respectively. Hence the current phase of the former lags the induced

voltage whereas it leads in case latter. Thus properly spaced directors add the fields
ofthe
of the active element in a direction away from the active element. Thus each director
excites the next one. The overall effect is that current of equal magnitude and with equal
progressive phase shift is produced which reinforces the fièld of the energized element
towards the director. Similarly properly spaced reflector adds up the fields of the driven
element in the direction from reflector to the driven element. A close spacing of elements
Is necessary for good excitation. More the driven - director distance. more is the

of parasitic current. Hence

capacitive reactance essential for providing correct phasing
rod-length is tapered off to achieve capacitive reactance.
The driven elements radiation from reflector to director induces eurrent in parasitic
element which in turn re-radiates virtually all the radiation. By proper adjustment of
parasitic elements length and element - clement spacing, the radiated energy is added up

in front and backward radiation is cancelled.

2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of micro strip antenna.

i)
radiated power is measured to be
ii) At a distance of 10 m the maximum
160uWIcm". If the antenna is radiating 120W of power, calculate the antenna gain.
WBUT 2014]
Answer:
Answer Type Questions.
i) Refer to Question No. 4(b) of Loug

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ii) Gi en
R 10
160x 10
P- 1604/W/cm W/m
(100)
P120
By Friis Transmission Formula

Received power P, =
4TR
160x10
.G, -47R = 4Tx 10 x-

(100)x120
0.201
= 16.75 =10log (16.75) =12.24 dB
0.012

3. How does a monopole antenna radiate? WBUT 201

Ansv er:
One-half of a dipole (usually a short vertical) antenna mounted above the earth or a
grour d/reflecting plane is generally referred to as a Monopole antenna as shown in figure
1. It is normally A14 long. The quarter wave monopole antenna or Marconi antenna
utilizs the ground/earth as part of its resonant circuit. Here the ground operates as the
missi ng quarter wavelength. Most of the low and medium Frequency antennas are o
Marconi types. Actually the vertical monopole antenna is used extensively in commercia

broaccasting in the frequency range of 500 1500 KHz owing to the reason that
-

vertic
these
polar zation suffers less propagation loss than horizontal polarization at
frequ encies.

Fig:1. Monopole antenna

Same field is produced by the monopole antenna as that produced by an antenna of len
2h fed with the same current. The radiation is only in the hemisphere above the rellec
planc.

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 ANTENNA THEORY &PROPAGATION
.. Total power radiated by monopole
aa10 (1)

and radiation resistance, R, =10r (2)

Thus for a
quarter wave monopole, the radiation resistance is 40 ohms.

4. An elementary dipole antenna working at 10 MHz is 0.1 meters long and carrying
a current of 2 amperes. Find the field
strength at a distance of 20 kms away in the
direction of maximum radiation.
WBUT 2018]
Answer:
The expression of electric field:

60 coscose
2
E- sin 6

CoScos6
The maximum field 2
strength occurs when
sin

or,
coscos@= sin0
Hence, for6=90°, coscos sin | =1
lo=90° 16-90°
The maximum field strength occurs at

Hence, at 6=90°, |E,l-0- 60x2 = 6mV/m

20x10 10
H-El- 377 =0.016 mV/m
5. Describe the log periodic array giving WBUT 2018]
i) Structure i) Various regions ii) Operation
Answer:
Refer to Question No. 7(e) of Long Answer lype Questions.

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Long Answer Type guestions

uniform curre
1. Find the radiation resistance of a half wave dipole with
WBUT 2013, 2018
distribution. Explain the design aspects of Yagi-uda antenna.
Answer:
part:
Radiation from a Half-Wave Dipole
+h = r - z c o s 0 ,
A half-wave dipole as shown in Figure 1
is fed at the centre and has maximum
radiation in the plane normal to the axis. sin B(h-z)::>0
Let us assume a sinusoidal distribution of
current, i.e., Z-0
z>0
1-J.sin 6 (h-); (1)
sin B(h+z); z<0
vector potential at a distant
The magnetic
point P due to the current element
I dz is sin B(h +:):: <0
expressed as Fig: 1

dz (2)
dA=dA, à,= 4td
. .

element.
P from the current
where 'd is the distance of the point
due to all current elements
is given by
The total vector potential at P
e Bd
-dz
-h

Sin plh +2)vA d: + sin (h-

o4T 4T d
in the denominator, we have
6 in the phase term and d =r
Replacing d = r - z cos

sinSin Blh+)-1r-z0s)d [ Sin p-2iar-zos0) d

4-
47 -h

H sin p(h+2)eonsin B(h-z)ecos0d

4Tr 0

Replacingh=for half-wavedipole and solving

we get

cos7 coso .. (3)

A 27 Br sin 0

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 ANTENNATHEORY&PROPAGATION

uH,- ,)
-r(-A, sin &)-4cos)
which upon solving yields,

cos 7 cose)
H=
sin 6
(4)
2Tr

Again usingthe relation E, =n,H, we have

020z),elt |cos cos®)

E,
2Tr sin

j 601.eCos
cos(7.cos0 .(5)
sin 6

Hence the maximum value of Eo and H, are:

E 60Cos cose
(6)
ma r sin6

cos( cos) (7)

2tr sin6

. Maximum power P =|Folma lms

30 coscoso) (8)
sin 0

andthe average power Pe 2 2

15/ cos7%cose
watts/m (9)
sin'0
Tr

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30
coscoswatts/m
ar sin 0
watts/m . (10)

Total power radiated, oul

30/cos 7 s0 l+cos(7 cos0)0

2Tr sin 0d0, 60/
Tr sin sin 0
= 60 1 x 1.219 = 73.14/
.. (11)
= R,

Hence radiation resistance of A/2 dipole is R, » 732 . (12)

2nd Part: Refer to Question No. 1 of Short Answer Type Questions.

2. Explain the operation of Helical antenna in Axial mode and normal mode. SH
that radiation resistance of folded dipole is four times the radiation resistance
single dipole. Explain the design aspects of Yagi-Uda antenna. WBUT 20
Answer:
1s Part:
Normal Mode of Radiation
In this mode the radiation field is maximum in broadside, i.e., in the direction noma
the helix axis and is circularly or nearly circularly polarized. This mode is obtainedif
dimensions ofthe helix is small compared to wavelength, i.e. NL <<i.
The disadvantage of this mode is that the bandwidth of such small helix is very nar
and radiation efficiency is low. However improvement over such results can be obtair
by increasing the size ofthe helix and by making the current in phase along the helixa
by putting some type of phase sifters at intervals but the later offers practical limitation
A helical antenna may be regarded as having a number of small loops and short dip
connected in series in which the loop diameter is same as the helix diameter andt
dipole length is same as the helix spacing.

Pitch angle a =tan " lan D tan

TD 22.tD 22

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 ANIENNA THEORY&PROPAGATION

-D

PT

(a) Normal mode (b) Equivalent

Fig: 1. Normal (broadside) mode for
helical antenna and its equivalent
The radiation pattern of the helical antenna is, thus, equivalent to that obtained by the
superposition of the field from these elemental radiators' radiation pattern in normal
mode and is as depicted in figure 2. Practically this normal mode of operation is limited
and it is hardly used.

(a) Normal mode (b) Axial mode

Axial Mode of Radiation Fig: 2. Radiation Pattern

In the axial mode the radiation ficld is max1mum in the end-fire direction, i.e., along the
helix axis and exhibits circular or nearly circular polarization. This mode is obtained if
the helix circumference (D) and spacing (S) are appreciably of the order of one
wavelength (typically D»i and S = ) . This mode finds extensive practical

applications owing to the production of a broad and fairly directional beam in the axial
direction with minor lobes at oblique angles.
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he heliX IS operated in conjunctions with a ground plane (ground plane

4
diameter) and is fed by a co-axial cabl. The pitch angle a varies from 12-18 wi
140 as optimum angle. The antenna gain and beam width depends upon the hel
length(A = NS). Terminal impedance is 1002 resistive (in general: 10 20082 pur

resistive). Within t20% approximation, the terminal impedance is

140C
R (2)

The beam pattern as depicted in figure 3 has axial symmetry.

The expression of some of the helical antenna parameters in axial mode are as follows:
The far field of the small loop is expressed as
1207 [/]sin A .. (3)

where [/]= retarded current

r= distarnce
TD
A = area of the loop
4
and the far field of the short dipole is expressed as
60 r|/|sin 0 S
E = j- . (4)
I'

where S L =Length ofthe dipole.

From eq'. 3 and 4. it is evident that there exist a 90° phase shift between them. Th
radiation pattern of the helical antenna is a combination of the cquivalent radiation from
the short dipole and the small loop. The resultant field is either circularly polarized o
elliptically polarized depending upon the field strength ratio or the amplitudes of thetwo
components which in turn depends upon the pitch angle a. In the limiting conditionsthe
polarization is linear.
Ratio of magnitudes of E, and E, providing Axial Ratio (AR) of ellipticd

607[/|sin.s
polarization is AR= S2 2S2 (5)
E120r
|/]sin 0 A 2A r D

when 4R = 0. clliptical polartzation becomes lincar horizontal polarization

when 4R - , elliptical polarization becomes linear vertical polarization

when 1R- I. eliptical polarization becomes circular polarization

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 ANIENNA IHEORY&IROPAGA11ON

Forcireular polarization. AR=I

or. 2.S 7 ' D

D C
... (6)
2 2
52
HPBW NS degrees ... (7)

FNBW S
FNBW 2 degrees ... (8)
cVNS
Directivity D=-
15NSC
... (9)

Axial ratio AR =I+ 2N .. (10)

Fig: 3. Axial (end fire)
mode of helix
(NY
Sin
Normalized far field E =sin-cos.- . (11)
2N sin

where =27(1-cos6) + 2N ... (12)

The above expressions assumes

a =12-15°. N23, NS<10. C=

The wave is right handed or left handed circularly polarized depending upon whether the
helix is wound with a right-handed or a lefi-handed pitch.

2n Part:
Dipole antennas exhibit good directional pattern characteristics and provide excellent
matching to co-axial lines with approx. 702 characteristie impedance. However to
match it to a 2-wire transmission line with characteristic ipedance 3002, a slight
modification of the normal dipole (( i/2) is essential. One such geometry is achieved
by folding it to form a very thin rectangular loop (d<0.054) as shown in ligure l(a).
This modificd structure provides a characieristic impedance 300.2 suitable enough to
match it with twin-lead transmission line widely used for TV applications.

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Thus folded
a
dipole may be considered as a "ultra close - spaced type ot
array servi
as a step-up impedance transformer of the single element impedance. However ir,

diameter of the two of the folded

arms different, impedance transformation
dipole are
1.5 to 25 is
achievable. Figure 1(a) depicting a 2-wire folded 2/2 dipole, consists of tu
coscy spaced A/2 elements connected together at the outer ends. The currents in b
the A/2 elements are
substantially equal and in phase. The total terminal resistanm
=4x73= 2922 3002. Here the first element is fed directly and the second one
inductively coupled at the ends. The radiation pattern of the folded dipole is the same
that of a straight dipole. Figure 1(b) depicting a 3-wire folded 2/2 dipole have
terminal resistance of 9x73 =6572. Thus in general a folded dipole with N number
Al2 clements carrying equal currents exhibit a terminal resistance of 73N2.

-i--

(a) 2- wire folded dipole (b) 3- wire folded dipole

Fig. 1: Folded Dipole Antennas

Principle of Operation of a folded dipole antenna

Consider an open-circuited transmission line as shown in figure 2(a). The line is cut offs
the anti-nodes of current at points ad' and is then opened up with the far ends lengt
2/4 being folded by 180° to form the folded dipole antenna as exhibited in figure 206
The direction of the current (,) in both the fed clement and the folded elements are i
the same direction. The radiated power is, therefore. given by

21,R=;T4R, =; R . (1)

where R, is the radiation resistance of simple dipole

R is the radiation resistance of folded dipole.

4x 73 2922 (typical)
Ra =
4R, = =
(2)
With ohmic losses taken into consideration the impedance of a folded dipole is abou

3002.

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 ANIENNA THEORY&PROPAGATTON

(a) Open-circuited transmission line (b) Folded dipole antenna

Fig: 2

For a better understanding of the impedance of the folded dipole let us consider the N
wire folded dipole with its equivalent circuit depicted in figure 3. For N elements, the
equivalent vøltage at the centre of each conductor is VN and the current in each element
is , n =1,2,3,..N)
The voltage across the first conductor is
N

VIN=2Zn (3)

Where Zn represents the self or mutual impedance between the first and nth ele
Now owing to closely spaced elements,
I and Z Z (4)
for all values of n = 1,2,3,..N

We get-Z.=,22.=NI,Z,
n=l n=

or, Z , =N°Z,, = N*z, (5)

Self impedance Zi1 of the 1" element is the same as its impedance Z, in the absence of
the other elements]
Thus it is evident that for an N-clement folded dipcle, the terminal impedance
Nx(impedance of a simple 2/2 dipole)

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N
l

Fig 3: Equivalent circuit of N-element

folded dipole antenna
The impedance of the folded dipole depends on the following factors:
(a) spacing between the dipole elements, and
(b) radius of the dipoles.

Ifthe radii ofthe dipoles are r and r5, then Z,=73 1+

If the radii ofthe dipoles are and r, and d be the spacing between the elements then

, 73 14
log4/ 2 ==73xbQ

where b is the impedance transformation ratio. Fig: 4

Folded dipoles are used in Yagi-Uda antenna as an active element. lt posses th
advantage of exhibiting high input impedance, greater bandwidth, ease and ls
constructional cost with better impedance - matching characteristics. A typical radiatic

pattern of a folded dipole is shown in figure 4.

3rd Part:
Yagi-Uda antenna comprises of an active element energized directly by feed transmissir
line and few parasitic elements whose currents are induced by mutual coupling.
The active element is a resonant A/2 folded dipole fed by a 3002 twin line. T
parasitic element comprising of one reflector and few directors are arranged collinear
The reflector length is greaterthan A/2 while the directors' length is smaller than
(0.4 to 0.45 2). The directors are not necessarily of same length and/or diameter, wi

separation between them typically 0.3 -0.42 and their total numbers depending ong
requirement of the anternna. The impedance of active element, reflector and directors
, resistive, inductive and capacitive in nature respectively.
The gain produced by the antenna i5 10 dBi (maximum) with HPBW of 10%. Howe
proper adjustments of lengths and spacing result in increase of gain. This inhert
narrow bandwidth of the antenna can be broadened by increasing the reflectorslens

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 ANTENNA THEORY &PROPAGATION

thereby improving LF operation and shortening the director's length in improving HF

operation. The only disadvantage of achieving this is at the cost of reduction in gain.
A typical 6-clement Yagi-Uda antenna with its radiation pattern is shown in Figure I and
its typical design parameters are as follows:
Spacing between Reflector and Driven element: S =0.25
Spacing between Director and Driven element:
S 0.31
Length of Yagi-array: L 1.5
Diameter of element: d 0.012
Length of Reflector: L 0.475
Length of Driven / Active element: L=0.46
Length of Directors:
La 0.44, Laz=0.44), Las=0.437, Las0.401

Metal boom

(
Reflector Driven/Active Director elements
element element
(a)

Fig: 1. Yagi-Uda antenna and its radiations pattern

3. Find the Radiation of Hertz Dipole. WBUT 2015]

OR,
Derive the expression of electric field components of Hertz dipole antenna.
Derive the expression for average power and total power radiated by the Hertz
dipole. WBUT 2018]
Answer:
In a short dipole, the clectric charge oscillates and as such they are referred to as
Oscillating Electric Dipoles (OED). Let us consider a current element ldl pointing
towards z direction as shown in Figure 1. The current is assumed to be constant
throughout its entire length.

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Tell
dl o l
r(e.)
Eo

Fig:1
of retarded potential) is given
Now, the magnetic vector potential (considering the effect
by
. (1)
4T r

. (2)
47
I 1,m cos ot and only z-component of A exist as A
Now the excitation is
=

by current
acts along z - direction.

. (3)
Hence, A, cos - a e
d e a cos ol-) ... (4)
47 r
we have
Also owing to spherical symmetry,

A, =
A, cos0
Ap-4 sin 0 . (5)
4, =0

Hence using the relationship VxA =

B=uH, we have
0 . . (6)
H, = 0 and H, =

and ui, =(Vx A), = 4)-

which upon solving yields

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 ANTENNA THEORY &PROPAGA'TION

H . = d lsin
0 f (
H, 4T
-Sin
Cr
wt, +
cos l . (7)

The first term in eq. (7) varies inversely with distance and is known as
r
Radiation field or Far field or Distant field and accounts for the radiation of
electromagnetic waves from a conductor under suitable conditions.

The second term in eq". (7) varies inversely with square of the distance
i.e., id is

known as Induction field or Near field and is

element where r is small. It represents the
predominant at points close to the current
energy stored in the magnetic field surrounding
the current element or conductor.

Also, using the relation VxH==¬ we have the electric field component as

) ,sin@) H,
and upon solving we have

sin ol
E-cos 27T E L cr
cos

or
. (8)

Similarly solving for other components, we have

E.=dlsin Osin cOs Sin o . (9)
4TE cr Cr wr
and E, = 0
.(10)

Carefully observing the above expressions of E, and E, we find that E, contains the

induction term and E, contains the induction term and radiation term|

However both contain an additional term which varies inversely with cube of dist.nce

and this is known as Electrostatic field or simply Electrie field owing t its

similarity with components of field of an electrostatic dipole. The term is very impoitat
near the current element.
The distance at which both the induction field and the radiation ficld are equal can be
equated as

dl sin O(cosw, dlsin0 wsino

4 1T 4T C

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or maximum value of sine or cosine is unity

C

0.1592
(D 2T 1 27 6

Thus beyond a distance of 0.159 A from the current element, the radiation fiela
predominates while below this value the induction ficld
At very large distance predominates.
(r >> A), the intrinsic impedance is given by

E 607 d
H1.THA 27tr
=1207 =
3772
(11)

Now average power

P=E, x H, (12)
[From Poynting's theorem]

Substituting the values of E, and H, in equation (12) and solving we get

p _ dl sin 0 ) o
ave
167 E 2c
(Pdtsin 6)
82 watts/m . (13)
and the total radiated
power
P=P ds = ['n ,dlsin 0) 27r sin0 de
82

-80z ( =(p R .. (14)

where the radiation resistance R =807T o

(15)
For short-- dipole ((z0.12)
P P-ds
,sin d0dp Fni
80T
where the radiati0n resisiane

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 ANTENNATHEORY &PROPAGATION

R-80r 790 .. (16)

4. Discuss the normal and axial mode of

operation of helical antenna.

Answer: WBUT 2016]

Refer to Question No. 2(P" Part) of Long Answer Type

Questions.
5. Write advantages and limitations of microstrip patch antenna.
rectangular microstrip antenna usingsubstrate with dielectric Design a
and thickness of 0.1588 cm, constant of 2.2
so as to resonate at 10 GHz.
Answer: WBUT 2016]
part: Refer to Question No. 7(b) of Long Answer Type
Questions.
2d part:
Width Wof the patch is given by
W 2 30 1.186Cm(0.467 In)
2f,4EVe, +1 *2/, VE, +1 2x10V 2.2 +1 1.186cm{0.467in)
The effective dielectric constant of the
patch is given by
t
2 , 12 0.1588
1.186
=1.972
= 1.972

The extended incremental length of the AL is

patch given by

AL +0.3 +0.264
- = 0.412-
h
f-0.258) +0.8

(1.972-0.3)1.186
+0.264
0.1588(0.412)- .0.1588 =
0.081 cnm(0.032 in)
(1.972-0.258) 1.1860.8
0.1588
The actual length L of the patch is given by
30
L=-2A- 2x 10/1.972 2(0.081)=0.906 cm(0.357in)
The effective length is
L2AL = =1.068cna(0 42lin)

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6. Find out the electric and magnetic fields from a short magnetic dipole.
[WBUT 2016
Answer:
Radiation from a Short Magnetic Dipole
A short magnetic dipole carrying
of lengthl and
current , is shown in figure 1. The analysis of the
radiation from the short magnetic dipole is identical
to that of a small elemental current element with the
only difference being the replacement of current by
the fictitious magnetic current
The retarded magnetic vector potential can be
(12
expressed as, A=[d Fig: 1. Short magnetic dipole and
/2 coordinate system

The above integral is evaluated considering the following practical assumptions:

1. l<<r: When the dipole length is very small as compared to the distance of the point
the integral is
observation where the is measured, the denominator of
potential
of
considered to be practically constant during the integration.
very small compared to the wavelength of
2. <<A: When the dipole length is as

is considered to be practically constant during the integration.

radiation, the numerator

. (1)
Under such condition, A=
r
relation
The electric field at the point of observation is obtained using the
E=Vx
co-ordinates and equating the coefficient of unit
Expanding E and VxA in spherical
vectors on both sides, we get
E, = 0

E = 0

E
1,sine
4T r
jo 1) (2)

Now for large values of r, all terms havingand higher powers are small and can be

neglected.
sin6 ( jojl, sin 0 ... (3)
4T 2r 2
The corresponding far field is
H , sin . (4)
2r2
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7. Write short notes on the following:
a) Loop antenna
WBUT 2013, 2018]
b) Microstrip antenna WBUT 2013, 2015, 2017]
c) Yagi-Uda antenna WBUT 2013, 2016]
d) Quarter wave Monopole antenna
WBUT 2015, 2018]
e) Log periodic dipole array antenna WBUT 2016]
Feeding method of microstrip patch antenna
WBUT 2016]
g) Hertz dipole
WBUT 2018]
Answer:
a) Loop antenna:
A loop antenna is a typical example of a wire antenna. It consists of a radiating coil of
any crosS-section and shape (rectangular, square, triangular, hexagonal, rhombic or
circular) as shown in Figure I and made of one
or more turns carrying RF current.
radiating coil is wound on a ferrite or air core. A loop with more than a single turmThe
is
referred to as a frame. Loop antennas find extensive use in radio receivers, UHF
transmitters, aircraft receivers and direction finding. Electrically small loop antennas
have radius, which is small compared to wavelength. These antennas referred to as
infinitesimal magnetic dipoles have low radiation resistance and are generally used as
receivers. In this antenna the current is of the same magnitude and phase throughout the
loop. In many occasions, the number of turns is increased to enhance the radiation
efficiency.

L
a) Square b) Triangular c) Rectangular

d) Rhombic e) Circular

Fig: 1. Different shapes of loop antenna

The Small Loop Antenna

radius a) is one of the simplest form of loop antenna
The single-turn circular loop (with
a square loop (with side length d)
whose field pattern may be determined by considering
as shown in Figure 2. Here it is assumed that the loop
of the same area, i.e., d* a
=

dimensions are small compared to the wavelength.

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(a) (b)
Fig: 2. Circular loop (a) and square loop (b) of equal area
Consider the loop to be oriented
depicted in Figure 2 with its far electric field having
as
only
E, component. Considering only two of the four small linear dipoles (2 and 4) the
far field pattern in the
yz-plane can be calculated. A cross-section through the loop in the
yz-plane is shown in Figure 3.

To
distant
point

Square
loop y Dipole 4

y
Dipole 2

As the
Fig:3
individual small dipoles 2 and 4 are non-directional
in the yz-plane, the field
pattern of the loop in this plane is the same as that for two
isotropic point sources.
E,-EyoeI +Eew
where E,s0 =
electric field from individual
dipole
s i n 0 = d, sin &

. Total field
E,= -2jE,o sinsin (1)
The factorj indicates that E, and Eo are in phase quadrature.
If d , then E, -jE,%d, sin 0
< =

. (2)
For the far field, Egp
of the individual dipole is

EEpo j60r[|L
(3)

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 ANTENNA THEORY&PROPAGATION
where is the retarded
current on the dipole and is the distance from the
r
dipole.
: Substituting cquation (3) in (2) we get
E, = 607|7|Ld, sin0
rA 4)
Now, length L of the short dipole= d, 2nd
area A of the loop= d and d, =

For small loop, the E, component of far field is

E,E, 1207[sin A
r (5)

and. the H, component of far field is

H, =EEz[/sin0
1207 (6)
The peak value of the fields are obtained by replacing || by I; where , is the peak
current (in time) on the loop.
b) Microstrip/Patch Antennas:
Microstrip or Patch Antennas find extensive applications in domains where size,
cost, performance, ease of installation and weight,
aero. dynamic profile are
fields of spacecrafts, high speed big constraints viz., in
vehicles, missiles, tanks, radars, satellites and other
strategic defense equipments. The microstrip antenna depicts several
conventional microwave advantages, over
antennas, such as light weight, low cost, low volume,
planar
configuration and compatibility with integrated circuits. These antennas can be flush
mounted to metal or other existing surfaces and
only requires space or feed line which is
normally placed behind the ground plane. However, the major disadvantages such
of
antennas are their inefficiency and very narrow frequency bandwidth. These antennas are
extremely popular for low profile applications above 100 MHz. They exhibit linear and
circular polarization and arrays of microstrip elements with simple or
multiple feed
provides greater directivity.

Advantages of Microstrip Patch Antennas

1. Low volume or small size
2. Light weight
3. Low fabrication cost
4. MMIC technology
Compatibility with
5. Integrability with feeding network and devices

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6.
Compact planer structure
7. Low
scattering cross section
. Multiple polarization property with simple changes in feed positiOn.

Disadvantages of Microstrip Patch Antennas

1. Low
gain owin to high losses
Very narrow bandwidth
3. Poor end fire
radiation
4. Radiation in halt space only
5. Low
power handling capability
Applications of Microstrip Pateh Antennas
1. Satellite and space communication
2. Spacecrafts and aircrafts
3. Radar and Actimeters
4. High speed vehicles
5. Tanks and Missiles
telemetry
6. Biomedical applications
7. Remote
sensing
and navigation
8. Feed element for
complex antennas
c) Yagi-Uda antenna: Refer to Question No. I of Long Answer Type Questions.
d) Quarter wave Monopole antenna:
One-half of a dipole (usually a short vertical) antenna mounted above the earth or a
ground/reflecting plane is generally referred to as
a Monopole antenna as shown in figure 1. It is
normally 214 long. The quarter wave monopole
antenna or Marconi antenna utilizes the
ground/earth as part of its resonant circuit. Here
the ground operates as the missing quarter
wavelength. Most of the low and medium
Frequency antennas are of Marconi types.
Actually the vertical monopole antenna is used
extensively in commercial broadcasting in the
frequency range of 500 - 1500 KHz owing to the Fig: 1. Monopole antenna
reason that vertical polarization suffers less
propagation loss than horizontal polarization at these frequencies.

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 ANTENNA THEORY&PROPAGATION
Same ficld is produced
by the monopole antenna as that produced by an antenna of length
2h fed with the same current.
The radiation is only in the
plane. hemispherc above the rcflecting
Total power radiated by
monopole
P10.7
and radiation resistance,
R, =107| 2
Thus for a
quarter wave
monopole, the radiation resistance is 40 ohms.
e) Log periodic dipole array antenna:
The log periodic antenna
resulted from the research activities
Raymond Duttamel, Paul Mayes, V. H. Rumsey and others. of Dwight E. Isbell,
As per V. H. Rumsey, an
antenna p0ssesses
frequency independent characteristics when defined only in terms of
angles. A log-periodic antenna is basically an array antenna with characteristics viz.
freqancy-independence, broadband, unidirectional, narrow beam and
that eriodically with the logarithm function of excitation having impedance
varius

periodic antenna is basically used in VHF and UHF bands. They arefrequency. used
The log

reception of a good number of TV channels and all round primarily for

for HF communication as no monitoring. They are also used
power is wasted in terminating resistance.
da-
da

H-plane
pattern n+
T O1 0

Direction of max1imum
radiation
R

E-plane R
pattern
O0

Fig: 1. Log-periodic Dipole array and radiation pattern

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he constructional geometry of the antenna is very interesting in a sense that the structure
IS so chosen that the
clectrical properties repcat periodically with logarithm of frequency
This non-linear
array is characterized by unequal spacing and dimensions of the multi.
clements. The log-periodic dipole away (LPDA) and its radiation pattern is exhibited in
figure 1.
The LPDA
comprising of
sidc-by-side parallel lincar dipoles forms a coplanar array
where the dimensions proportionally increase with distancè from the
origin. The different
lengths and spaced dipoles are fed by balanced 2 wire transmission line which is
transposed between each adjacent pair of dipoles. Along the anteanas the
length of the
dipole increases keeping the included angle (a) constant. The scaling or periodicity
factor (r) is defined as

R R , d, d, S,
... (1)

and the spacing factor (o) is defined as

R R
. (2)
2
The value of the scale factor T is less than one. A
straight line passing through the dipole
ends from both sides meet and forms an
angle 2a; characteristics of frequency
independent structure. A plot input impedance vs. logarithm of frequency is depicted
of
in figure 2. The figure reveals that the
input impedance is periodic in nature.

nput
mpedance

wwww V
log f log f
Logarithm of frequency
Fig: 2. Plot of inpul
inpedance vs. log of frequency of a
log-periodic antenna
f) Feeding method of microstrip patch antenna:
The different feeding methods of
Microstrip Antenna are:
Inset Feed
As the current is low at the ends of a hali-wave paich nd ncreases in
magnitude 10ward
the center. the input impedance Icould be reduced il the
patclh was fed closer t0
the center. One method of
doing tis 1.y US'ng m iusc food (a distance R from the etu
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 ANTENNATHEORY&PROPAGATION
as shown in Figure l. Since the
current has a sinusoidal distribution,
R from the end will increase the moving in a distance
current and the voltage will also decreases in
by the same amount that the current increases. magnitude
Hence. the input impedance scales as
Z(R)= CO Z , (0) where Z, (0) is the input impedance if the patch was fed at

the end. Hence. by

feeding the patch antenna as shown, the input impedance can be
decreased. This method can be used to tune the input impedance to the desired value.

Micro-sturip
transmission Microstrip
line Antenna

Substrate
Fig: 1 Patch Antenna with an Inset Feed

Fed with a Quarter-Wavelength Transmission Line

The microstrip antenna can also be matched to a transmission line of characteristic
impedance Z, by using a quarter-wavelength transmission line of characteristic
impedance 2 as shown in Figure 2. The goal is to match the input impedance (Z, ) to
the transmission line (2,). If the impedance of the antenna is Z,, then the input
impedance viewed from the beginning of the quarter-wavelength line becomes

T h i s input impedance 2, can be altered by selection of the Z. so that

Z a n d the antenna is impedance matched. The parameter Z, can be altered by

changing the width of the quarter-wavelengih strip. Tlhe wider tihe strip is, the lower thhe
characteristic impedance (Z,) is for that section of line.

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Microstrip
transmission- Micro-strip
Antenna
Iine

Substrate
Fig: 2 Patch Antenna with a quarter-wavelength
matching section

Coaxial Cable or Probe Feed

as shown in Figure 3.
Microstrip antennas can also be fed from underneath via a probe
and the center
The outer conductor of the coaxial cable is connected to the ground plane.
the feed can be altered as
conductor is extended up to the patch antenna. The position of
control the input impedance. The
before (in the same way as the inset feed, above) to
feed that may need to be taken into account
coaxial feed introduces an inductance into the In addition, the probe
if the height h gets large (an appreciable fraction of wavelength).
a

undesirable directions.
will also radiate, which can lead to radiation in
Patch
Antenna

Substrate

Ground Plane Coaxial Cable

Fig: 3 Coaxial cable feed of patch antenna

Coupled (Indirect) Feeds

For
altered such that they do not directly touch the antenna.
The feeds above can be
3 can be trimmed such that it does not extend
all the
instance, the probe feed in Figure
antenna. The inset fecd can also be stopped just before
the patch antennia
way up to the
as shown in Figure
4. The advantage of the coupled feed is that it adds an extra degree o
introduces a capacitance into the fecd that can cancel u
freedom to the design. The gap
the inductance added by the probe feed.
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 ANTENNA THEORY& PROPAGATION

Microstrip Microstrip
transmission W
line Antenna

Substrate

Fig: 4 Coupled (indirect) inset feed

Aperture Feeds
Another method of feeding microstrip antennas is the aperture feed. In this technique, the
feed cireuitry (transmission line) is shielded from the antenna bya conducting plane with
a hole (aperture) to transmit energy to the antenna, as shown in Figure 5. The upper
substrate can be made with a lower permittivity to produce loosely bound fringing fields,
yielding better radiation. The lower substrate can be independently made with a high
value of permittivity for tightly coupled fields that don't produce spurious radiation. The
disadvantage of this method is increased dificulty in fabrication.
Patch Antenna

Ground
Plane with
Aperture

T'ransmission line

Fig: 5 Aperture coupled feed

B) Hertz dipole:
A short dipole is also sometimes referred to as "Hertzian dipole". Actually the term
short is generally applied to length no longer then 0.12. If such a short dipole carries
non-uniform current it is referred to as elementary dipole/elemental dipole/elementarV
doublet. For infinitesimal dipole of length dl carrying current 1, the current element is

Idl.
generally referred to the tem

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i.e. l<<2
is very short as compared to wavelength,
'

In Fig. I(a), the dipole length

to its length, 1.e., d <<l. The
ofthe dipole is also small as compared
'

The diameter d
uniform current along the entire
end plates provide capacitive loading resulting in a
a balanced
transmission line as shown
dipole length. It is usually energized by connecting
a thin conductor of length
l with a
in Fig. I(a). Hence the short dipole is comprised of
uniform current I and point charges q and -q at the
ends as shown in Fig. 1(6). The

current is expressed as =
dq
dt

Transmission
line

Fig:
11 1 A short
(a)
dipole antenna and its equivalent
(6)
structure

used alon antennas, or in traditional "rabbit ears" or "bunny ears

Dipoles are as

television antennas, in SW antennas or as driven element in many other types of antennas

of the centre-fed vertical and horizontal
(e.g. Yagi-Uda antenna). The radiation pattern
dipole antennas of finite length are shown in Fig. 2 and 3 respectively.

(a) For short dipole (b) For dipole (c)L=

(Length Le< N2) (Length L =/2)

(d) L (e)L 2 .

Fig: 2 Vertical patterns of centre-fed dipoles of

finite length

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 ANTENNA THEORY &PROPAGATION

8 8
(L (b)L (c)L=.

()L- (e)L=2.
Fig: 3 Horizontal patterms of centre-fed
dipoles of
finite length

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ARRAY ANTENNAS
Multiple Choice Type 9uestions

1. Microwaves antenna aperture efficiency depends on weUT 2013

a) feed pattern b) antenna aperture
c) surface losses d) low side lobe level
Answer: (d)

2. Power and filed patterns are related as WBUT 2013

a) Poc E b) PoxE d) P1/E
c)PaE
Answer: (a)

3. Which of the following antenna array gives direction of maximum radiation in

perpendicular to the line of array axis? WBUT 2014]
a) Broad side array b) End-fire array
d) Parasitic array
c)Collinear array
Answer: (a)
4. In the broadside array the principle maximum occurs, with respect to the length

of the array WBUT 2015

c) 45 degrees d) none of these
a) along b) perpendicular
Answer: (b)
distance of half wavelength and fed
5. When two point s o u r c e s separated at the
acts as a WBUT 2015]
with uniform currents in sample phase, the array
broadside array c) collinear array d) parasitic array
a) end-fire array b)
Answer: (b)
WBUT 2017
6. In Broad side array the radiation is
a along
b) Y-direction c) both (a) and (b) d) none of these
a) X-direction

Answer: (b)

Short Answer Type guestions

WBUT 2014
1. What is pattern multiplication technique?
OR,
What is the principle of pattern multiplication? Explain its utility with examples.
WBUT 201

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Answer:

Multiplication ot pattern is stated as follovs:

The total ticld pattern of an
array of, non isotropic but similar sources IS ne
multiplication of the
individual source patterns and the pattern of an array of isotropiC
poit int sources cach located at the
phase centre of individual source and having the relative
amplitude phase, whereas the total phase pattern
and
is the addition of the
of the indivIdual sourees and that of the phase patiern
array of "isotropic point sources."
The individual source is either in the
array or an isolated one and in both cases It 1s
assumed that the pattern will remain the same. Here the
considered to be the reference point for total centre of phase the array 1

The total field pattern of an phase pattern.

array of non-isotropic but similar
as
source may be expressed
E=[E (0.0)x E, (0.6)]* [E,(0.0)+ Epa (0.)| ... (1)
where E (O.¢) =
field pattern of individual
source
E,(O.ø)= field pattern of
array isotropic point source
of
Ep,(0,0)= phase pattern of individual source
Ep (0,6) phase pattern of array of isotropic
=

The pattern muiltiplication point source

principle
is true for any number of similar sources. This
is a
speedy method for sketching the of
pattern complicated arrays simply by
and hence is an effective tool in inspection only
and the
designing of antenna arrays. The
principal lobe width
corresponding array pattern width are identical. The number of nulls are the sum
total of the number of nulls of the
individual pattern and the array
nulls also determines the pattern. The number of
secondary lobe in the resultant pattern.
To illustrate the
principle of pattern muiltiplication, let us consider a broadside linear
array of a 8-isotropic elements as
depicted in figure1. We divide the 8-isotropic elements
in groups of
4-isotropic elements; each group considered to be one unit and
apart. The radiation pattern of 8-isotropic elements is spaced 2
obtained by multiplying the unit
pattern of 4 individual elements as
depicted in figure 2 and the group pattern of 2-
ISotropic radiators spaced 22 as shown in figure 3. The resultant
figure 4. pattern is as shown in
2

(a)
/4 /2 /2 /2 /4

2.
(b)
Fig: 1. (a) Linear arrays of 8-isotropic elements spaced /2 apart
(b) Equivalent two units array spaced 2A.

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16 60
40

-2.-
Fig: 2. Resultant pattern of 4
isotropic elements Fig: 3. Resultant pattern of isotropic
radiators spaced 21..

Group pattern dåe to two Resultant pattern of 8-

Unit pattern due to 4
isotropic element space IsOtropic element
individual elements
21 apart

Fig: 4 Resultant radiation pattern of 8-isotropic elements by

pattern multiplication.
width is identical to the width of the
The resultant pattern depicts that the principal lobe
The sum of the nulls in the unit and the group
corresponding lobe of the group pattern.
number of nulls in the resultant pattern: assuming here that none o
pattern gives the total
coincident. The number of nulls in the resultant pattern helps
the nulls are
determination of the number of secondary lobes in the resultant pattern.

2. Differentiate between broadside and end-fire array. WBUT 201

Answer:
number of identica
1. Broadside Array (BSA) arrangement (Figure 1) where a
-

an

a line drawn perpendicular to their axes. T

parallel antennas are set up along
and fed with currents '
individual elements are equally spaced in a straight line
maximum radiation in the broadside directior
equal magnitude and phase and fires
(perpendicular to the line of array axis). The
radiation pattern is bidirectional a
vertical (normal to the planc of elements) as shown in Figure 2.

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 ANIENNA IIORY& PROPAGA11ON

Dieconof
N Fadaton

Antenna
r a y axis

Directuo
a x radation

Fig: 1. Broadside Away

Fig: 2. Radiation pattern of BSA

. End fire Array (EFA) an arrangement

(Figure 3) identical to that of BSA. except
-

that the individual elements are fed with

currents out of phase by 180°. Here the
identical elements are spaced equally along a line and fed with
currents of equal
magnitude, where phase varies progressively
along the line to make the
unidirectional. The principal direction of radiation coincides with the arrangement
direetion of the
array axis.

Array Direction of
axIS
max radiation
Fig: 3. End fire array

.Find the radiation pattern of an antenna

array of two point sources with same
magnitude and phase of applied current. The point sources are
spaced by half
wavelength. WBUT 2016]
Answer:
SIder the simplest situation of a two clement array separated by
distanee' d'. In order
a

a y the total field produced by the antenna array system, let tuS Consider three cas es.

a
e- o isotropic point sources with equal amplitude and equal phase
w
igure 1 depi
cpicts two isotropic point sources and situate syimmetriccally with
eieerence
ret the origin
to igin. The origin here is considered as thie reiercnce point for phese
CalculIOns.
ations. Electromaenetic ray from source i will reich tle distant point 1ite han
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that rom source 2

owing to path differences. While the field from source la
1 lags. the
from source 2 leads in phase.
To great
distant point P

CosO
2

COST70
d 2 0 0

d
Path ditfference (1'
-2') Fig: 1

os6+cos
2 2
=d cos0 (m) (1)
d
cos (wave length) (2)
. P1ase difference o=27x (path difference)
27:d
cos (radians) =
ßd cos 6 (radians) . (3)
(3)

where, p =-

Total field at P
=E,(e
=
E,oual +e ...
(4)
= E, = E,; where E, and E, are the far electric fields at the distant point P]

e v/2+eó/2
.
.E=2E
otal

2 2E, cos(p/2)

2E, cos2cos0 (5)

2

Total amplitude =2E, and phase =cos(¢/2)

Norr1alizing amplitude 2,=1, we have
pd cos 0)
EotalCOs 2

E
COS
2cos0 COsCOs (6)

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 ANTENNA TIIEORY& PROPAGATION

,
i s maximum, when cos|cos|= tl

cosmN=t nT; n =0, 1, 2,...

if n=0, cosa =0
= 90° or 270°
. (7)

ETa1Sinimum, when coscos=0

Ar. cosin£(21
2
+);n=0, 1,2,..
ifn=0,cos m =t
ax

mi0 or 180° 0-90

(8)
Atpoint where power is half, cos| c o s
min min
6-0

2
cos p +(2n+1):n=0,1,2,..
max
if
n=0,cos O =t Fig: 2
Gyp=60° and 120° (9)
igure 2 depicts the plot of field pattern E Vs. 0 for d=a/2. The pattern is
bidirectional (figure of eight). This simplest type of BSA is also referred to as the
broadside couplet of two isotopic radiators.

A three element array with isotropic sources at a spacing of d = i s along the

4
Mi. The excitation coefficient of each outside element is unity while that of the
center element is 2.
Find: a) the array factor.
b) angles where the nulls of pattern occur. [WBUT 2018]
Answer:
e Ikr Jkr
a) E e
+E, +E, 2E, =

r
+E +
=r-dlog6
r+dlog0
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(kd
AF(O)=[+ log(kd.log0)]= log?|log0
2
using 2 log(A)=1+log (2A)]

b) The null are at AF = 0 or cos"(2n)

n=1,-1,+3,-3
Therefore no nulls exist.

Long Answer Type Questions

is 13.46 dB down from the
1. For N-element array show that the first minor lobe
major lobe.
WBUT 2013]
Consider a multi-element linear array (Figure 1) comprising of 'n' isotropic point
and fed with currents of
sources. Let the point sources be equally spaced (at distance d)
equal amplitude and phase.

To distance point P

2
d cos
7 n-1 n = 0
2 3 4 5

Fig: 1
Here E = E, = E, =.. =E, = E,(say)

is
Total field Etotal at point P
E, e'° + E, e'° +....+ E.e(n-1)6 (1)
EToalE, e" +

where =ß d cos 6 + a ..(2)

= E,|1+ e" + e + e ° . + . . . + e'-)o

Sin no
1- 2 ... (3)
-E,
sin9
Substituting, ¥=

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 ANTENNATHEORY& PROPAGATION

EToal
= E,e"
2
E sin2 (4)
sin
)
f the reference point lor phase is shifted from source 1 to the centre of the array. P is

sliminated. thereby leaving behind

sin no
2
.. (5)
sin

where the primary pattern/individual source pattern = E,

sin 4
And the secondary patterm/Array Factor (AF) =|

Maximum field from array is produced in any direction 6 when p=0.

in case of BSA, a =0 and for maximum field d=0
From equation (2), Ad cos@ =0 cos 0 =0 or, e=90° or 270°
Hence principal maxima occurs at 90° or 270°

6max =t(2N +1)- . (6)

For minor lobe maxima, Bad cos +a
n

or, cos 6nax +(2N +1)-

pd L n

Now for BSA: a = 0

cos+(2N
(2+1+1)Ba
. (7)
cos (2N +1)
2nd
t 2N - (8)
Or minor lobe minima, Bd cos m+a =

0r,Cos min +2N-a

n

Now for BSA: a =

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'.
min s =
cos
12N coss 2
nd
(9)
Bd
FNBW
BSA
2 radian .. (10)
nd L
where L =
nd =
length of antenna array
n no. of elements
d= element-clement spåcing

In terms of 2x57.3 114.6°

degrees, FNBW= .. (11)

FNBW 57.3
HPBW IBSA radians ... (12)
2

The 2
amplitude of first minor lobe =and amplitude of principal main
37T
=
n

Ratio of amplitude of secondary lobe to the principal

= 2n/3 -0.212 -13.5dB
n 3T

2. a)
A 1.22 long dipole has 1/A
peak input current. Find the maximum peak curr
seen on the dipole. If the dipole is oriented
along the z-axis, find the radiat
electric and magnetic fields ata distance of 100m
along 60 WBUT 20
Answer:

The electric field is Eo =|E,lá, oPigc

4Tr
=
sin 6à.
and the magnetic field is H=|H, =

4Tr
sin 9à,

x sin 60°= 1.2

x0.866
4Tx100 To100
10
= n x5.196x10 =377x5.196x10 =1.96
E, =1.964
27T 1x1.22
H 4Tx 100 -Sin50°=x
60°=2
200
0.866 5.196x 10
H=5.196x10 a,

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 ANTENNA THEORY&PROPAGATION

Cind out the total Electric field and Array factor for a 2 eloment antenna array.
b)
WBUT 2015]
Answer:

Consider the simplest situation of a two element array separarated by a distance'd'. In order
efidy the total ficld produced by the antenna array system, Jet us consider three cases,
viz.
se-I:
Case Two isotropie point sources with equal amplitude and equal phase:
Refer to Question No. 3
of Short Answer Type Questions.
Case-Il: Two isotropic point sources with equal amplitude and opposite phase
Thetotal ficld Eroa at point P is E = -E, e + E,M
Here. E = E. = E,

E E,(-e+e") =2jE, sin p/2 =2jE, sin |cos)

2
The operator j reveals that the opposite phase brings a phase shift of 90° in the total
field.

When d =A/2 and 2jE, =1, then ETl =sincos6

. Eoal is maximum, when sin|cos =£

orcos max =t(2n+1)n=0,1,2,.

if
n=0,cos =+
0=0° or 180°
max

Toal is minimum, when sincos 0|=0

or, Cos 6 min

= t nt ; n= 0,1,2,..

If
n= 0,cos in=0
=90° and -90°
point where power is half; sincos04

COS O = +(2n +1)- 0,1,2,.

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f 0,cos 4
S 60°. 120°
igure 3 depicts the plot of field pattern. The maximum is shifted by 90° along the
Joining the Iwo sources and hence is of the type end fire array.
min
0

90°

max
2 0-0
d /2 f X

min

Fig: 3

Case-Ill: Two isotropic point sources with unequal amplitude and any arbitr:
phase
Let 'a be the phase difference between the two sources 1 and 2 and E,>E,(say)

. Total phase difference is o = d cos +a

To distant point P

Fig: 4

Total field at P is ETonE, e + E, e"= E1+ E(+ me

E. and 0 m l as E>E,
where m= -

E E|1+m(cos +jsinø) + cOsq/ sin

T - tan
and phase angle at P,
+ COs

A P-FC-72
 ANTENNA THEORY& PROPAGATION
For
c) the two olement
antenna array skotch the
normalized field pattern when tne

rrents are fed 90° out of

curr phase and intorelement spacing is WBUT 2015]
Answer:

Ts normalized ticld pattern is shown in figure

90°
Phasing.o

Spacng
d

3. a) A three element
uniform array is io be designed
the
to get maximum radiation in
broadside direction. There is, however an interterence
source 1ocatea in a

direction of 45° from the array axis. The interference is to be

completely
suppressed by placing a null in the direction of the interference source. Design the
array
b) For an Uniform Linear Array derive the direction of maximum radiation and
direction of null for both End-fire and Broad-side array.
WBUT 2018]
Answer:
a) Let, A, B, C three element antenna array As this array antenna maximum radiation in

thebroadside direction. So ax
Let, Inter element spacing = d
Progressive phase shift = 6
Suppose element A is the reference element
. total phase shift of B with respect to A = Bd cos +o

and total phase shift of C with respect to A =2(d cos o+ 8)

S0, element ficld component of A, B, C are

E,- E, <0 = E, e
E Bd coso+8= E, eleosd. 0)|
/(/5/ cos
-
A)
=E2(/%d cos+8) = ,

Total electric field

+ E , + E. E =
+e /idg+o) e

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|I-¥
1-e
where = Bdcosp +ð

e sin
2
Ep e ' 2

,
sin
3
Sin-
Normalized Electric component, E =
-
2

sin
So, we will get max radiation when y =0

Bf cos mat =0
Bdcos ma =-6

Pmax 0S
Bd
AS

cos27d)
8=-Bd cosa
So Bdcos- Bdcos
COS
T max

2nd
As It is a broadside array antenna.

.Pmax

cos48 2rd

2nd
.. (1)
d

And for the Direction o f null E = 0

sin 3y
2 = 0
N sin2

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 ANTENNATHEORY & PROPAGATION

sin(=0

3 tm t

2m

pd{cos o-cosa = t 4

cosé-cosx x As, m=
c o s = t m E
ma
3d
As interference located at 45° from the array axis, So, d 4 5
ma
cos 45°=t
3d
mA
3d

d=tma
Byusing equation (1) and (2) interference is to be completely suppressed.

b) Uniform Linear Array:

If the antenna element are arranged in a uniform passion in a straight line are krnown as
Uniform Linear Arraay
Let us consider the Antenna array are linear and identical ihat means all the Antenna
array are arranged such a way that the inter element spacing of the antenna are same and
they are having progressive phase shift. They are excited with uniform current with same

amplitude.
Let,
Interelement spacing=d
Progressive phase shift = 8

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uppose the left side of the element in the figure below is the reference element
Towards Observation Point

Bd cos p

4 50 (N-1)8
20 36

Fig: Uniform Linear Array

So, from the left side-

element have phase shift = 0°

ð
element have phase shift=
3 element have phase shift= 25
Similarly K" element have phase shift = (k-1)6

Total phase shift between two adjacent element will be =Bd cosd+6
Where pd coso' phase shift due to space
= Angle between the array like to the observation point

p- 1 = wave length

So, electric Field component of the element

E E, <0 E, e0
= =

E =
E, <(Bdcoso +8) E,eiMcong-)
=

pd cosg+6)
e
E =
E, 2(Bdcosd+ 8)
BE(k-1(Bdcoso +8)= E,ek-iXBdcosg+8)
Total Electric Field
E= E + E, +E, t .+Ey
... +e/W-1)v
= Ee°+ Ee' + Ee'" +. ********

N-1)v
= E 1+e" +e2 e

= E,e
N-1)
2
sin(N
sint
So, for normalized Radiation Pattern.

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 ANTENNA THEORY&PROPAGATION

sin(N
sin

AK E =
NE% trom the basic electric
As.

component summation
So.
we vill get max
radiation when = 0
pdcos +8 =0
Bd cos Pma

ma = cos| Bdcos
2rd

or.-pd cospma
As. = Bdcos +S

. Bd cos o-Bd cosma

2)
We can use both the
equation for the maximum radiation pattern.
Now there is two
special cases for the Antenna array,
)End- fire-Array:
When max =0 or T

8=-ßdcos Pmax Bd for Pmax=0

8-Bd cos omax +Bd for omax 7
y= (Bdcos+8)
=
Bd(cosd +1)
(i) Broad Side Array:

Pmax

S= Bd cos max
=0 For max
y = ßd cos

Direction of Nulls:

sin(N
E=
sinsin
When numerator term is 0, E = 0
So, For direction of Nulls

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Sin y
0
2
Ny tm r
m= 0,1,2,3,.
V =Bdicoso- cosn 2m
N

coso=cosoat 2m = COS Pmax

ma
NBd Nd
For End-Fire Array ( =0 or
r)
cos = +l+ A
Nd
And For Broad
Side Array (6ma
cos =mA
Na

4. Write short note on Phased Array antenna.

Answer: WBUT 2015, 201
The progressive phase shifts between elements is
methods; a phenomena controlled by applying electroni-
called electronic
Arrays (ESA) or Planar Phased scanning. Hence the Electronically Scannen
for scanning Arrays came into existence for their
purposes. The progressive phase shift is ability to be usea
ferrite phase shifters or diode done by the use of
electronicall
the ferrite controls the phase shifters in each feed line. The
phase shift thereby controlling the magnetic field withi
the wires. Very rapid amount of current flow
scanning of the direction of beam in throug
incremental phase change is
space achieved by
maximum radiation in any desiredelectronicaBli through phase shifters. Thus producina
direction can be controlled. direction
Large phased arrays are used mostly in
while the smaller ones are used as advanced radar
systems and in radio
communication system.
feed system
to
illuminate astronom
a reflector in satellit=

AT&P-EC-78
 ANINNA UILORY A I'ROPAGA JOL

APERATURE ANTENNAS
Multiple Choice Type Questions
JT is used for triggering an
an SCR, the ave shape of the voltage
When a UJT
ng SCR
1. from UJT circuit is a
wBUT 2007]
obtained
o b t a i n e d

a) Sine wave
b) saw tooth wave

c)Trapezoidalwave d) square wave

Answer: (b). but more accurate answer is timing spikes.

[WBUT 2015]
2. In C a s s e G r feed the sub reflector is
d) spherical
a) paraboloid b) hyperboloid c) ellipsoid
Answer:(b)

[WBUT 2015]
distribution of Tschebyshev array is
The current amplitude c) inverse tapered d) n o n e of these
a) u n i f o r m b) symmetric
Answer: (c)
WBUT 2171
. . .
antenna array has no side lobe.
4. b) Back-fire array
a) End-fire array
d) Binomial arraY
c) Broadside array

Answer: (d)
WBUT 2017]
statement:
Identify the incorrect two conductor
5.
are balanced antennas if fed by
antennas
a) Dipole
transmission line two conductor
unbalanced antennas if fed by
antennas are
b) Dipole
transmission line
antenna
n a r r o w e s t bandwidth
antennas are
c) Dipole directivity as that of small loop
the same
d) Short dipole has
Answer: (b)
WBUT 2018]
6. A Balun is transfer
b) an impedance
a) a resistor d) f r e q u e n c y c o n v e r t e r

c) an antenna
Answer: (b)
Questions
Short Answer Type
of d i a m e t e r 3 meters at a
circular aperture
antenna with a
WBUT 2014]
Find the gain of a n
frequency of 5 GHz.
Answer:
Given D, = 3m
f= 5GHz
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 POPULAR PUBLICATIONS

10
0,06 m
510
For a parabolic dish, the power gan 1S

6000
6.A0.06
64

i n dl3 log(lo000) 42.04 dB

Long Answer Type Questions

. Explain special features of parabolic reflector antenna and discuss on differe

types of feed used with neat diagram. weUT 2013, 20

Answer:
Parabolic Reflector
he parabolic reflector, so called owing to its shape resembling that of a parabola
1). H
Dasieally d iulector antenna employing the properties ofa parabola (Refer figure
a plane vave front over a large aperture is produced from a point source through a sha
reilector. For materializing this, the necessary condition is that the distance from
souree to the plane wave front via two paths 1 and 2 must be equal, 1.e.
2L =
R+ R cos 0 =
R(1 +cos6)
2L
or, R=- (1)
1+cos6
Eqn. (1) is the equation ofa parabola with focus at F and is the necessary equation for
required surface contour.
parabola

Vertex ANIS
F
2 Focus

-Planc wavelrot

Sheet
reflector
1) Direetix

ATP-TC-80
 ANTENNA T11EORY& PROPAGATION

ANIS

A Radiation pattern
B
(c) Aperture plane (d)

Fig: 1. Parabolie Reflectors and its radiation pattern

parabola around its axis, the surface generated is called

a paraboloid
On revolution of a
curve is
or a parabola of revolution. With reference to Figure 1(b), the paraboloid
curve to a fixea
defined in a manner that the distance from any point P on a parabolic
1.e..
F (Focus) is equal to the perpendicular distance to a fixed line (Directrix).
point
PF PO. then
directrix.
If AA be a line normal to the axis at an arbitrary distance QS from the
with reference to Figure 1(c).
PS QS- PQ and PF =PQ.
S is, PF + PS PF + QS PQ =QS. =

of focus to
-

. Distance
source at
which originates from an isotropic
Hence all w a v e s reflected from the parabola
at the line AA'. The aperture plane
is defined as
F, are seen to arrive with equal phase
cut-off.
the plane BB at which a reflector is
s o u r c e at the parabola
focus F. The shaded portion of the
Now let us place an isotropic wave of circular
source radiation intercepted by
the paraboloid is reflected as a plane
reflector surface from a true
that the deviation of the
cross-section with the assumption

parabolic surface small fraction of wavelength.

3, 5,......, i.e. an e v e n
L (n + 1)2/4 n =odd integer =1,
Ifthe focus-vertex distance.
=

the axial direction from the source will be in

direct radiation in
multiple of 2/4, then the of the retlected wave. However, it
cancel the central region
opposite phase and tends 1o

A/4.then the direct radiation is in

same phase in the
L=na/4. i.c., an old multiple of
and tends to reintorce in the
central region of reflected
axial direction from the source

wave [Rcfer figure 2 (a)]. Now hy

convcrt a spherical wave into a plane wave.
action is to
The primary parabola on the reflector are
reflected back thereh
all w a v e s incident
at F,
placing a feed no matter from vhich point o n th
antenna
waves.
front. The reflected
ominga plane w a v e
the directrix is in
the s a m e phase, thereby producino
parabola they are reflected, reaching

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The waves in other directione
concentrating along the parabola axis.
and
are cancelled

Secondary
patlern
Secondary pattern

Axis
D

Primary pattern
Isotropic source

pattern/Primary pattern

Horn
nA

(a)
(b)
Fig: 2
For the isotropic primary/feed antenna (considering ideal illumination)

HPBW=: D, = mouth diameter(m)

D
1402
FNBW
D
.. (2)
D 9.87
For large, uniform rectangular aperture (considering ideal illumination).

HPBW=37.52

FNBW=DA

L
D A7A .. (3)

For lossless antenna (with tapered illumination):

Power gan, g» 47TA . (4)
=2
For circular aperture paraboloid with dipole feed:

Power gain, g,
=
6.4 (5)

to use an offset feed. The reasons for it are that the

Sometimes it becomes necessary
narabola reflected waves at the primary antenna produces interference and mismatch and
mareover the primary antenna obstructs and blocks out the central portion of the aperture
resulting in increase in the minor lobes. 1hus to avoid these hurdles, the primary antenna

AT&P-EC-82
 ANTENNATHEORY& PROPAGATION

: ehtly displacedand a portion of

the as
offset feed, is depicted in figure 2 (b). paraboloid is used. This arrangemen, **

naraboloid of revolution the ratio of power density is given by

For a p a r a b o

1+cos 0)* where

cos): S, Sola0 =

4 (6)
tfield
and the
relative
intensity ratio in the aperture plane is Kpressed as

Be+Cos

... (7)
2
Eo
re same parameters for a cylindrical parabola are
S +Cos
. . (8)
2

1+cos6
and = (9)
2
at
The parabolic reflector produces narrow beam width and very large gain. It is not used
LF range owing to their large size. Its mouth diameter is kept at least 102 for better
lt
usefulness' and effectiveness (required mouth diameter is 48m at 63 MHz TV band).
finds great applications in fields and radars. Often mesh surtaces
of communication
employed to minimize the wind effect on the antenna and extra strain on the supports.

Feed systems for Parabolic Reflectors

The parabolic reflector can be feed by several methods as follows:

. Half-wave dipole feed

The simplest feed is a dipole with plane sheet reflector at the focus of the parabolic
characteristics and this
reflector as shown in figure 1(a). This has bidirectional radiation
of some part of the energy from
method suffers from spillover loss owing to escape
at the edges leading to
reflector. Moreover there is scattering of energy due to diffraction
however be overcome by the use of aa
formation of side lobes. The above problems may
the parabolic reflector as shown in figure
dipole with spherical reflector at the focus of
16).

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Edge Spillover
diffraction

-Dipole -Dipole
Feed
Feed
Sheet Spherical
Reflector Reflector

(a)Dipole with sheet Reflector (b)Dipole with spherical Reflector

Fig: 1 Dipole feeding system

2. Array of collinear dipoles feed

his is another possible primary feed antenna but this feed involves changing from
unbalanced system to a balanced one.
3. Yagi-Uda antenna feed
This produces a uni-directional pattern, but the antenna size remains a big problem. It
also blocks the reflected rays. The Yagi-Uda antenna feed is depicted in figure 2.

Radiating Antenna

iReflector
Director

Fig: 2 Parabola with Yagi antenna

4. Centre fed with spherical reflector

Here the primary antenna is placed at the focus of the paraboloid for better reception or
transmission as depicted in figure 3. The small spherical reflector prevents direct
radiation from the feed as it redirects direct radiations back to the paraboloid. Even if the
spherical shell obstructs the reflected rays, the obstruction is not much.

Spherical
reflector

-
Primary antenna
at the focus

Paraboloid reflec.or
Fig: 3 Center fed with spherical reflector

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 PROPAGATIO2N
NNENNATHEORY &

5 ,Hornf e e d

ramidal or conical horn

fed with co-axial or wave the focus
guide system is plac
heparabola as shown in figure 4. Horn has moderate directiona
o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

ota r d s the reflector and here is no direct radiation. Even though lityobs
19% or
c t270
s the
of
or 270
reflecte ray when placed at the focus, the obstruction is not much (typically
1%
otal retlected energy).

Horn

Feed

Fig: 4 Horn feed

á Cassegrain feed
sub-reflector tne surrounding
Laurent Cassegrain of France used a hyperbolic shaped of
of the main parabolic reflector thereby offering a flexibility design
prime focus point o r sub-disn)
second reflector (sub-reflector
for reflecting optical telescopes. The use of
an additional degree of freedom for enhancing
the performance in several
provides the
in
Cassegrain feed as shoWn
This classical arrangement is referred to as
applications.
Figure 5.

OF-OF
OB=OA

Feed horm
A is

B O Hyperbolic reflector
Circle of radius C F C ' F

Plane of symmetry of
hyperbolic geometry

Parabolio
reflector

Fig: 5 Cassegrain Feed

reflection from the hyperbolic sub-retlecto is

he rays from the focal point F after
wave front (circle
ol radius
CF ). Thus using Fernmat' s
required to form a spherical
principle of equality of path length
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C'A +FA =CA+ FA
Now, CA= CF
and FA-AF' AF
- 2(OA)
FA-A'F' =2(OA)= BA
which yields the relation:
a
. . (1)
where
a= OA = OB. f =OF' =OF,
rr and
standard equation yy as indicated in figure 5. Eqn. (1) is the
of a
ne Cassegrain hyperbola.
Feed arrangement, one of
w h the the foci of the hyperbolit reflector
paraboloid. Thus the electro-magnetic rays from the hormcoincides
focus of the
aCncident on the antenna
paraboloid
paraboloid. These incident reflector,; they are reflected back and are
rays are reflected and incident on the
propagate as a
plane wave Iront.

what are the

important parameters for
Discuss with proper designing a rectangular horn antenna?
Answer: diagram. [WBUT 2016]
Refer to Question No. 3 of Long Answer Type Questions.
3. Write a short note on Horn Antenna
Answer: WBUT 2014]
The pyramidal horn was first constructed by Sir
A flared-out Jagadish Chandra Bose earlier in 1897
its typical shape
opened-out
or
waveguide is generally considered as a
horn antenna owing to
resembling that of a horn. In comparison to
produces a uniform phase front with a larger waveguide, the horm antenna
flared out to improve radiation aperture. Actually the waveguide mouth is
tlare angle, the horn also becomes
efficiency, directive pattern and directivity. With small
small.
Generally in a waveguide, the wave propagation is restricted
hence the does not spread.
waves by the walls and conducting
However, once the wave reaches the
spread laterally and the wave front becomes mouth, they
spherical.
impedance matching, improve directivity and narrow the
The flaring is done to
beam width.
provide
aperture, the directivity also enhances. The horns Owing to large
pyramidal horn and conical horn (however other typesbroadly classified as sectoral hom.
do exist) are
depicted in figure l.

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 ANIENNA IEORY PROPAGATION
Rectangular Iloms
Cular |lorns
Waveguide lorn

Apertur

Throat
(a) Exponentially tapered pyTammdal (c)Exponcnttally tapcred

(b) Sectoral H-plane (1) Conical

Axis

(c) Sectoral E-planec (g) TEM bioconical

t.
(d) Pyramidal Fig: 1 (h) TEo bioconical

The sectoral E-plane and H-plane horns have flares along the direction of electric and
magnetic field respectively. However flaring along E and H are referred to as pyramidal
horn which has the shape of a truncated pyramid. A conical horn results if the cireular
waveguide are flared out.
The gain of the conical antenna is optimum for a given slant flare length (() and diameter

ofthe aperture, d =

Directivity of a lossless horn antenna is expressed as

lfaperture efficiency E= 0.6, D= 7.54 . (1)

For
rectangular hom: A, =
d,d
whe
wnere d = aperture size i n E -plane, and

Haperture size in H -plane

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For conical horn:
A,= Td
where daperture diameter.
CC-plane and H-plane radiation ficld patterns of rectangular i as a function of
angle and horn length flare
are
depicted in figure 2
R 1 R 2) R 4) R 81 R 16.

0 - 20 E-plane

R R 2 R 47 R 8. R 16. (a)

O20°
H-plane

O5° E10° 20° Op 30° E=40 O 50°

R=8
M E-plane
O5 e 10° 6 20° 6 =30° =40 =50° (b)
R 87 0 H-plane

Fig: 2
Design equations of Horn Antenna:
Considering the equivaBent diagram of a horn anteuna as shown in Figure 3, wve have
l= Length of centre of feed to centre of antenna
6 Path difference between centre of feed to the
=
centre of antenna and centre of feed to
edge of antenna.
d = aperture diameter

0= angle depicting flare out of horn.

.'. cos /2
2 NOI2

and tan| d/2

0 2 cos . (2) Fig:3

5)
2 tan . (3)

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Aso. (+ 8)

ofr.+2/8+S

S is small, hence is very small

21
(4)
or. half-poweer
Also, the
(4) are the design equations for horn
antenna.
and
aations (2). (3)
width in E and H-plane
are
heam

diameter in E -

plane
d =

6,
672 :d=diameterinH-plane. (5)
=-
and.
d
A ... (6)
D =

and directivity,

. (7)
power gain. g, =
4.5 Ap
are as
follows:
antennas moderate gains.
of horn with
The uses
at Microwave
frequency bands
primarily used
(2) Horns are feed element.
These are used as antenna
parameters.

(b) measurement
and study of different
laboratories for
C) Also in

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RADIOVWAVE PROPAGATION
1.
Multiple Choice Type
- guestions
The
ground wave field
a) strength is
inversely proportional WBUT 2013
to distance
Dinversely
c) directly proportional to tiie square of distance
a)
directly proportional to distance
Answer: (a) proportional to the
square of distance
2.
Space wave
a) below HFpropagation occurs at
frequencies
Answer: (¢) b) in HF c) above HF WBUT 20151
d) none of these
3. Ground
wave
propagation is
a) AM broadcasting widely used for
c) over the horizon b) ship to ship communication
WBUT 2015
Answer: (d) radar d) all of these

4. When the transmitter

and receiver
wave link must working at are
separated by a skip distance the
a) MUF sky
c) LUHF b) less than MUF WBUT 2015
Answer: (b) d) none of these

5. The true horizon

based on
geometric straight line of sight is
a) d(kms) 3.566Vh. (mts)
=

b)
WBUT 2015
d(kms) 4.266/h. (mts)
=

c) d(miles) 3.566/h, (n)

=

d)
Answer: (a) d(miles) 4.266Vh. (ft)
=

6. The maximum distance which can be

frequency is defined as covered by ground wave for a
100
given
a) max km WBUT 2016]
b) na 100
fMH:)
3rkl:) =km
100
c) max fkile) -km 100
d) ax
Answer: (b)

7. Critical frequency of the ionospheric layer is given as

a) f. =9N b) f 81VN max
c) f=9N
WBUT 2016
Answer: (a) 111AX d) f81N m
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8.
correct expression for refractive index for any ionospheric layer is
The cor

WBUT 2016]

81N 9N 81N
a) b) n= c) d)n
Answer: (a)

WBUT 2016]
9.
The highest electron density is found in
b) E-layer d) F2-layer
a) D-layer c) F1-layer
Answer: (d)

WBUT 2018]
10. Duct propagation is useful to
a) reduce the effect of curvature of earth b) create shadow zones
transmission
c) lower the frequency d) lower the distance of
Answer: (d)

Short Answer Type gQuestions

mean by
1. What are the different modes of radio wave propagation? What do you
wBUT 2013]
fading?
Answer:

Part:
with the
The various obstacles, discontinuities andpropagation medium variations along
waves in a n earth
inherent wave properties dictate the propagation of electro-magnetic
modes of radio wave
environment and its immediate surroundings. The three prominent
propagation from transmitter to the receiver are:

1. Ground wave / Surface wave

2. Sky wave/lonospheric wave/Short wave

wave
3. Space wave/Tropospheric

2nd Part:
Fading received signal strength at the receiver
Fading is defined as the fluctuation in the or a
random variation in the received signal. It may be regarded as undesirable variations in
at the receiver. Fading is attributed
loudness of the wave received
ta
intensity or

lations in ionospheric conditions and multipath

reception.

2.Derive line of sight distance in space wave propagation. WBUT 2014]

Answer:
The radio horizon of an antenna is defined as the distant points locus
al
at which antenna's
direct ray
rayy become tangential to planetary surlace.
On a
surface, tha
spherical surface. the radio
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horizon to space wave
norizon is acircle. The curvature of the radio
the earth exhibits
propagation. It extends beyond optical horizon 1or he
hr
standard atmosphere
owing to bending or refraction Optical
ofradio waves; typical value is about times the horizon

3
optical horizon. The refraction takes place owing to
changes in tropospheric layer density, temperature,
relative conductivity and water-vapour content. Curvature of ray path as a
The radio Fig: 1
horizon which is actually the range of air refractive index
tn
direct ray from transmitting antenna travels to reach
result

the receiving antenna. It is thus enhanced by increasing the antenna helgnis.

Earth's radius, a as shown
r the cquivalent straight line ray path for equivalent
in Figure2.
d
(a +d =(a' +h, (1)
d d
where a' is the earth's equivalent radius M P
hr ha
h = height of transmitting antenna(MA)
A B
or, d =a+h +2a'h, -a?
a
= 2a'h +h

Now, as a >>h, d 2a'h (2)

Similarly, (a')* +d2 =(a'+h, (3)
0
or, d =2a'h, +h Fig: 2
Again, as a'>>hg, d2a'h ... (4)
Let d be the maximum distance of tropospheric propagation
From figure, d=d, +d,
d=2a'h, +2ah, . (5)
Now, the earth's equivalent radius a'= ka
0.048
where k is the effective earth's radius factor =.

dM
dh
a is the actual earth's radius = 3960 miles.

0.048 0.048
.a dM 0.036 -a . (6)

dh
dM for standard atmosplhere = 0.036 units /

dh

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a (miles)=
3960 miles =(4x1320)miles= 5280 miles.

(6.37x 10° )m = 8.493x 10°m.

a ( m ) =

3
from cquation (5).
Hence.
d(km) = V17h, (m) + y17h,(m).. (7)
wave
from
of sight (LOS) is defined
the distance covered by direct space
as
Theline of
antenna height
ransmitting to receiving antenna. The LOS is dependent upon the
transmitting

mtter and receiver and the eftfective earth's radius factor (k).
uation (7). the line of sight is expressed as
From

des 17h,(m)
+y17 h, (m) . (8)

WBUT 2016]
3. Prove
that refractive index of inonosphere.
81N

Answer:
Refractive Index of Ionosphere
The refractive index (n) of the ionosphere is
defined as the ratio of the phase velocity of a
wave in vacuum to the velocity in the ionosphere

.(1)
Vp

wnere e= relative permittivity.of the ionosphere.

,=1-
Ne .. (2)
ma Eo
N density of electrons (m)
10"C
charge of electron 1.6
= x
e=

at rest= 9.11x10" Kg
m mass of electron
= 27f= angular frequency of wave.
at very hign temperature consisting of the
plasma is the completely ionized gas
The plasma frequency ) . i.e.
.e., the natural
charged nuclei
ei and negative
electrons.
is the one at whieh e,=
particles in plasma region,
on

irequency of oscillation of charged

Henc from cquation
ed (2), putting w
=
0, and e,
0, we have

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0=1 Ne
mo EFo
Ne?
or, =-

or, o Ne2 .. (3)

m E
= N e 2 = 9N .(4)
Eo

Refractive index, n
=ye .. (5)

From equation (5), it is evident that the maximum value of electron density of the
lonospheric layer determines the highest frequency of the wave thát will be reflected
back from ionosphere. This is called the critical frequency, J.
Thus if Nmx be the maximum value of the electron density of the ionospheric layer, the
critical frequency is S. =9Nma . (6)
The phase velocity (v») is defined as the rate at which the electromagnetic wave

changes phase and the group velocity (v,) is defined as the velocity of propagation of
the envelope.

.(7)

and =Vp "g (8)

4. Derive the equation to show that the radius curvature of path in troposphere is a
function rate of change of dielectric constant with height. Draw the necessar
diagram. WBUT 2017]
Answer:
Let us consider a radio wave travelling nearly horizontally in the troposphere and its path
is hent into an arc by the variation ot the refractive index with height as shown in figure.

Let V= velocity of propagation

h height above the earth
=

R radius of curvature of the ray path

r = actual radius of earth

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 ANTENNA IHEORY PROPAGATIO

Then from figure,

Arc V+ dv) d
Angle =

Radius dh V+dv
vdt vd
d0 R
Rd0= vd . (i) h+ dh

Similarly. (R+dh)d0 (v+dv)di

= R+dR

. (R+dh-R)d0 =(v+dv-v)dt
dh de= dv dt
thEarth
. (ii)
dt
O
V ... ii)
But kr
where kr = dielectric constant (relative)
c=velocity of light
at height h
= refractiveindex
Hence the change in refractive index with height is obtained by differentiating Eqn. (ii)
w.r.t. h

dv - d_C.d
dh dh 4
=
Vd . . (iv)
dh

dv v ah : u=1 ... (v)

dh
Hence from Eqn. (1)

R= do (d0 dv d
dt dh dh

or,
dh . . (vi)
R
dp is a lunction ot the rate of change of
This s of the wave path
s Shown that radius of curvature and it changes Irom hour to hour, dav
refractive index with height
Clectric constant o r
o
day and season to season

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distance for D.
E. F1 F2 layers if t
and
ae the maximum single hop
respectively above the p
their
ts are assumed to be 70. 130, 230 and 350 km earth
and the
angle of incidence is 15° in all cases. WBUT 2017
Answer:
be
theangle ofincidence, 1hen forsinglehop distance
4h
cos i=
4h +D
Where h is the height and D is the distance between single hop

= sec"i
4/ cosi
or, D = sec i-1
4h
or, D 4h Vseci-1
=

D 2hvseci-1
For angle Zi =
15°,
D = 2hvsec 15-1 =2hV1.0718-1 = 2/h/0.0718

2hx0.2679 =0.5358h = 0.54h.

For D-layer, D=0.54h = 0.54x 70 =37.8 km
For E -layer, D= 0.54h =0.54x 130 70.2 km
For F-layer, D=0.54h = 0.54x 230 = 124.2 km
For F-layer, D=0.54h = 0.54x 350 = 189 km

6. Define Doppler Effect in Radar system. WBUT 2018]

Answer
Doppler Effect:
In case of radio wave propagation, when a receiver is moving towards the source. then
the zero crossings of the signal appear faster leading to increase in received frequeney.
However if the receiver is moving away from the source then opposite effect ocçurs. The
resulting change in frequency is known as Doppler shift.
Let us consider the transmitter to be fixed at some location and let receiver be moving
away from the transmitter with a constant velocity v. A ssuming complex envelope of the
signal emitted by the transmiter be A e , then signal at a point along -direction (as
shown in Fig. 1) is

. (1)

whereA(x) = amplitude as a 1unction ol distance x, c=vclocitv o f liolht.

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 ANTINNA UORY &PROPAGAI

Fixed transmitter Movnp 1CCCve

O O-
F'ig: I llustration of Doppler eflect

the locatio of the constant velocity receiver, then

frTeprese

. (2)
initial position of receiver,
yelocity ot receiver mOving away from the sourceC

v a l u e of.r in Eqn. ( )) wwe get

stituting
A+

- Jr,

= A( +1v7)e e (3)

=10 1 (4)
Received frequency J,
where , = carrier transmission frequency.
s is evident from Eqn. (3);

hus Doppler shift = Af =1, -1, =-J0 C

. . (5)
Or.
C

negative depending on whether the receiver is moving

Doppler shift is positive or

transmitter.
towards or away from the

to ionosphere: [wBUT 2018]

7. Explain the following terms with respect
a) Virtual height
b) Skip distance
Answer:
4) Virtual height: Refer to Question I(a) of Long AnsWer Type Questio15.
No.
AnsH'er l}pe Questious.
0) Skip distance: Refer to Question No. 8(c) of lLong

Answer Type guestions

Long

1.e f i n e MUF, Critical frequency and virtual height. WBUT 20131

OR,
usual frequency in ionospheiic
etine critical frequency and
these
maximum
two parameters. WEUT 20171
getion. Derive the relation between

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 POULARPUBLICATIONs
An wer:
Maximum Usable Frequency
aNimum Usable Frequcncy (MUF) is defincd as the highest wave frequency at.
is r:tlected by the ionospheric layer at an angle of incidence other than normal inc which
idence
Crtical Frequency
The highest frequency of the radio wave that is reflected from the ionospheric laver
to the earth at Vertical distance is called the critical frequency of that ayer be
It layer. may als
regarded as the limiting frequency above which the wave penetrates throok
1on ospheric layer and below which the wave is reflected by the layer, when the
wae is normally incident on the
layer.
Critical trequeney. . where N= electron density
=9NN
;

Vir tual Height

W en a short pulse ofenergy, travelling with the speed of light is sent vertically upwe
the1 it reaches to a
height, called virtual height, taking a time same as the two ways trae
time of the reflection
of the actual from thepulse layer.
Ionosphere
Projected
height

Virtual
height (h)
Actual height

Th s height measured with the help of an instrument called

is
lonosonde.
. Virtual height, = C

where c velocity oflight (3x10 m/s)

=

T two way travel üme (approx. pulse duration=

150 Lus)
b) At what frequency a wave must propagate for
the D region to have an
refraction 0.6? Given N=500 electron / c.c. for D index
WBUT 2013
region.
Answer:
Fo D-layer:
8IN
Refractive index n=

81N 81x500 81x 500 81x500

or. -
1- n I(0.6) 1-0.36 0.64

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 ANTENNA THEORY &PROPAGATION
frequency f = 81x 500 251.56 Hz.
0.64

2. a pefine MUF, Critical frequency and virtual height.

b). At what frequency a wave must WBUT 2014]
ction 0.6? Given
propagate for the D region to have an index of
refractic
500 electron/cc for D region.
In a communication link two identical antennas at 10 GHz and used propagation
40 dB.
of If the transmitted power is 1W find the received
power if the range of the
link is 30 Km.
Answer:

slRefer 1o Question No. I(a) of Long Answer Type Questions.

b) Given:
N 500 electrons/cc
A=0.6

81N
Refractive index u =.
f
or, (0.6) =1- 81x500
2
= 1--
40500
f
40500 40500251.56Hz
,j=1-0.36 0.64

c)Given
=10GHz

Gy =10 = G
P = 1W

R 30 km
By Friis Transmission Formula,

Received power P, =P,G=

4TR
P,G,G«\ArR
2

3x10
Ix10 x10* xi10x10°
10x10°)
(47)x30x10)
0.633 x 10" W =
0.633 uW
= 6.33 x 107 =

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S.What is Duct
propagation. What Propagation? Determine the Skip distance in sk
sky wav
usuable frequency?
is radio horizon? Define virtual height? What
t is maximum maxi
Answer: WBUT 2014, 20161
Part: Refer to uestion No. 8(a) of Long Answer Type Questions5.
P'art:
Refer to Question No. 8(c) of Long Answer 7ype
P'art: Refer to Question No. 2 of Short Answer Type QuestuOns.
art:Refer to Question No. 2(a) of Long Answer Type Quesons.
Questions.
Part: Refer to
Question No. 2(a) of Long Answer Type Questions.
4.a) What is the Wave tilt?
Answer: WBUT 2015]
he waves transmitted from the transmitter and reaching the receiver by
Surface of the earth is gliding over the
usually referred to as the ground/surface wave. The ground
are also
loosely known as Norton surface waves, Zenneck waves, Sommertield waves
or waves
gliding waves. The propagation is
and a wave basically by means of a combination of diffraction
guide action. Signals having frequencies up to 2 MHz are
by means of surface usually propagated
All broadcast radio signals received
wave.
ground waves.For ground wave
during daytime are
close to each other
propagation, both transmitters and receivers should be
(approx. few kms) with their antennas having vertical
These waves find extensive polarization.
applications in broadcasting at LF range.
Direction of propagation>

Successive Increasing
angle of tilt
wave fronts

Surface of the Earth

Fig: 1
As the ground wave
passes over the surtace of the earth, it losses
absorption. part this lost energy Is made up by the energy diffracted of its energy by
some
A of
the upper portion of the wave iront. Hence the downward from
propagating wave suffers varying amount
of attenuation while propagating along the curvature of the
earth, depending upon
frequency, surface irregularities, permittivity and
conductivity. The attenuation increases
with increase in the frequency and thus is more suitable at VLF, LF and MF (up to 2
MHz).

Moreover the wave front ol the progressing wave tilts more and
more as shown in
1. This increase in the tilt causes short-circuiting ot the figure
eleetuic field comnonent of the
wave and hence reducing the 1iela strength. Ihe wave
ultimately dies out after traversing
AT&P-EC-100
 from ANTENNA THEORY &
S o m e
a i s

he range propagation
enhancesthe
t a
ce
transmitting antenna. However,
n c e

the
of
PROPAGATION
wave the field
For ground wav of the surface wave enhancing the transmitted power
strength (E) at distance especially in the VLF band. a
1207 hh from the
expressed
as V/m transmitting antenna is
(1)
1207
12 =
3772 intrinsic
=

impedance (n)
where

of free
h, effective space
height of transmitting antenna
h effective
height receiving antenna
of
d distance
=
from
transmitting to receiving antenna
A attenuation factor
I= antenna current
= wavelength
for flat earth, the surtace wave field strength as given by Sommerfield is
d (2)
where E Field strength at the earth surface at unit distance from
(neglecting earth losses). transmitting antenna
For a short vertical
unipole antenna, the field strength E, at a distance d on a
hypothetical
latconducting earth is E 90P V/m. =

d
for non-directional antenna in the horizontal
plane
proportional to the cosine of the elevation angle, the field producing
a radiated field
at unit distance (1
radiated power of 1 KW is km) for a
expressed as
E
E
300/P
S00 3001
d
V/m E 1000
V/m 300 mV/m
Mnere P radiated power in KW
d distance in km
The
Attenuation Factor / Reduction Factor A is often expressed in terms of two
auxi
Tor
yliary Variables viz., the numerical distance p and phase constant b given by
vertical polarized wave:
p cosb
XA

b
=2b,-b-b tan
x8x10a mhos/cm = 1.8x10 mhos/m
J (H:)
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For
horizontal polarized wave:
nd
A cosh

b=180-b
lan

b=tan
Where
b=power factor angle of the impedance offered by the earth to the
current. flow of
The
attenuation factor A accounting for earth losses is expressed as

2+0.3p for b<5°

AF 2+p+0.6p? .. (3)
or
where p= 0.582 dKmJ
o (mS/m) (Mz)numerical
distance . (4)
b= phase constant
(measure of the power factor angle of the earth)
For all values of b,

A= 2+0.3p sin b
A (5)
2+p+0.6p?
b0°
1.0 b 30
b= 60°
1 b= 90°
A (dB)10 A 0.1
b<5° b 180
0.01

0.001
-20
4 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
P

Fig: 2 Fig: 3

Ulses: The ground wave/surtace wave is remarkably

cogsonal or annual variation for a distance up to T000 Km.sieady, showing little diurnd
The ground waves are
radio navigation, ship-to-ship communicalion, used
ship-to-shore communication
maritime mobile communication. Inis wave relerred to as
Medium wave (MW) is US
ahlv in local broadcasting and all broadcast signals received
to ground wave propagation.
during davtime are

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 ANTENNA THEORY&PROPAGATION

Define
Def MUF, Critical frequency and Virtual WBUT 2015]
b) height.
A n s w e r :

R2afer 1o Question No. I(a) of Long Answer Type Questions.

Calculate the value of
c) frequency
electromagnetic at which
muS an wave
ragagate through the D region with an index of refraction
prop
0.5 and an electropn
density 3.25x10 electron/m'. WBUT 2015]
Answer:

81N
n= /1-dIN
ForD-layer:

I-
81N
81x3.25x10203.25x
1-(0.5) 0.75
10' =35lx10 x10' = 351x10

f=V3S1x10' =
18.73x10 Hz
5. a) Show that the refraction phenomena in the ionosphere is governed by the
relation of refractive index (n) of the media with electron density (per cubic metre)
and frequency in kHz.
WBUT 20171
Answer:
The refractive index (n) or the ionosphere is defined as the ratio or the phase velocity of
a wave in vacuum to the velocity in the ionosphere

n==V4,

Vp -
VE
where , =
relative permittivity of the ionosphere
=1 Ne2
(1)
mw E
N=density of electronsm
e= charge of electron=1.6x 10"C
m =massof electron at rest = 9.11x10 kg
27f angular frequency of wave.
= =

OW, plasma is the completely ionised gas at very high temperature consistig o t e
arges nuclei and nuclei and negative electrons. The plasna frequeney ( ) i , tho
ural in
frequency of oscillationof charge particles plasma repion, is tlhe one at wiic'h
,=0.
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Om
Eqn. (1). putting and &,
o= o, =0, we a
0-1 Ne

Ne

Ne

INe =9N
27 mE
Refractive index, n =yE,
tIs evident that the maximum value of electron density of the lonospheric layer
determines the highest
frequency of the wave that will be reflected back from ionosphere.
This is called the critical
frequency, f.
Ihus if be the maximum value
Nmas of the electron density of the ionospheric layer, the
critical frequency is f.
=9/Nm
b) The critical frequencies at an instant observed for E, F1 and F2 layers were
found to be 3, 5, 9 MHz. Find the corresponding maximum concentration of
electrons in these layers. Calculate the critical frequencies for these
layers if N
of each corres ponding layer reduces to 80% of the values obtained. WBUT 2017]
Answer
f 9N, ma
Or Nmasf/81
For E layer, f = 3 MHz N Imax /81 =9x10"/81 =0.111x10
5 MHz NmS/81 = 25x10/81 0.3086x10
For F, layer, f =

For F layer, f =
Nmyf /81=81x10/81=10
9 MHz

For E layer, N=0.8 x0.111xl0 9/N

mas
2.68MHz
For F layer, Nma - 0.8x0.3086x10 =9JN=9N0.2468Sx 10 =4.47MIH

For F laver,
= 0.810 9Nm=90.8%10 S.05MI1z

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 ANTENNATHFORY& PROPAGATIO
height
ine virtual he and skip distance as used in ionospheric propagat Draw
peram showing actual height and virtual
Explain height. the reason for
the diag
ce in eight. Explain with reason, the 'ordinary' this
difference and 'extraordinary
istic w a v e s .
charact WBUT 2017]
Answer:

Part:

irtua
Height: Refer to Question No. I(a) of Long Answer Type Questions.
Distance- The ninimum distance from the transmitter at which a sky wave ol a
Skip
frcqueney IS returned back to the earth by the ionospheric layers is known as skip
givenfreq
distance.

ndPart:
lonospiere

Lower edge of ionosphere

Virtual height (h)

True
Actual path or
Actual
actual
path
height

Fig: Vitual and actual heights of an ionized layer

3d Part:
The figure shows that as the wave is refracted from the layer, it bernts down gradually.
The actual path of the wave in the ionised layer is a curve and is due to the refraction of
the wave. The height OD is called the virtual height of the ionised layer as is not the true
height. The true height is the height shown in the figure: Virtual height is always greater
than the actual height. The actual height is less than virtual height because the
interchange of encrgy takes place between the wave and the electrons of the ionosplhere
causing the velocity of the propagation to be reduced.
4th Part
h the ionosphere, the electrons are set in motion by the elcetrie ficld of the radio wave
and the earth's magnetic field, then, exerts a lorce on the vibraing electrons producing
Wisting
w eflect on their paths. This rcacts on the incident radio waves, Tus he ea
magnetic ficld splits up the incident radio waves into two components. 1e., dhe ordinars
dnd the
extra-ordinary wavcCS.
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superimpos
the waves
without
sed
properties of the ordinary wave are the same as
from the ordinary
wave onl
distinguishable
gnetie ficld. The extra-ordinary w a v e is vs bend
different amounts by the
the upper region of F-laver or F-laycr. The two ao The rates of
f energy
different paths.
1onosplere and hence travel through it along slightly
have elliptical
polarization and
aDsorption and velocities also differ, The lwo waves
rotate in
opposite direction
7. Define MUF, critical frequency and fading, how they affect the sky wave

propagation. if the maximum usable

maximum electron density in Fz layer
uencyn ofn theelayer for an angle of incidence of 25° is given d s o
transmitter at 90 MHz.
comihunication link is established with 35 Watt
may be possible ifthe
ha the distance up to which LOS communication 40 mts and 25 mts
gnt ot the transmitting and receiving antenna are
respectively.
in) evaluate field strength at the receiver end. wBUT 2018]
Answer:
For MUF & critical
frequency:
Refer to Question No. 1 of Long Answer Type Question5.
For Fading: Refer to Question No. 1(2nd Part) of Short Answer Type Questions.

a) Angle of incidencei =25°

Maximum unusable frequency f =1 GHz=10° Hz
Now, we know,
JnySec(i)S.
where f is the critical angle.
and S9N
where N is the maximum electron
density.
au sec(25°)x9/N
N 10
9x sec 25°
N=1.01x 10 electrons/m
b) P=35, f =90 MHz, h, = 40 mts, h, = 25 mts.

i) d 1 7 h , (m) + {17xh, (m) m

= 17x40 +v17x25 m= 26.07-+20.6l m- 46.68
m
ii) Field strength at a distance d is given by
4Thh,E
otal
AT&P-EC-106
 ANTENNA THEORY &PROPAGAT1ON

P P V/m; where P is the effective radiated power (in walts)

Non,= 7 V

7x35 41.41 V/m

A90x10
3x103.33m
4Tx 40 x 25 x 41.41.
/m 71.67 V/m.
Eotal 3.33x(46.68)

short notes
on the following:
[WBUT 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017]
s W r i t e .

)Ductpropagation

b)Sky wave propagation

WBUT 2013]
cSkip d i s t a n c e WBUT 2013, 2014, 2015]
wave propagation [WBUT 2014, 2017
Fadingin
Sky
wave
propagation WBUT 2016]
e Space
Ground wave propagation WBUT 2017]

A n s w e r :

) Duct P r o p a g a t i o n :

the other, having different

The turbulent atmosphere has layers of air, one abovefrom
nerature and water vapour contents. These layers apart scattering, reflection andd
emp
called duct propagation/super
efraction of radio waves, gives rise to a new phenomenon
refraction of waves.
the layer oof
When sufficiently high frequency radio wave propagation through
a
variation of dielectric constant/refractive index, the layers traps
gmosphere having high
earth surface, within 50 mts of the troposphere
the energy causing it to travel along the
surfaces between layers of air
s is evident from figure 1. Here two so called boundary
wave between its walls.
form a duct or a sort of leaky waveguide, guiding the
the grounds, propagates far
The microwave signals, refracted in the duct and reflected by
mode of refraction of wavees
beyond LOS (even upto 1000 Km) through this special
called duct propagation. The ray parallel to the earth's surface travels in a series of hops
with successive reflection from the earth. The maximum wavelength of signals till which
3
in the duct is given by 2av = 0.084d2; where max= wavelength (in cm)
S trapped
nd h duct Waves trapped in
height (in m)
=

The atmospheric duct

ATMOSPHERIC DUCT

TTTTÍT
Ground Surface eiver
Transmitter
Fig: 1

SomeDuct propopagationfeatures
a)a) racteristic occurs
of Duct propagation
are as
with sudden and rapid change of
follows:
ectric cnstant vith

height.
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(b)lt
(Clthappens for neg:gative valucs ofdM/dh.
happens oving to inversion
i t is a of temperature.
and ide phenomena, undependable
rare
propagation; OcCurring due to super refran
(e) lical
Signals of
to
microwave propagation through wave
Budcs action
ViHF, UHF and an SHF bands propagate to long distance
(D Paion
lt where the transmitting antenna should be within the duct. through dugt
occurs in
CXIsts regions contif
tiguous to oceans or in regions where low and !
high moisture
) Duct
propagation happens during mons0ons.
b) Sky wave
Waves in the MF propagation:
and LF range
Onosphere (50 400 km above (frequencies between 2-30 MHz), reflected from
-

earth's surface) and useful for very long th

Communication are called
sky waves. Such distance radi
earth after reflection, wellsignals
gain back to the beamed into the sky, Come
agents of the beyond the horizon. The major dow ionizna
ionosphere are alpha, beta and gamma radiations
Cosmic rays and meteors. The
ionosphere
from the Sun,
C.v
divided into different extending between 50 -

400 kms
(approx)
1. D-layer layers/strata viz. OUTER ATMOSPHERE
2. E-layer
3. Es- layer F2-layer
250400km
4. F-layer Fi layer 140-250km
220 km
5. F- layer E - layer
90-140km
110 km
D- layer
STRATOSPHERE 50-90km
TROPOSPHERE
1. D-layer Earth
The characteristics of D-layer are as follows: Fig: 1
(a) Average height =
70 km; Virtual
height
(b) Thickness = 10 Km
=
50-90 km
(c) The degree of ionization depends upon the
altitude of the Sun above the
(d) Disappears at night, a small part however horizon.
remains due to
(e) Electron density, N= 400 electrons/c.c. galactic cosmie rays.
(f) Critical frequency. f. = 180 KHz
(g) Aids MF wave propagation a little;
actually absorbs MF/HF Waves,
(h) Reflects some HF waves during daytime; mainly retlects
VLF/LF waves.
2. E-layer
The characteristics of E-layer are as follows:
(a) Average height 100 km:
=
virtual height= 110 km
(b) Thickness= 25 km
(c) Disappears at night.
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 THEORY&
PROPAGATION
ANTENNA
( ) Aids N propagation a little; retlects some
wave
HF waves ring daytime.
nsity, N2x10°electrons/c.c
lectron dens

C r i t i c a l
frequency. f 4 MHz
()Maxmum
vimum sir
single hop range 23 50 km.

ESlayer

- layer/sporadiC E-ayer are characterized by small, thin clouds of intense

7he

i o n i z
tion supporting radio waves reflection up to 225 MHz.
a t i o n
The characteristics of
as tollows:
-layer are
appearsin height ranging from 90- 130 km
3)

b)
layer of very high ionization density.
thin
oradic
esence is spor in nature lasting for just a few minutes to several hours.
may exist both during daytime and night time.
nrOvides unexpectedly good reception of signals.
e) on occurs most frequently during the summer months.
t)this propagation
isl helps VHF signals scatter propagation over long distance.

single hop range

=
900 2500 Km; double hop distance over 3500 Km is also
possible.

4. Fl-layer
Thecharacteristics of R- layer are asfollows:

(a) height ranges from 140 250 km with average height =

220 km and virtual height =

180 km.
b) thickness = 20 km during daytime

(c)absorbs ; however passes some HF waves towards B -layer.

HF waves

(d)combines with F -layer at night.

e)critical frequency. f. =5 MHz.
Km.
) maximum single hop distance 3000 km.
summer for paths of 2000- 3500
g)It is the principal reflecting layer during
electrons/c.c.
n)electron density, N 2x10 - 4x10 =

5. F2-layer

C Characteristics of F,- layer are as follows

it falls to about 300 km at night.
a) h t ranges from 250-- 400 km during daytime;
g and 350 km at night.
al height =
300 km during daytime
f C)
thickness
200 km =

0combines with F- layer at night. ring bothh

both day and ight.
communications during
(e) it is the incipal reflecting layer
for HIF
prind
(0) electron density, N = 2x 10° electrons/c.c.
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height and
ionization density vary tremendousiy
average ambient a
time of day,
n)
highly ionizedtemperature and sun spot cycl
storms. layer; ionization variations are highly pronounced during magnetic
critical
frequeney, f =8 MHz day and
Nmum single hop distlance
at = 6
MHz at nignt.
=
3800 Km at day and = 4100 Km at night.
c) Skip distance:
c
imimum distance from
the transmitter which a sky wave of a given
at
Teturhed back irequency is
to the carth by the
shown in ionospheric layers is known as skip distance
figure 1. as (Dskip)
lonosphere--

Reflected
rays

T
Dskip
We have Fig: 1
fMU Je
2h)
Hence
replacing D by Dwe get,MLE Dskip
2h
or Dsup
2h

Ds =2h, - (1)

d) Fading in Sky wave propagation:

Fading is defined as the fluctuation in the received
random variation in the received signal. Signal strength
the receiver or a at
ntensity loudness
or of the
it may
undesirable
be
regarded as
receiver. Fading is variations
wave received at the in
variations in ionospheric conditions and multipath attributed to
Fading may be classifi . in terms of duration reception.
anid fluctuations Occurring mainly -
of variation in signal strength as
due to
for few seconds. multipath interference and lasting
Chart-term fluctuations -OccurTing mainly due to
variation in the
of the propagating medium and lasting for a few hours characteristics
3. Long-term fluctuations Occurring mainly due to
seasonal variations
propagation medium and lasting for a few days. in the
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 ANTENNA THEORY& PROPAGATION

The various types ot lading are as follows:

. Selective Fading is believed 1o cause
scrious distorion
nis lading
modulated signals. At high frequencies at which sky wave propa
this fading is tound to be verv prominent. AM signals with high valu
moaulauOn index are very much distorted on being subjected to sclective adi5
ce
Interterence Fading - This fading is primarily caused due to interie
1Ves
between upper and lower rays of a sky wavc. between different S d
reaching the receiver by different number of hops or through different paths
ld.
also betvween a ground wave and sky wave particularly at lower end
of HF Da
Owing to signals reaching the receiver through different paths, the relative phise
resultant wavc.
of the signals change thereby causing change in amplitude of the
This effect leads to interference fading.
Absorption Fading - This fading is caused due to the variations ot Sig 1a
3.
strength with different amount of wave absorption by the ionosphere.
do wn
Polarization Fading It is commonly observed that the polarization of a
4
-

of ordiniry
coming sky wave changes continuously. There occurs superposition
with
and extraordinary wave, which are oppositely polarised. Thus polarisation
at the recei /er
respect to antenna changes continuously causing amplitude change
and thereby giving rise to polarization fading.
distance. It is caused
5. Skip Fading This fading commonly occurs near the skip
-

ut
to the moving
by the variation of height or density of an ionised layer leading
of the receiving point from the skip zone.

e) Space wave propagation:

extend ng
The waves propagating from transmitter to receiver in the earth's troposphere
The sp.ice
surface are generally referred to as space waves.
upto 16 Km from earth's FM
waves have frequencies above 30
MHz. Practical communication systems like TV,
UHF and SHF bands comes under the category of
Radio, Radar etc falling under VHF, is by
space waves through the troposphere
space wave propagation. The propagation of
transmitter and reaching the receiver directly are
two means; (a) waves travelling from
from transmitter and reaching the
referred as Direct Rays, and (b) waves travelling In the second
are referred as Reflected Rays.
receiver after reflection from the ground
The space wave propagation is depictec in
case phase change
a of 180° is introduced.
Direct Ray
figure 1.
Reflected

ray

Fig: 1
ReceiveCr
Transmitter

shown in figure 2
4s assume a flat carth as
nd receiving antenna and d be
transmitting and
Let h, and represent the heights of the
figure 2.
as shown in
between the antennas

Her" A DCe and AMD is

the reflected ray.
is the direct ray
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' , h,y td
or,
()
Using binomial series, we have

d1 d d ,h )... (2)
2d
TTTT7TTTTTTTTTTTTTTn
Smilarly. d + R B M

2d (3) d
Path difference between retlected Fig: 2
ray and direct ray ls

+h,-h,h,
2d
2h 2h 2h,h . (4)
2d d
ience phase difference between the
two rays is a = (Path difference)
or, a =
2T 2h,h
d .. (5)
Now, the
resultant field E.at the
receiver is the sum of the field due to direct ray
(p) and the field due to reflected
ray (E,), i.e.,
phase angle 6 a +180° =
Eonu= E, Eg e +

where total
Moreover, E, Eg =
Eu (Say) =

ETanalEx,1+ea0=E+{cos(180+a) -jsin(180+a)}
.Tota!
=
E -cosa +jsin a= E, (1- cos +sin* a
a)
E 2(1-cosa) =E4 sin() =
2E, sin()=2E,, sin .d
=2asin 27h,h, )
Sin id
Here d
(6)
>>
h, and d >> h,
'. Total 47th,bh E
id (7)
The tropospheric wave field streingth is
iniluenced by the
ahove the earth s surtace. transition belween Curvature of the earth, hei
ground and space waves. ght
earth's imperfections and roughness and wave
polarization.
obstacles. presenCe ol iall buildinss, hills Or other

)Refer To Question No. 4(u) of Long.1ustwer Tvpe

Questio7s.

AT&P-C-T 12
 QUESTION 2014
Group A
(Multiple Choice Type Questions)
1. Choose thethe correct alternatives for any ten of the
induction field of short
fie current element varies
following
The as
)

a) b)
d) r

The radiation resistance oa antenna in free space is

given by
a) 377 ohms b) 73 ohms c) 36.5 ohms d) none of these

Fields are said to be

elliptically polarized if their magnitudes are
a) Equal & they are in phase
b) Equal & they differ in phase by 90
c) Unequal & they differ by 90°
d) Not equal but they are in phase
iv) The current distribution in haf-wave dipole is
a) Constant b) Sinusoidal
c)Triangular d) None of these

v)An antenna has gain of 40 dB at a frequency of 300 MHz. The effective area of the antenna in
Square meteris
a) 796 b) 10000 c) 2500 d) 3183

vi) Circularly polarized antenna is

a) Dipole b) Helical c) Yagi-uda d) Parabolic dish
vii) Radar antennas are usually
a) Dipole b) Parabolic dishes c) Helical d) None of these

Vil) Band width of antenna isS

a) Directly proportional to Q b) Inversely proportional to Q
c) Not related to Q d) None of these

he radiation pattern of loop antenna is

a) Circle b) Semi-circle c) Cardiold d) None of these
X) elevision receiver
antennas are usually
a) Loop antenna b) Yagi antenna
c) Parabolic dishes d) Rhombic antenna
POPULAR PUBLICATIONS
XI) Which of radiation in perpendicular to
the following antenna direction of maximum
the line of w n g antenna array array gives
gives Ou
array axis?
a) Broad side array b) End-fire array
c)Collinear array d) Parasitic array

xi)
Directivity ofantenna
a) Directly Inversely proportional to Beam-width
proportional to Beam-width b)
c) Not related to
Beam-width d) None of these

Group- B
(Short Answer Type Questions)
2.i) Define retarded vector
potential.
i n d the power density in W/m?, at a distance of 20 km from an antenna that is radiating 5kW
with a
directivity of 36 dB.
See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Short Answer
Type Question NO. S.

3. 1) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of micro strip antenna.

11) At a distance of 10 m the maximum radiated power is measured to be 160uW/cm2. If the antenna
is
radiating 120W of power, calculate the antenna gain.
See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNA, Short Answer Type Question No. 2.

4. i) What is radiation resistance of an antenna?

ii) Derive line of sight distance in space wave
propagation.
i) See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 6.
ii) See Topic: RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION, Short Answer Type Question No. 2.

5. What is pattern multiplication technique?

See Topic: ARRAY ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 1.

6. Find the gain of an antenna with a circular aperture of diameter 3 meters at a frequency of 5
GHz.
See Topic: APERATURE ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 1.

Group-C
(Long Answer Type Questions)

and retarded vector potential?

7. a)What is the vector potential
and efficiency of antenna.
b) Define gain, directivity
c The radiation resistance of an antenna is 80S2 and loss resistance is 102. Determine eficiency.
gain is 20. Also find out the beam solid anale
directivity if the power
Tnic INTRODUCTION TOANTENNAS, LOng Answer Type Question No. 2(a). (thi.&(c).

AT&P-EC-114
 ANTENNA THEORY &PROPAGATION
8 . E x p l a i n
the operation of Helical
antenna in Axial mode and
resistance of folded dipole is four times the normal
radiation resistance mode. Show that radiation
antenna. of single dipole. Explain
a s p e cnects of Yag-Uda the design
SeeTopic:. DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNA, Long Answer
Type Question No. 2.

9. Whatis
Duct
Propagation? Determine the Skip distance in
orizon? Define virtual height? What is maximum usuable sky wave propagationon. What is radio

Topic: RA AVE PROPAGATION,

WAV frequency?
See Long Answer Type No. 3. Question
fine MUF, Critical frequency and virtual
10. a) Defin

At what frequency a wave must propagate forheight.

the D
Given N=500 electron/cc for D region.
region to have an index of refraction 06

in a communication link fwo identical antennas at 10 GHz

and used
power is 1W find the received power if the range of the link ispropagation
of 40 dB. If the
transmitted 30 Km.
See Topic: RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No. 3(a), (b) & (c).
11. Write short notes on any three of the following
a) Duct Propagation
b) Fading in Sky wave propagation
c) Yagi-Uda antenna
d) Polarization
e) Skip Distance
Horn Antenna
a) See Topic: RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No. 8(a).
b) See Topic: RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No. 8(d).
See Topie: DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNA, Long Answer Type Question No.
d See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 8.
See Topic: RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No. 8(¢).
See Topic: APERATURE ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 3.

QUESTION 2015
Group-A
(Multiple Choice Type Questions)

1.
hoose the corred alternatives for any ten of the following
Space wave propagation occurs at frequencies
a) below HF b) in HF c ) above HF d) none of these

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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS
communication

oround wave propagation is widely used tor

to ship
b) ship
a) AM broadcasting these
d) all of
c) over the horizon radar
distance the sky wave link mi
must
separated by a skip
Vwhen the transmitter and receiver are

working at d) none of these

c)LUHF
a) MUF b) less than MUF
is
e rue horizon based on geometric straight line of sight
b) d(kms)-4.266/h,(mts)
a) d(kms) 3.566/h.(mts)
=

4.266/h. (ft)
c) d(miles) = 3.566/h. (n) d) d(miles)=

v) Radiation resistance of half wave dipole is

c) 3770
d) none of these
a) 36.50 b) 730

vi) The effective area and directivity are related by

87D
a) D = * 7 A
b) D-74 c) D - 2

vi) Grating lobes occur when the spacing equals

d) 22
a) b)

vii) In the broadside array the principle maximum occurs, with respect to the length of the array
a) along b) perpendicular c) 45 degrees d) none of these

ix) The current amplitude distribution of Tschebyshev array is

a) uniform b) symmetric c) inverse tapered d) none of these

x)The radiation pattern of folded dipole antenna

a) bi directional b) omni directional c) isotropic d) all of these

xi) In Cassi Grian feed the sub reflector is

a) paraboloid b) hyperboloid c) ellipsoid d) spherical

The fringing fields make the patch

xii)
a ) electrically wider b) electrically narrower
c) no change d) none of these

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 ANTENNA THEORY
&PROPAGATION

Group-B
(Short Answer Type Questions)

antenna parameters
Define the following
i) Gain

i) Radiation initensity
ii) Directive gain
i) Directivity
v) Antenna efficiency
Sce Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 7.

following terms:
3 Define the
transmission formula
i) Friss
i) Duality principle
See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 2.

4. a) Define retarded vector potential.

b) Calculate the power density at 100 feet for 100 watts transmitted through an antenna with a gain
of 10.
See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 8.

5. Define Yagi-uda antenna and explain it's operation.

See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPEs OF ANTENNA, Short Answer Type Question No. 1.

6. a) What do you mean by antenna Band-width & Beam-width?

b) An antenna has a loss resistance 10 ohms, power gain of 20 & directivity 22. Calculate it's
radiation resistance.
See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 9(a) & (b).

Group C
(Long Answer Type Questions)

a ) What do you mean by noise temperature of antenna? Derive the relation between gain and
effective aperture of antenna.
b) The noise figure of an amplifier at room temperature (T = 290K) is 02dB Find the equivalent
noise temperature.
Discuss Self & Mutual impedance for antenna.
a)&b) Se Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 3(a) & (b).
9 See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 2.

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8. a) What is Retarded along the z-aie
Magnetic vector potentia and is
oriented

g in ire is 10A peak current at 30 MHz,

carrying
ind the
magnetic Opotential 10m from the wire
c) Find the distance oOof 1m and
vector potential at aa distance
Radiation of Hertz Dipole Question No. 4(a) & (b).
Answer Type
ANTENNAS, Long
DIFFERENT TyPES OFTO
See Topic: RODUCTION ANTENNA, Long Answer Type Question No. 3.

a)A 1,24 long dipole has 1/A peak input current. Find the x i m u m peak current seen on the

apole Ir the dipole is oriented along the z-axis, find the radiation electric and magnetic fields at a

distance of 100m along 60°

0 ind out the total Electric field and Artay factor fora 2 element antennd aiay
w O element antenna array sketch the normalized field pattern when the currents are fed

90° out of phase and interelement spacing is

See Topic: ARRAY ANTENNAS, Long Amswer Type Question No. 2(a), (b) & (©).

10. a) What is the Wave tilt?

b) Define MUF, Criticalfrequency and Virtual height.
C Calculate the value of frequency at which an electromagnetic wave must propagate through the
Dregion with an index of refraction 0.5 and an electron density 3.25x10* electron/m
See Topic: RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No. 4(a), (b) & (c).

11. Write short notes on are three

of the following:
a) Quarter wave Monopole antenna
b) Phased Array antenna
c) Microstrip Antenna
d) Skip distance
e) Duct propagation.
a) See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 7(d).
b) See Topic: ARRAY ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 4.
c) See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 7(b)
d) See Topic: RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No. S(c).
e) See Topic: RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No. 8(a).

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 ANTENNA THEORY &PROPAGATION

QUESTION 2016
Group A
(Multiple Choice Type Questions)

uonse the correct alternatives for any ten of the following

.Cho

maximum distance which can be covered by ground wave for a given frequency is defined as
The
100 100
a) nas 3SkH)
km b) km
3f(MH)
100 100
km d) nax km
cmas SkH=) S(MH:)

Critical frequency.of the ionospheric layer is given as

a) f. =9,/N b) f. =81/N c) S =9N ma d) f =81N

i) The correct expression for refractive index for any ionospheric layer is

a) n= b) n = 9N
L

81N2
1-9N7
c) n=
d)n
L
iv) An antenna acts as
a) transducer b) trans-receiver for radio waves
c) temperature sensing device d) all of these

) Radiation resistance of an antenna depends upon

a) operating wavelength b) operating frequency
c)input power d) none of these

V)
Directivity of an antenna is
a) proportional to antenna beam area
b) inversely proportional to antenna beam area
proportional to the half power beam widths in the principal planes
d) none of these

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POPULAR PUBLICATIONS
V ) h e iadiation pattern of Yaqi-Uda antenna is
d) all of these
c) bidirectional

a) unid1rectional b) multidirectional

d) short coil
I ) A small loop antenna is equivalent to a
c) short ring
a) magnetic dipole b) short dipole

) The example of parasitic airay Is b) dipole antenna

a) helix antenna d ) Yagi-Uda a n t e n n a

c) hom antenna
and reo win uniform

sources separated at the distance of half wavelength

P O n t

Currents in sample phase, the array acts as a

d) parasitic array
c) collinear array
a) end-fire array b) broadside array

xi) The vector wave function is defined as

d) VH = yH
c) VE = yE
a) H =H b) VE = 7E

xi) The highest electron density is found in

a) D-layer c) F1-layer d) F2-layer

b) E-layer

Group B
(Short Answer Type Questions)

Define the Antenna. How does a monopole antenna radiatee?

Part: See Topic: 1NTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 10.
2nd Part: See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 3.

3. Differentiate between broadside and end-fire array.

Sec Topic: ARRAY ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 2.

Define directive gar and polarization of an antenna Write the Maxwel's equetions.

See Tonic: INIRODUCTION TO,ANTENSAS, Short Answer Typ:Question No. 11.

.diotian nattern of an antenna array ol tvO point SOurces with sare maanitude and

ase of applied cuirent. The point Sources

spaced by half wavelergth
are

\RRAY INTENNAS,Short Answer Type ()uestion No.

SeTopic:

AT&-D-120
 ANIENA OP -

6 Prove that refractive index of inonosphere

SIN

SeeTopic:RADIOW AE PROPAGATION,Short Answer Ipe Ouestion o3

Group
(ong Answer Type Questions)

Discuss the normal and axial mode of operation of helical antenna What ar

parameters for designing a rectangular horn antenna? Discuss with proper diagrar
See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPESOF ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question o, 4
See Topic: APERATURE ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 2

8 What is Duct Propagation? Determine the Skip distance in sky wave propagat or via
horizon? Define virtuai height. What is maximum usable frequency?
See Topic: RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No.3.

9Write advantages and limitations of microstrip patch antenna Design a recranguar

antenna using a substrate with dielectric constant of 22 and thickness of 58e

resonate at 10 GHz
See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question o. 5

10 Write the inconsistency of Ampere's law and the modification by Maxwe

and magnetic fields from a short magnetic dipole.

1 part: See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, ILong AnswerTspe Quest n
2 ad part: See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNAS, L.ong Answer 1s pe s

11. Write short notes on any three of the following

a) Yagi-Uda Antenna
antenna
b) Log periodic dipole array
C) Antenna polarization
d) Space wave propagation
antenna
e) Feeding method of microstrip patch
a) ee Topic: DIEFERENT TYPES OFANTENN A, ILong.aswe usier
b)SeeTopic: DIEFERENT TYPES OFANTENSIS, L.ong a o r 'yneCr

c)See Topic: INTRODU CT1ON 10 ANIENSS,Iong a r y

n,
d)See Topic: R.ADIOW.AVE PROPAG.ATION, I.ong Anmer ype reso se

e)See Topic:DiFEERENT TYPES OF ANTNNS,Ion Amer uiier

1TEP-LC-121
POPULAR PUBLICATIONS
QUESTION 2017
Group-A
(Multiple Choice Type Questions)

Choose the correct

i) alternatives for any ten of the following
Gain is always.
a) greateer than
directivity.
b) lesser c) equal to d) none of these

i) Radiation resistance of
antenna is
a) Physical resistance
b) Virtual resistance
c) both (a) and (b)
d) none of these

1 n e induction and
radiation fields of current element are
a) 2/2 equal at distance or

b) 2/4 c) A/6 d) /10

V) In a Uniform Linear array all
elements are fed with a current of . .. amplitude.
a) equal
....

b) unequal c) both (a) and (b) d) none of these

v) In a Broad side array the radiation is
along
a) X-direction b) Y-direction c)both (a) and (b) d) none of these
vi) Yagi-Uda antenna consists of
a) Folded Dipole b) Reflector
c) Director d) all of these
vii) The radiation resistance of folded
dipole of equal radii is
2)657 ohm b) 292 ohm c) 300 ohm
d) 277 ohm

vii) Radiation resistance of a hypothetical current element of

length dl is
a) 800(dl12) b) 400(dl/a c) 800(dl2)
d) 400(d/2)
ix) .. ... antenna array has no side lobe.

a) End-fire array b) Back-fire array

c) Broadside array
d) Binomial array

AT&P-EC-122
 ANTENNA THEORY&PROPAGATION
x) ldentify the incorrect statement
a) Dipole antennas are balanced antennas if fed by two conductor transmission line
b) Dipole antennas are unbalanced antennas if fed by two conductor transmission line
c) Dipole antennas are narrowest bandwidth antenna
d) Short dipole has the same directivity as that of small loop

xi) Which of the following terms do not apply to the Yagi-Uda antenna?
a) Good bandwidth b) Parasitic elements
c) Folded dipole d) Fixed frequency

Group- B
(Short Answer Type Questions)

2. Distinguish between isotropic and directional radiators, resonant and non-resonant antenna.
See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 12.

3. Define retarded vector potential. Why is array antenna preferred over a single radiator?
See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 13.

4. Explain radiation resistance of an antenna. Write the applications of reflector antennas.

See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 14.

5. Derive the equation to show that the radius curvature of path in troposphere is a function rate of
change of dielectric constant with height. Draw the necessary diagram.
See Topic: RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION, Short Answer Type Question No. 4.

6. Calculate the maximum single hop distance for D. E. Fi and Fz layers if their heights are
assumed to be 70, 130, 230 and 350 km respectively above the earth and the angle of incidence is
15 in all cases.
See Topic: RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION, Short Answer Type Question No. 5.

Group-C
(Long Answer Type Questions)

7. a) Explain the following terms as related to antenna system:

i) Directivity i) HPBW ii) Effective length iv) Beam efficiency.
b) Explain radiation mechanism of antenna with a two wire line.
See Topic: 1INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Qucstion No. 6(a) & (b).

AT&P-EC-123
POPULAR PUBLICAT!ONS
by the
relation of refractive
6. governed
refraction phenomena in the ionosphere is frequency in kHz.
a) Show that the
index (n) of the and
media with electron density (per cubic metre) found to be 3, 5, 9
w e r e fou
F2 layers
D) The critical and
frequencies at an instant observed for E, F1 in these layers.
Calculate the
MHz. Find of electrons
the corresponding maximum concentration
reduces to 80% of the
Ciical frequencies corresponding layer
for these layers if N of each
max

values obtained
No. 5(a) & (b).
See Topic: RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question

ionospheric propagation.
Derive the
9. a) Define critical frequency and maximum usual frequency in
relation between these two
parameters. DraW
the diagram
neight and distance used in ionospheric propagation.
ud skip as
in heignt. Explain
difference
gctual height and virtual height. Explain the reason for this
With reason, the
'ordinary' and 'extraordinary' characteristic waves
See Topic: RADIOWAVE No.
a PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question
b) See Topic: RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No. 0.,

T0. a) With the help of Maxwell's equation, explain how radiation and reception of electromagnetic

wave take place.

b) A dipole antenna of length 5 cm is operated at a frequency of 100 MHz wth terminal current

I= 120 mA.
At time t =1sec, 0= 45° andr=3m.
Find (a) E, (6) E, and (c)
H
See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 7(a) & (b).

11: Write short notes on any three of the following

a) Microstrip Antenna
b) Antenna Temperature
c) Fading in sky wave propagation
d) Ground wave propagation
e) Duct Propagation.
a) See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 7(b).
b) See Topic: INTRODUCTION To ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 8(b).
c) See Topic: RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No. 8(d).
d) See Topic: RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No. 8().
e) See Topic: RADIOVWAVE PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No. 8(a).

AT&P-EC-124
 ANTENNA THEORY &PROPAGATION

gUESTION 2018
Group-A
(Multiple Choice Type Questions)

1 Choose the correct alternatives for any ten of the following

For time varying EM fields
OD
a) VxHJ b) VxH=J + c)VxE=0 d) None of these

) The intnnsicimpedance of a medium whose a = 0,¬r =9 &p, = 1lis

a) 402 b) 92 c) 1202 d) 602

i) The radiation resistance of a current clement is

a)80r |Q b)
80 Q c)80r|a d)
80
iv) Standing waves are produced when
a) there are no reflections b) there are full reflections
c) there is only transmission d) the waves are incident on good dielectrics

v) The most common popular prevalent TV antenna is

a) Dipole b) Monopole c) Yagi -Uda ) Hom

vi) A Balun is
a) a resistor b) an impedance transfer
c) an antenna d) frequency converter

vi) Duct propagation is useful to

a) reduce the effect of curvature of earth b) create shadow zones
c) lower the frequency d) lower the distance of transmission

Vii) The effective area and directivity are related by

a) D=27 4 b) D=2n1 c) D-4Tde d) D47

AT&P-EC-125
POPULARPUBLICATIONS
Ix) If the
directivity is high, then width Is c) Constant
d) Very high
a) High b) Low

xThe:spacing between folded dipole and reflector is

a) d)
7 2
xi)
Log-periodic antenna is
a) narrow band b) wide band
c) frequency independent d) frequency dependent

XI Ir the power gain of an antenna is

20, the power gain in dB s
a) 20
b) 26 c) 13 d) 10

Group- B
(Short Answer Type Questions)
2. a) What are the
vector potential and
b) Define radiation retarded vector potential?
resistance and intrinsic
a) See Topic: INTRODUCTION TO Impedance dipole antenna.
of
b) See Topic: ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No.
INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS, Short 1(a).
Answer Type Question No.
3. An 15.
elementary dipole antenna
amperes. Find the field working at 10 MHz is 0.1
radiation strength at a distance of 20 meters long and carrying a current of 2
kms away in the
See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPES direction of maximum
OF
ANTENNAS, Short Answer
4. Define the Type Question No. 4.
following terms:
a) Doppler Effect in
Radar system
b) Duality theorem
a) See
Topic: RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION,
b) See
Topic: INTRODUCTION TO ANTENNAS,ShortShortAnswer Type Question No. 6.
Answer Type Question No.
5. A three element 2(i).
array with
isotropic sources at a
excitation coefficient of each
outside elementit is
spacing of dd= = ISis
Find a) the array
factor unity while that of 4 along the z-axis. The
b) angles where the nuls the center element
See Topic: ARRAY of pattern is 2.
ANTENN. Short occur.
Answer Type
Question No. 4.

AT&P-EC-126
 ANTENNA THEORY& PROPAGATION
6. Explain the following terms with respect to ionosphere
a) Virtual height
b) Skip distance
See Topic: RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION, Short Answer Type Question No. 6.

Group-C
(Long Answer Type Questions)

7. a) Find the radiation resistance of a half wave

dipole with the uniform current distribution.
b) Derive the expression of electric field components of Hertz dipole antenna.
c) Derive the expression for average power and total power radiated the Hertz
by dipole.
a) See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 1.
b)&e) See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 3.

8. Define
MUF, critical frequency and fading, how they affect the sky wave
propagation
a Determine the maximum electron density in F2 layer if the maximum usable frequency of the
layer for an angle of incidence of 25° is given as 1 GHz.
b) A VHF communication link is established with 35 Watt transmitter at 90 MHz.
Determine: i) the distance up to which LOS communication may be possible if the height of the
transmitting and receiving antenna are 40 mts and 25 mts
respectively
i) evaluate field strength at the receiver end.
See Topic: RADIO WAVE
PROPAGATION, Long Answer Type Question No. 7.
9.
a) Describe the log periodic array giving
i) Structure i) Various regions i) Operation
b) Explain special features of parabolic reflector antenna and discuss on different types of feed
used with neat diagram.
c) What is the principle of
pattern multiplicatiorn? Explain its utility with examples.
a) See Topic: DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 5.
b) See Topic: APERTURE ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 1.
c) See Topic: ARRAY ANTENNAS, Short Answer Type Question No. 1.

10.a) A three element uniform array is to be designed to get maximum radiation in the
broadside
direction. There is, however an interference source located in a direction of
45° from the array axis.
The interference is to be completely
suppressed by placing a null in the direction of the interference
source. Design the array.
b) For an Uniform Linear Array derive the direction of maximum
radiation and direction of nuli for
both End-fire and Broad-side array.
See Topic: ARRAY ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 3.

AT&P-EC-127
POPULAR PUBLICATIONS
Wiite the short
notes
a) Loop Antenna
any three of the following
b) Phase Array Antenna
c) Polarization
d) Quarter-wave
e) Hertz dipole
monopole antenna
CC
opic: DtLFERENT IVPES OF
0See
ANTENNAS, LOng Answer Type Question No. 7(a).
opic: ARR.A ANTENNAS,
Scc
Long Answer Type
Question N0. 4.

Topic: INTRODUCHON TO ANTENNAS,

See
Long Answer Type (Question No. 8(a).
Topic: DiFFERENT TYPES OF
)Sce Topic:
ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No. 7(d),.
DIFFERENT TYPEs OF ANTENNAS, Long Answer Type Question No.
7(g).

AT&P-EC-128